Development and Psychopathology, 10 (1998), 589±605 Copyright  1998 Cambridge University Press Printed in the United States of America

EDITORIAL Remembering, , and the effects of trauma on : A developmental psychopathology perspective

SHEREE L. TOTH AND DANTE CICCHETTI Mt. Hope Family Center, University of Rochester

Abstract A developmental psychopathology framework, with its emphasis on an interdisciplinary perspective, the interplay between work conducted with normal and atypical populations, and its focus on investigating functioning in multiple domains of development concurrently, possesses significant potential for advancing work on memory and trauma. A brief historical overview of memory and trauma is provided. Significant issues are highlighted that must be confronted in order to advance the understanding of the effects of trauma on memory and the utility of a developmental psychopathology perspective for informing research efforts is examined. The implications of a developmental psychopathology perspective for guiding research, clinical, and social policy initiatives of relevance to trauma and memory are discussed.

The field of developmental psychopathology, ing the course of adaptation in selected non- in its relatively young history, has contributed disordered individuals also is of great interest. to significant advances in the understanding . . .º (p. 25). In a more recent conceptual ex- of multiple domains of child and adult devel- plication of developmental psychopathology, opment (see Cicchetti & Cohen, 1995a, Cicchetti and Cohen (1995a) articulated that 1995b). In an early articulation of the field of the field is characterized by ª...a focus on developmental psychopathology, Sroufe and the interplay between normal and atypical de- Rutter (1984) stated, ª...in developmental velopment, an interest in diverse domains of psychopathology the focus is on the ontoge- functioning, and an emphasis on the utiliza- netic process whereby early patterns of indi- tion of a developmental framework for under- vidual adaptation evolve to later patterns of standing adaptation across the life courseº (p. adaptation. The aim is to understand the ori- 3). For this Special Issue, we have asked con- gins and course of disordered behavior, tributors to bring a developmental psycho- whether disorder emerges in earliest child- pathology perspective to bear on matters re- hood or not until adulthood. At times, study- lated to risk, trauma, and memory (see, for example, Estes, 1998). In view of its empha- sis on an interdisciplinary perspective, the Our work on this paper was supported, in part, by grants mutually enriching interplay between work from the William T. Grant Foundation, a grant jointly conducted with normal and atypical popula- funded by the National Institute of Mental Health and the tions and its focus on examining functioning Administration for Children, Youth, and Families in multiple domains of development concur- (MH54643), and grants from the Office of Child Abuse rently, a developmental psychopathology per- and Neglect and the Spunk Fund, Inc. Address correspondence and reprint requests to: spective is especially timely in providing a Sheree L. Toth, Mt. Hope Family Center, 187 Edinburgh lens for better understanding the effects of Street, Rochester, NY 14608. trauma on memory.

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Indeed, since its inception, research con- Debates have raged over issues such as ceived within a developmental psychopathol- whether trauma enhances memory, thereby ogy framework has emphasized the bidirec- ªburning an indelible trace into the ,º or tional benefit of conducting research on whether the associated with memory ac- normal and abnormal development. In fact, tually impairs the accuracy of , eventuat- Cicchetti (1990) argued that before develop- ing in alterations in brain structure and func- mental psychopathology could emerge as a tion in some individuals over periods of discipline in its own right, a strong base in extended stress. Controversy also has esca- normal developmental theory and research lated in recent years with regard to the scien- needed to exist. It is this cornerstone that has tific credibility of recovered , as allowed developmental psychopatholgists to well as with respect to the suggestibility of move into new and challenging areas of in- memory in young children and of the implan- quiry, in turn questioning and expanding upon tation of memories in adults in psychothera- theories derived from research on normal pop- peutic contexts. All of these issues possess ulations (Cicchetti, 1984, 1989, 1993; Garcia significant implications not only for inform- Coll et al., 1996; Sroufe, 1990). Developmental ing the scientific understanding of the opera- psychopathology continues to transcend tradi- tion of memory, but also for affecting society tional disciplinary boundaries and offers an ov- more broadly. For example, scientific evi- erarching perspective that can contribute to the dence on the functioning of memory under formulation of an understanding of normal and conditions of extreme stress has been brought atypical developmental trajectories. to bear in court decisions regarding the accu- The value inherent in a developmental psy- racy of the eyewitness testimony of victims of chopathology approach for contributing to an crime. Questions pertaining to the reliability understanding of trauma and memory is un- of the memories of young children have also derscored through a statement made by had far reaching impacts on cases involving Schacter (1995): ª...our understanding of allegations of sexual abuse, and adults who memory distortion will be enhanced byÐand have purported to recall past trauma have may even requireÐinvestigation and inquiry brought law suits against the alleged perpetra- at several different levels of analysis by scien- tors of their childhood abuse (cf. Ceci & tists and scholars from a variety of disci- Bruck, 1995). plinesº (p. 3). The complexity of memory, In this article, we begin by providing a with the accompanying need for interdisci- brief overview of the historical context within plinary collaboration, is powerfully illustrated which to view investigations that are relevant when trying to apply theoretical conceptual- to understanding how memory may operate in izations and research findings derived from victims of trauma. This background material cognitive neuroscience to individuals who is by no means comprehensive but addresses have been traumatized. This boundary be- a number of key issues (for example, see tween methodologically rigorous investi- Schacter, 1995 for history pertaining to mem- gations of memory processes and brain func- ory distortion). A repeated thread that is wo- tioning in traumatized and nontraumatized ven throughout historical and contemporary persons, frequently conducted in controlled perspectives on memory and trauma involves laboratory settings, and the realm of clinical the accuracy versus distortion that may ac- case reports derived from the ªreal worldº set- company memories for trauma. We then high- tings in which victims of trauma reside may, light what we consider to be significant issues upon quick perusal, appear to be too divergent that need to be confronted and surmounted in to allow for a productive interchange. How- order to advance the understanding of mem- ever, it is this seeming disparity that holds the ory and trauma and examine the utility of a greatest promise for challenging extant as- developmental psychopathology perspective sumptions and for fostering growth of differ- for guiding research efforts in this area. We ent and potentially mutually enriching per- conclude by addressing implications of a de- spectives (cf. Loftus, Joslyn, & Polage, 1998). velopmental psychopathology framework for

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guiding research, clinical, and policy initia- as a result of suggestibility. Similarly, in their tives of relevance to trauma and memory. programmatic studies, Loftus and her col- leagues have concluded that leading questions can alter the accuracy of recall (Loftus, 1993; A Historical Perspective on Memory Loftus & Palmer, 1974) and that information and Trauma provided after an event has occurred can mod- Although observations and theories pertaining ify the recall of the initial event (Loftus, to the nature of memory date to Aristotle's Miller, & Burns, 1978). initial formulation of the laws of association Another body of work has countered evi- (Sorabji, 1972), the first application of the ex- dence on the fallibility and suggestibility of perimental method to human memory oc- memory in young children (Goodman, Quas, curred when Ebbinghaus published his classic Batterman±Faunce, Riddlesberger, & Kuhn, treatise, Memory, A Contribution to Experi- 1994; Peterson & Bell, 1996). These investi- mental (Ebbinghaus, 1885/1964). gators have sought to more closely approxi- Through introducing a methodology that al- mate actual traumatic experiences, using natu- lowed for control over the input to the mem- rally occurring events such as visits to ory system, Ebbinghaus provided an impor- physicians offices to examine the accuracy of tant tool that allowed for determining whether children's recall. Evidence provided by these a memory was true or false. Specifically, by investigations suggests that, in fact, children's knowing what an individual was being asked memories can be quite accurate. The disparity to remember, the experimenter could verify between the conclusions derived from these the ªtruthº versus ªfalsehoodº of subsequent various programs of research highlight an recall. This early scientific contribution un- issue of considerable relevance to investiga- derscores a continued challenge confronting tions of memory and trauma, namely, that dif- those attempting to assess memory in victims ferences in findings and resultant interpreta- of trauma, namely, that it is rarely, if ever, tions may arise through the utilization of possible to know the complete reality of the varied methodological strategies. In experi- trauma victim's experience. Therefore, evalu- ments that have verified the accuracy of re- ating the subsequent accuracy of reported call, typically efforts were not made to mis- memories for traumatic experiences becomes lead children, but rather to evaluate the extremely difficult. accuracy of their memories. Much of the work Experimental evidence for the existence of that has validated the suggestibility of mem- memory distortion dates to the 1900s, when ory, conversely, has manipulated experi- Alfred Binet reported that misleading ques- mental conditions in order to examine the tions could result in distortions in children's likelihood of the incorporation of faulty infor- recollections (see Ceci & Bruck 1993, for a mation occurring, thereby contributing to evi- review of the suggestibility of memory in dence for memory distortion. Clearly, each of children). Stern (1910), in describing experi- these paradigms possesses advantages as well ments in which children were asked about an as limitations. However, the conclusions that event that had been staged in their class- can be drawn from them and the resulting pol- rooms, reported that the accuracy of recall icy implications are quite discrepant and dra- could be affected if children were asked mis- matic. Consequently, in investigations and leading questions. Building on this early body subsequent conclusions about the accuracy of of work, Ceci and his colleagues (see, for ex- memory, the population being investigated ample, Ceci & Bruck, 1995; Ceci & Huffman, and the approximation of the study design to 1997) have continued to examine the accuracy actual traumatic occurrences, as well as the of children's recall, utilizing analog para- methodology utilized, must be taken into ac- digms similar to those reported by Stern count. (1910) and concluding that, in fact, children's Interestingly, the genesis of the current de- memories, especially those of preschool age bate regarding the accuracy versus distortion and younger, are very susceptible to distortion of memories associated with reports of trauma

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can be traced to the theories of Sigmund Schacter & Tulving, 1994, for a review). Be- Freud. Although Freud initially maintained cause various kinds of memory (e.g., implicit that repressed memories of sexual abuse con- versus explicit) are thought to be dependent tributed to pathological symptoms and, as on different brain structures and functions such, needed to be recalled in order to free (Schacter, 1994), accurate versus inaccurate the patient from the traumatic past (Freud, recall may occur as a function of the status of 1896), he subsequently abandoned this con- an individual's neurobiological development ceptualization in favor of the position that ªre- at the time of the occurrence of a traumatic covered memoriesº were, in fact, nothing event. Views on trauma and memory that elu- more than fantasies (Freud, 1910). Character- cidate the importance of considering the de- istic of the difficulties associated with assess- velopmental influences that are affecting ing the accuracy of memories for trauma was memory for trauma are extremely compatible the fact that Freud's theorizing was based on with a developmental psychopathology ap- clinical reports and that he, therefore, could proach to assessing how experiences that oc- not verify the veridicality or lack thereof of cur at various developmental periods may af- his patients' memories. fect biological and psychological functioning In more recent years, considerable research differentially (Cicchetti & Tucker, 1994). on the relation between Based on the cognitive neuroscience and has been conducted; this work is especially clinical literatures relating to memory, as well relevant to a consideration of the effects of as work emanating from developmental psy- trauma on memory. Studies of mood and chopathology, we next raise a number of memory have concluded that mood congruent questions that we believe must be addressed information between the occurrence of an in the area of trauma and memory. We also event and the time of recall is likely to be offer insights derived from developmental more readily recalled than mood incongruent psychopathology on how best to address these material (Bower, 1981, 1992). Investigations concerns. of ªflashbulb memoriesº (Brown & Kulik, 1977) have asserted that highly arousing and Issues in Trauma and Memory unique events can be remembered clearly (Christianson, 1989; Conway et al., 1994; Do memories for trauma differ from memory Koss, Tromp, & Tharan, 1995). However, it for more general events? also has become increasingly clear that flash- bulb memories are subject to decay and dis- Perhaps first and foremost, theoreticians, cli- tortion in a manner that is not dissimilar to nicians, and researchers interested in memory that of more mundane memories (Neisser & and trauma must grapple with a central ques- Harsch, 1992; Weaver, 1993). Thus, despite a tion; specifically, does memory for trauma long tradition of scientific interest, in many operate similarly to or differently from mem- ways we are at the frontier of understanding ory more generally? This issue is critically the effects of trauma on memory. important to decisions regarding the utility of This brief overview serves to illustrate the laboratory findings derived from cognitive fascinating threads related to remembering neuroscience, frequently conducted with non- and forgetting that have intrigued philoso- traumatized populations, for informing an un- phers, clinicians, theoreticians, and experi- derstanding of memory in victims of trauma. mentalists, both historically and continuing One view on this issue is conveyed emphati- into the present day. Significant advances cally by van der Kolk and Fisler (1995): ªIf have emerged with respect to understanding trauma is defined as the experience of an ines- memory in recent years. Perhaps most rele- capable stressful event that overwhelms one's vant for informing studies of trauma and existing coping mechanisms, it is question- memory are conceptualizations that memory able whether findings of memory distortion is comprised of various systems and subsys- in normal subjects exposed to videotaped tems that are separate but interacting (see stresses in the laboratory can serve as mean-

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ingful guides to understanding traumatic unique occurrences does. What is becoming memoriesº (p. 506). Approaching this ques- increasingly clear is that memory for trau- tion from a very different scientific perspec- matic events is related to developmental and tive, a similar warning is made: ªBefore we individual differences in basic information can confidently apply evidence and ideas processing skills, including , , from basic cognitive neuroscience, the phe- organization, and recall. Issues related to con- nomena that we are attempting to explain textual and social factors also are increasingly must be characterized more fully. Unless and being thought to influence the recall of trauma until more reliable information becomes (Eisen & Goodman, 1998). available we urge caution when extrapolating In view of the role that development and from cognitive neuroscience to the complex individual differences exert on the recall of and important issues at stake in debates about trauma, it is not surprising that a develop- recovered memoriesº (Schacter, Koutstaal, & mental psychopathology perspective pos- Norman, 1996, p. 211). sesses relevance for informing the critical As evidenced by these statements prof- question regarding the ways in which memory fered by clinical researchers as well as by for trauma may mirror or diverge from mem- cognitive neuroscientists, more agreement ory for more typical events in nontraumatized than disagreement is noted regarding the pos- populations. Individuals working within a de- sible pitfalls inherent in applying results ob- velopmental psychopathology tradition have tained from research conducted with normal long maintained not only that research on nor- populations to conclusions about the opera- mal populations can be used to inform investi- tion of memory in victims of trauma. Clearly, gations on more atypical development, but caution in extrapolating from controlled stud- also that knowledge gained from examining ies of nontraumatized populations to victims processes in atypical populations may provide with respect to the functioning of memory are new insights on developmental theory more warranted. Currently, the extant research on broadly (Cicchetti, 1984, 1990, 1996; Sroufe, memory for traumatic events is inconclusive 1990). For example, investigations with atypi- (see Goodman, Emery, & Haugaard, 1997 for cal populations have enhanced the under- a review), as are findings on the effects of standing of the nature of the interplay that ex- stress more generally on children's memory ists between cognitive and emotional (Bugental, Blue, Cortez, Fleck, & Rodriquez, development in infancy through the study of 1992). Although some investigators argue that babies with Down Syndrome (Cicchetti & memory for traumatic events behaves simi- Pogge±Hesse, 1982; Cicchetti & Sroufe, larly to memory in general (Howe, 1997, 1976; Izard & Harris, 1995). Likewise, inves- 1998), this view might erroneously be inter- tigations of child maltreatment, with the ex- preted as suggesting that trauma is insignifi- tremes in parenting experienced by children, cant in the overall functioning of memory. have resulted in a better understanding of the However, as made clear by Howe (1998), criticality of adaptive parenting practices in memory in general operates differently under fostering adjustment in normative populations conditions of emotional stress versus mun- (Rogosch, Cicchetti, Shields, & Toth, 1995). dane daily occurrences. Thus, statements that In addition, studies of atypical children have maintain that memory operates similarly in been critical in elucidating a new form of at- traumatized and nontraumatized individuals tachment organization (Carlson, Cicchetti, do not discount the unique effects of trauma Barnett, & Braunwald, 1989), the disorga- on memory (e.g., central details of an event nized-disoriented Type D, contributing to re- are recalled while peripheral ones are forgot- evaluations in how attachment in normative, ten; emotionally significant information is as well as in other atypical populations, has more likely to be remembered than less per- been studied (Main, Kaplan, & Cassidy, 1985; sonally meaningful events). Memory for Main & Solomon, 1986, 1990). Thus, al- trauma varies just as memory for positive ver- though much more scientific evidence must sus negative events or for routine versus be brought to bear on understanding ways in

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which investigations of memory in normal events by excluding them from conscious populations converge or diverge from mem- awareness (Christianson & Lindholm, 1998). ory in victims of trauma, it would be surpris- The explanation provided by Christianson ing if work conducted with traumatized popu- and Lindholm (1998) highlights a number of lations did not offer some new information areas whereby developmental psychopathol- regarding memory processes that could chal- ogy may offer guidance for the design and lenge or augment theories derived from nor- implementation of investigations that can fur- mal populations. ther resolve this issue. In the developmental psychopathology literature, considerable ef- fort has been directed toward improving defi- Does trauma enhance or impair memory? nitional aspects of the trauma variable. To be- Considerable controversy exists over whether gin, work conducted with maltreated children stress, and relatedly trauma, improves or ad- can help to inform the operationalization of versely affects memory. To begin to address the to-be-remembered material (cf. Barnett, this issue, the literature on emotion and mem- Manly, & Cicchetti, 1993; Cicchetti, 1991; ory is relevant. Scientific evidence has con- McGee & Wolfe, 1991). Although we present verged to demonstrate two consistent find- examples derived from maltreatment for illus- ings; namely, if emotion is not relevant to the trative purposes, a similar approach in which material being learned, then its presence ad- the independent variable is clearly and com- versely affects memory, and, if the to-be-re- prehensively operationalized is warranted membered material is the cause of emotional with respect to other forms of trauma (Cic- arousal, then memory is enhanced (Bower & chetti & Toth, 1997b). Specifically, it has be- Sivers, 1998). The caveat to this general sce- come increasingly clear that conveying infor- nario relates to the occurrence of narrowing of mation regarding the type of maltreatment , whereby certain personally relevant that has been experienced (e.g., physical aspects of an emotional event are encoded to abuse, sexual abuse, neglect, emotional mal- the exclusion of less meaningful aspects of treatment) can provide a much more elaborate the situation (Easterbrook, 1959). Thus, portrayal of functioning than that available whereas emotion can be seen as improving when trauma is described broadly as ªmal- memory with respect to relevant aspects of treatment.º Over and above subtype informa- the episode, not all aspects of the situation tion, aspects related to the developmental pe- will be similarly well recalled. riod(s) during which maltreatment may have Although seemingly straightforward, re- occurred are very relevant to the processing search cannot easily explain discrepancies re- of material to be remembered. Relatedly, the lated to accurate recall of trauma versus par- level of development of various domains of tial or complete for traumatic events. development (e.g., language, self) at the time In attempting to resolve this disparity, Christi- of occurrence of trauma can have significant anson and Lindholm (1998) argue that incon- implications for the subsequent recall of the sistencies in research findings can be ex- trauma. With respect to the role of elaboration plained as a function of a number of of the trauma on subsequent recall, issues dimensions of the to-be-remembered material, such as who perpetrated the maltreatment as- including the information studied, differences sume significance. For example, if a child's in elaboration and processing of the to-be-re- father perpetrated abuse and he is the child's membered information, and differences in re- primary caregiver, then it is unlikely that the trieval circumstances. Additionally, these dis- child will be afforded the opportunity to dis- parities may be partially attributable to the cuss traumatic events. In turn, with less re- evolutionary value of the importance of re- hearsal, memory decrements may occur. membering and recognizing danger so as to Relationship factors independent of the avoid future similar events, in conjunction perpetrator per se also can affect memory. with the mechanisms that have evolved over The security of attachment can enter into con- time to help individuals cope with traumatic ditions existing in the retrieval situation in

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which the child is asked to recall traumatic standing of past as well as current circum- events. Specifically, research has shown that stances that may be affecting memory children with secure attachment histories re- functioning. Moreover, such an understanding call positive events more accurately than neg- also possesses implications for intervention, ative events, whereas children with insecure as trying to foster recall of trauma may not attachment histories recall negative events necessarily be the most appropriate strategy, more accurately (Belsky, Spritz, & Crnic, depending upon the genesis and maintaining 1996). Quality of attachment organization conditions that are contributing to the lack of also has been shown to affect children's mem- recall (see also, Post et al., 1998). ory for both positive and negative information (Kirsh & Cassidy, 1997). In the first study to Does memory for traumatic events vary as a examine the role of attachment and memory function of single (acute) versus repeated in traumatized children, Lynch and Cicchetti (chronic) traumatic experiences? (1998) report that security of mental represen- tation moderates the effect of trauma on the A number of theories have been put forth to recall of mother referent words. Issues such account for the variability that has been re- as these underscore the different dimensions ported, primarily in the clinical literature, on of trauma that exist when an event is very the accuracy of memory for trauma. Clinical proximal to the child's social ecology (e.g., in case reports of victims of posttraumatic stress the home) versus occurrences that may occur disorder (PTSD) speak of vivid, often invol- more distally (e.g., being assaulted in the untary, visual images of prior terror (Golier & community). Confounds in dimensions of Yehuda, 1998). Conversely, the sexual abuse acute versus chronic trauma also may be literature is replete with examples of individu- likely to vary across different traumatic events als who do not recall their experiences at vari- and need to be considered in assessing the ous periods of their lives or who ªrecoverº overall context within which trauma occurs as previously forgotten memories (Williams, these dimensions relate to recall. 1994). One possible explanation for seem- Matters pertaining to the evolutionary ingly disparate memory processes has been value of remembering versus forgetting trau- related to the occurrence of single versus re- matic events also can benefit from a develop- peated experiences of trauma. mental psychopathology conceptualization. In general, individuals, both children and Evolutionary biology provides a framework adults, have been found to have difficulty ac- whereby natural selection is viewed as shap- curately recalling common and repeated daily ing the mental mechanisms available to our occurrences (see Fivush, 1998). Basically, the species that subsequently enhance adaptation mundane nature of an event becomes encoded and survival (Buss, Haselton, Shackelford, as a general memory that can reflect the con- Bleske, & Wakefield, 1998). Such a perspec- solidation of routine daily experiences, bor- tive maintains that to understand overall func- rowing elements from shared but discrete tioning, we must first know what adaptational event episodes. Although memory of repeated problems a given strategy evolved to solve experiences is likely to contain core elements (Jensen, Mrazek, Knapp, Steinberg, Pfeffer, that are common across events, more unique Schowalter, & Shapiro, 1997; Pollak, Cic- aspects of these experiences may be confused chetti, & Klorman, 1998). Accordingly, al- or forgotten (Fivush, 1998). However, evi- though hypervigilance and enhanced memory dence also exists, especially with very young for danger may, historically, have protected children, that a single event for which limited the species, a child who is living in an ongo- prior experience is present and for which re- ing abusive environment and who must pres- hearsal does not occur may be more easily ent an ªall is wellº attitude to avoid further forgotten than a more experience-typical event abuse may be better served by ªforgettingº (Bauer, 1996; Bauer, Kroupina, Schwade, traumatic experiences. An evolutionary biol- Dropik, & Wewerka, 1998). Research has ogy perspective necessitates a clear under- shown that infants given a single exposure to

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material evidenced a significant delay in re- Bloom, 1997). Infants of depressed mothers call over a period of 1 month. However, if also have been shown to exhibit frontal-lobe provided with three exposures to an event, re- EEG asymmetries, suggestive of an emerging call after 1 month was equivalent to that evi- propensity for greater negative affectivity denced after 1 week (Bauer, Hertsgaard, & (Dawson et al., 1992; Field, Fox, Pickens, & Wewerka, 1995). Thus, once again, the im- Nawrocki, 1995). Although it does not require portance of factoring developmental consider- a huge conceptual leap to extrapolate from ations into our investigations and models of studies such as these that involve increased trauma and memory is underscored. stress to considerations of trauma, evidence In addressing memory for chronic versus revealing that exposure to severe trauma can acute trauma, Terr (1991) described Type I affect brain structure, as evidenced by altered trauma as involving single traumatic events hippocampal volume in patients with post and Type II trauma as consisting of multiple, traumatic stress disorder and adults who re- chronic experiences. According to Terr, Type port childhood sexual abuse, also has been ob- I trauma is recalled accurately and with great tained (Bremner & Narayan, 1998; Bremner detail, whereas Type II traumas are consid- et al., 1995; Stein, Koverola, Hanna, Tor- ered to be more poorly recalled and often dis- chia, & McClarty, 1997). sociated. Although lacking in empirical verifi- cation, this conceptualization is interesting in Does trauma affect brain structure and that it is consistent with previously described function, which subsequently affects research on the confusion that may occur memory? when repeated experiences are recalled (cf. Fivush, 1998). Thus, a single traumatic event As alluded to in our discussion of contextual might be more accurately recalled because of influences and memory for traumatic events, its uniqueness. However, although intuitively evidence is emerging that trauma can affect appealing, this model fails to consider devel- brain structure and functioning. The exact na- opmental aspects such as level of self-devel- ture of these brain alterations in various trau- opment or language capabilities that may dif- matized individuals and how brain organiza- fer for cases of acute versus chronic trauma tion relates to memory requires further and that, therefore, could alter its recall. empirical investigation (Nelson & Carver, Developmental psychopathology, with its 1998). However, a number of lines of evi- emphasis on the importance of assessing func- dence are currently available that can help to tioning in multiple domains and in varied con- inform this important issue. texts, could be helpful in shedding light on Individuals who are suffering from PTSD this matter. Specifically, more recently devel- constitute one major investigative arena with opmental psychopathologists have directed respect to neurobiological effects of stress on their attention toward understanding possible memory. Because PTSD is characterized by contextual influences on development (see the reexperiencing of traumatic experiences Boyce et al., 1998; Cicchetti & Aber, 1998). involving intrusive images and intense physi- Significantly for studies of memory, empirical ologic reactivity, as well as memory impair- work has demonstrated that social-contextual ment, examining victims of PTSD has been experiences can affect neurobiological struc- an active area of inquiry for those invested in ture and functioning (Cicchetti & Tucker, understanding the effects of trauma on neuro- 1994; Eisenberg, 1995). For example, a num- biology and, consequently, memory. Golier ber of investigations have found that a moth- and Yehuda (1998) discuss neuroendocrine er's emotional condition may impact her alterations seen in PTSD, including lower infant's developing patterns of brain organiza- basal cortisol levels, higher glucocorticoid re- tion during the early year of life, when sensi- ceptor number, enhanced sensitivity to exoge- tive periods for neurobiological growth are nous steroids, and increased variation in basal present (Dawson, Grofer Klinger, Panagio- cortisol levels over the diurnal cycle. These tides, Hill, & Spieker, 1992; Nelson & changes also are thought to be likely in other

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populations exposed to trauma (see Hart, of psychological, biological, social, and con- Gunnar, & Cicchetti, 1995, 1996). In consid- textual influences on adaptation and maladap- ering the relation among these neurobiologi- tation across the lifespan, this framework has cal alterations and memory, Golier and Ye- much to offer to investigations of the neurobi- huda speculate that cortisol levels may be ological substrates of trauma and memory related to memory-related symptoms in condi- functioning. tions of PTSD. Additionally, in examinations of actual Can ªtraumaº broadly defined be related to trauma victims, stress has been found to result variations in memory, or must we rather in decreased hippocampal volume (Bremner & ascertain how different forms of trauma that Narayan, 1998; Gurvits et al., 1996; Stein et may occur during different periods of al., 1997). Early investigations of high levels development affect different kinds of of glucocorticoids in animals exposed to ex- memory? treme stress have been linked to hippocampal damage, which was ultimately related to defi- In trying to understand the effects of trauma cits in memory function (Luine, Billages, on memory, two very complex issues emerge. Martinex, & McEwen, 1994; Sapolsky, First, it is becoming increasingly clear that Packan, & Vale, 1988; Sapolsky, Uno, Re- one cannot discuss ªmemoryº as a unidimen- bert, & Finch, 1990). Recent studies utilizing sional entity. Rather, as discussed by Schacter magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) with hu- (1994), different and interacting subsystems mans have revealed decreased hippocampal of memory exist. Thus, explicit (declarative) volume in Vietnam veterans with PTSD memory, which involves conscious recollec- (Bremner et al., 1995; Gurvits et al., 1996), tion of past experiences, may be affected very which has subsequently been linked with defi- differently from implicit (procedural) mem- cits in short-term memory (Bremner & Nara- ory, which pertains to nonconscious effects of yan, 1998). Likewise, women who reported prior experiences on subsequent behavior and sexual abuse in their childhoods have been performance (Schacter, 1992). Perhaps most found to have diminished hippocampal vol- importantly for discussions of memory and ume, although hippocampal volume was not trauma is , the memory sub- related with indices of func- system which is thought to operate without tioning (Stein et al., 1997). conscious awareness. Thus, although decre- Despite these important findings, investi- ments may not be present in explicit memory, gations of neurobiological changes as a func- implicit memory may be affected in an indi- tion of experiences of trauma in humans re- vidual who has experienced trauma. However, main in their infancy. To date, there has been if, in fact, trauma results in some basic brain a dearth of investigations of neurobiological changes, we must understand where and how changes related to trauma that also have in- these changes might affect memory more corporated comprehensive assessments of broadly. psychological and contextual variables in the Interestingly with regard to a develop- same individuals and that have sought to re- mental psychopathology perspective is the late these factors to individual differences in widely held conclusion, drawn from theories memory functioning. This is especially true that proffer a hierarchical perspective on de- with respect to such studies in children. Pro- velopment and work conducted with amnesic spective studies also are needed to ascertain adults, that implicit memory is a primitive whether there may be a genetic predisposition system functional shortly after birth whereas or vulnerability to decreased hippocampal explicit memory matures late in the first year volume in some individuals that may increase of life (Rovee±Collier, 1997). In fact, evi- their vulnerability to the subsequent develop- dence reviewed by Rovee±Collier (1997) re- ment of memory problems following trauma- veals that implicit and explicit memory follow tization. Because a developmental psycho- the same developmental progression, thereby pathology perspective calls for the integration disputing the notion that different systems

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mediate retention of different types of ac- ogy of the child all must be considered quired knowledge at different points in devel- (Pynoos et al., 1995). Such a conceptualiza- opment. This challenge to a generally ac- tion underscores the criticality of involving cepted developmental notion of memory scientists with diverse training and ap- subsystems is intriguing and certainly calls proaches in efforts to understand trauma and for further investigations of these systems in its effects on memory. traumatized populations. Just as we cannot ask simply if memory is Is memory for trauma affected by an affected by trauma, nor can we assume that individual's functioning in other domains all trauma affects memory similarly. As dis- of development? cussed previously, contextual issues related to acute versus chronic trauma might affect Case reports of preverbal children who have memory very differently. Similarly, under- witnessed or experienced a traumatic event standing the impact of trauma on the individ- and inquiries over whether or not such experi- ual more broadly and on memory specifically ences are ªrememberedº have abounded in the must consider the meaning of the event to the clinical literature. Such issues are not insignif- individual (Cicchetti & Toth, 1997a). A view icant, as answers to this question possess sig- on trauma that is compatible with a develop- nificant implications for whether or not to ad- mental psychopathology perspective has been dress directly early traumatic experiences postulated by Janoff±Bulman (1992), who with children once they gain verbal facility, states that the psychological disequilibrium the type of therapeutic intervention to utilize that occurs as a result of trauma arises when if symptoms are present that are thought to be the fundamental assumptions that the world is related to the prior trauma, and even whether benevolent and the self is worthy are as- to intervene preventively with children who saulted. The incorporation of a developmental have experienced trauma if no overt symp- perspective into this conceptualization of toms are present (Toth & Cicchetti, 1993). To trauma perhaps raises more questions than can date, investigations of these matters with vic- be simply answered, as issues such as how tims of trauma have not been undertaken. developmental level may affect an individu- However, significant developments in con- al's capacity to know that his or her world trolled laboratory research with non-trauma- view has been challenged arise (Cicchetti & tized victims have much to offer to informing Toth, 1997a). Clearly, the myriad faces and investigations with traumatized populations possible impacts of trauma must be conceptu- (see, for example, Bauer et al., 1998). In fact, alized within a framework that elaborates on advances over the last decade have seriously the nature of the experience before research challenged the previously held belief that, on the impact of the experience on memory prior to 2±3 years of age, infantile amnesia systems can proceed. obstructed the retention of all early experi- Pynoos, Steinberg, and Wraith (1995) pres- ences. We now know that accurate immediate ent a comprehensive model to account for the and delayed recall for the imitation of action etiology of and reaction to childhood trau- sequences is present in the first year of life matic stress. This model possesses a number (see Bauer, 1997, for a review). Importantly, of critical elements that, we believe, should evidence also has emerged that memories that be incorporated into investigations of trauma were encoded when children were preverbal and memory. Specifically, the complexity of can, subsequently, be expressed verbally the traumatic experience, the role of traumatic (Bauer et al., 1998). The significance of these reminders and secondary stress, the differ- findings for helping to inform investigations ences among stress resistance, resilience, and of memory in young traumatized children vulnerability, and the nature, severity, and cannot be underscored enough. We now have course of posttraumatic distress and its inter- a literature that supports the capacity to ver- actions with emerging personality, develop- bally recall events even if language was not ment, psychopathology, and the social ecol- present at the time the event occurred.

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Whether or not similar results are obtained temperamental, social, and cognitive factors with child victims of trauma remains to be play in the retention of autobiographical seen. Moreover, investigations that follow memories must be better understood. Not sur- young children into adulthood will be neces- prisingly, to successfully conduct research sary to ascertain the durability of early memo- such as this, Howe (1998) calls for interdisci- ries. In view of studies of neurobiological plinary collaboration. It is interesting that this changes in victims of trauma, it also will be echo is heard repeatedly throughout articles critical to incorporate assesments of neuroen- addressing trauma and memory. Again, there- docrine function and brain structure and func- fore, we reiterate the value that a develop- tion into investigations of memory in very mental psychopathology perspective can young children, as these neurobiological and bring to bear on such collaborative endeavors neuroendocrine alterations also may affect (see Cicchetti & Toth, 1991). later memory. Although interesting and relevant to Implications of a Developmental whether language ability is required for subse- Psychopathology Perspective on Trauma quent event recall, the findings just discussed and Memory for Informing Research, do not speak directly to another issue that has Clinical, and Social Policy Initiatives been raised in the literature. Namely, are auto- biographical memories dependent on the The preceding precis has served to highlight emergence of the self before they can be re- some of the challenges that pervade efforts to tained? Bauer et al. (1998) speculate that, just understand the role of trauma in affecting the as prelanguage memories were subsequently processing of traumatic and, possibly, routine recalled verbally once these skills had memories, as well as the opportunities af- emerged, so, too, could preself memories be forded by vigorously addressing this complex subsequently recalled once that construct has issue. The articles contained in this Special emerged. Issue reflect a confluence of opinion in illus- Bearing on this matter is the work of Howe trating the value of increased interdisciplinary and his colleagues (Howe & Courage, 1997), efforts and in promoting a more direct inter- who argue that is play between work conducted with normal integrally related to the presence of the self. populations and investigations of memory in Interestingly, links between the establishment victims of trauma. As such, shared models, of the self and factors such as stress reactivity methodologies, and interpretive strategies and temperament have been discovered (Di- have been recommended. Therefore, we next Biase & Lewis, 1997; Lewis & Ramsay, turn our attention toward elucidating the con- 1997). For Howe and Courage (1997), the tributions that the utilization of a develop- emergence and development of autobiograph- mental psychopathology framework can make ical memory arises as a function of advances to advancing research, clinical, and social pol- in related domains of development, specifi- icy initiatives related to trauma and memory. cally with regard to the presence of the self. In reviewing research that has been con- Because the self is thought to emerge in the ducted on trauma and memory, it is apparent second year of life, the lower limit for auto- that significant gaps exist in this literature, es- biographical memory is argued to occur at pecially if standards derived from a develop- this age (Howe & Courage, 1997). mental psychopathology perspective are uti- Although logically consistent and in ac- lized to gauge progress. Perhaps foremost cord with much evidence and theorizing re- with regard to omissions are the paucity of garding the absence of memory in the first investigations that have been conducted with year of life, the work of Bauer and her col- traumatized populations of children. Much of leagues offers some intriguing possibilities for the work that has been brought to bear on further examination of this issue. Addition- memory for trauma has involved analog ex- ally, as stated by Howe (1998), the role that periments with nontraumatized populations or individual differences in neurobiological, relatively acute and/or routine stressors in-

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volving treatment for accidental injuries or when examining memory in victims of visits to physicians' offices. Although cer- trauma. In developmental psychopathology, tainly important, such investigations represent the concepts of multifinality and equifinality only a subset of the population of traumatized are germane. Rather than focus on main ef- children. It is critical that more work be di- fects models that look broadly at the effects rected toward assessing memory for trauma in of trauma on memory, it is important to rec- populations that have experienced severe and/ ognize that not all trauma victims are affected or prolonged conditions of trauma, including equally. The principle of multifinality sug- chronic maltreatment, exposure to violent gests that similar experiences of trauma may crime, and living in war torn communities. not affect memory in the same way in differ- Such studies need not focus solely on chil- ent individuals. Thus, for example, it is un- dren's memory for the trauma that they have likely that all physically or sexually abused experienced; it will be equally important for children will evidence similar memory investigators to take a comprehensive ap- changes. This principle also is helpful in ad- proach to evaluating the functioning of all dressing some of the seemingly discrepant memory systems in children who have experi- findings in the literature regarding enhanced enced various types of trauma, even if a given versus impaired memory in traumatized popu- system would not seem to be affected by lations. Conversely, equifinality indicates that trauma. there may be multiple pathways to the same An approach invoked by a developmental outcome. According to this conceptualization, psychopathology perspective involves exam- various kinds of traumatic experiences might ining the organization of memory systems in result in similar memory deficits or symptom- individuals who have experienced trauma. atology. Rather than focusing on a single subset of The criticality of conducting studies with memory, more comprehensive assessments of actual trauma victims, a recommendation em- multiple memory systems in the same individ- bodied in developmental psychopathology's ual could elucidate possibly unique ways in commitment to examining atypical as well as which trauma affects the interrelations among normal populations, has been underscored by various memory systems. Relatedly, investi- data obtained with adults. In discussing stud- gations that integrate neurobiological and ies on eyewitness testimony, Yuille and Cuts- physiological measurement of systems rele- hall (1986) report that between 1974 and vant to memory with examinations of socioe- 1982, 92% of investigations purporting to ex- motional and cognitive domains that may af- amine eyewitness testimony involved college fect memory are recommended. As work students participating in simulation studies. proceeds in this direction, the importance of Clearly, the implications that can be drawn using a person-oriented rather than only a from studies such as these are hindered by a variable-oriented approach to grappling with lack of ecological validity and it is misleading issues of trauma and memory is underscored to characterize such studies as providing as- by a developmental psychopathology perspec- sessments of eyewitness testimony (Koss et tive (Bergman & Magnusson, 1997). Utiliza- al., 1995). In effect, research with actual vic- tion of a person-oriented approach to elucidat- tims has shown that conclusions on the sug- ing memory functioning in victims of trauma gestibility of memory derived from nontrau- also possesses implications for informing in- matized populations have been overstated tervention and policy initiatives, as individual (Koss et al., 1995). Studies assessing memory differences are not obscured by group data in witnesses to, and victims of, crime have and the variability in functioning across indi- demonstrated that such individuals resist in- viduals can be captured. corporating misinformation into their reports Diversity in process and outcome, another (Cutshall & Yuile, 1992; Yuille & Cutshall, concept widely discussed in the development- 1986) and that intrusions or al psychopathology literature (Cicchetti & Ro- are rare in diary studies of autobiographical gosch, 1996), also is important to consider memory (Brewer, 1988; Larsen, 1992). Based

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on the empirical evidence with adults involv- can yield considerable influence in affecting ing victims of crimes and atrocities, shocking court proceedings involving the accuracy of events, and simulated emotionally arousing recall under conditions of trauma. In fact, the events, Koss et al. (1995) conclude that ª. . . legal arena has been an area that has sought a strong consensus emerges from the literature out information from social sciences research. regarding the relative accuracy and persis- It is our responsibility to ensure that the infor- tence of compared to mation being provided is sufficiently compre- more ordinary onesº (p. 126). Although less hensive so that faulty conclusions are not empirical work of this nature has been con- drawn regarding issues such as the reliability ducted with children, Petersen and Bell of eyewitness testimony or the accuracy of (1996) found that children between 2 and 13 childrens' memories. We strongly urge that years of age who had experienced traumatic research be conducted with trauma victims to injury requiring hospital emergency room ensure that a sufficient breadth of knowledge treatment were able to provide considerable is being directed toward issues of societal im- accurate information regarding the event and port. that they made few errors of commission. The implementation of investigations of Clearly, generalizing from laboratory in- memory in children and adults who have ex- vestigations with nontraumatized populations perienced trauma also are necessary for in- to memory accuracy in individuals who have forming approaches to prevention and inter- experienced trauma directly is risky at best vention with these populations. Knowing how and may lead to erroneous conclusions. Al- various types of trauma interact with develop- though much value can be gained from build- mental status to affect memory will be imper- ing on methodologies and results obtained ative for suggesting types of therapeutic strat- with normal groups of children and adults, egies to use. For example, is it necessary that firm conclusions regarding memory and a child verbally recall past trauma in order to trauma await further empirical investigations cope with negative socioemotional trauma? with populations who have actually experi- Similarly, depending on an adult's recall of enced trauma. To date, investigations of mem- past traumatic experiences, should therapeutic ory in victims of trauma have been limited to efforts be made to address the trauma itself, traumatized adults, most often including indi- or, rather, might efforts be more well placed viduals suffering from PTSD or adults who helping the individual to modify current pat- recollect having experienced sexual abuse terns of behavior that may be exerting a nega- (Bremner et al., 1993; McNally, 1997; Stein tive effect on the ability to enter into and sus- et al., 1997). It is critical that methodologi- tain positive relationships? Basically, must cally rigorous studies such as these be ex- victims ªreworkº the past to be freed from it, tended to other trauma victims, as well as to or might a continued emphasis on prior children who have been traumatized. Only trauma serve only to immobilize a patient to then will a comprehensive understanding of move forward? Questions such as these could memory functioning under sufficiently varied benefit significantly from data derived from conditions be available. Until that time, ex- the effects of trauma on memory, especially treme caution must be exercised in utilizing if such investigations also examine modera- results obtained with normal populations to tors of trauma on memory, as well as include gauge the reliability of memory in victims. It assesments of functioning in various domains also cannot be assumed that all trauma affects of development that accompany different pat- memory similarly. Rather, the type of trauma terns of memory organization. experienced and how it may affect memory In addition to benefits directly relevant to must be considered. Premature conclusions the provision of intervention for trauma vic- regarding memory processes in victims in the tims, the evaluation of intervention effective- absence of solid empirical evidence derived ness also can inform developmental theory. from a variety of traumatized populations may Specifically, efforts to determine how the pro- further victimize the victim. As scientists, we vision of intervention might modify neurobio-

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logical functioning holds great promise for herein already reflect a merger of these often informing theoretical perspectives on devel- separate worlds. In other instances, renowned opmental plasticity. For example, it remains scholars in research and theory with normal to be determined whether or not intervention populations have expanded their thinking to can normalize brain organization only at cer- speculate on the implications of their work for tain developmental periods or whether devel- traumatized populations. A willingness to opmental plasticity may be operative across venture into new territory and to engage in the life course (Cicchetti, 1996, in press). scientific speculation is always somewhat Moreover, investigations of the effectiveness risky and we applaud the contributors to this of intervention as a function of the proximity issue for choosing to examine and challenge between the occurrence of trauma and subse- some of their own assumptions. By inviting quent intervention are recommended. It might such a knowledgeable and diverse group of be that intervention provided as soon after a scientists to this Special Issue, we strove to trauma has occurred as possible could more stimulate new ideas that could, subsequently, effectively impact on neural organization, be adopted and elaborated upon by others in thereby preventing alterations in brain struc- the fields of trauma and cognitive neurosci- ture and function that might be less amenable ence. Through our own reading of these ex- to change over time. emplary articles, we cannot help believing The contributors to this Special Issue in- that we have succeeded in this quest. It is with clude prominent cognitive neuroscientists, as anticipation that we look forward to future well as researchers on the cutting edge of in- work addressing the interface between trauma vestigating the functioning of victims of and memory. trauma. In many cases, articles contained

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