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How to Tell a Happy from an Unhappy Schizotype: Personality Factors and Mental Health Outcomes in Individuals with Psychotic Experiences Leticia O Washington University School of Medicine Digital Commons@Becker Open Access Publications 2017 How to tell a happy from an unhappy schizotype: Personality factors and mental health outcomes in individuals with psychotic experiences Leticia O. Alminhana Pontificia Universidade Catolica do Rio Grande do Sul Miguel Farias Coventry University Gordon Claridge University of Oxford Claude R. Cloninger Washington University School of Medicine in St. Louis Alexander Moreira-Almeida Universidade Federal de Juiz de Fora Follow this and additional works at: https://digitalcommons.wustl.edu/open_access_pubs Recommended Citation Alminhana, Leticia O.; Farias, Miguel; Claridge, Gordon; Cloninger, Claude R.; and Moreira-Almeida, Alexander, ,"How to tell a happy from an unhappy schizotype: Personality factors and mental health outcomes in individuals with psychotic experiences." Brazilian Journal of Psychiatry.39,2. 126-132. (2017). https://digitalcommons.wustl.edu/open_access_pubs/7486 This Open Access Publication is brought to you for free and open access by Digital Commons@Becker. It has been accepted for inclusion in Open Access Publications by an authorized administrator of Digital Commons@Becker. For more information, please contact [email protected]. Revista Brasileira de Psiquiatria. 2017;39:126–132 Associac¸a˜ o Brasileira de Psiquiatria doi:10.1590/1516-4446-2016-1944 ORIGINAL ARTICLE How to tell a happy from an unhappy schizotype: personality factors and mental health outcomes in individuals with psychotic experiences Letı´cia O. Alminhana,1 Miguel Farias,2 Gordon Claridge,3 Claude R. Cloninger,4 Alexander Moreira-Almeida5 1Pontifı´cia Universidade Cato´lica do Rio Grande do Sul (PUCRS), Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil. 2Coventry University, Coventry, United Kingdom. 3Department of Experimental Psychology, University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom. 4Washington University in Saint Louis, St. Louis, MO, USA. 5Faculdade de Medicina, Universidade Federal de Juiz de Fora (UFJF), Juiz de Fora, MG, Brazil. Objective: It is unclear why some individuals reporting psychotic experiences have balanced lives while others go on to develop mental health problems. The objective of this study was to test if the personality traits of harm avoidance, self-directedness, and self-transcendence can be used as criteria to differentiate healthy from unhealthy schizotypal individuals. Methods: We interviewed 115 participants who reported a high frequency of psychotic experiences. The instruments used were the Temperament and Character Inventory (140), Structured Clinical Interview for DSM-IV, and the Oxford-Liverpool Inventory of Feelings and Experiences. Results: Harm avoidance predicted cognitive disorganization (b = 0.319; t = 2.94), while novelty seeking predicted bipolar disorder (b = 0.136, Exp [b] = 1.146) and impulsive non-conformity (b = 0.322; t = 3.55). Self-directedness predicted an overall decrease in schizotypy, most of all in cognitive disorganization (b = -0.356; t = -2.95) and in impulsive non-conformity (b = -0.313; t = -2.83). Finally, self-transcendence predicted unusual experiences (b = 0.256; t = 2.32). Conclusion: Personality features are important criteria to distinguish between pathology and mental health in individuals presenting high levels of anomalous experiences (AEs). While self-directedness is a protective factor, both harm avoidance and novelty seeking were predictors of negative mental health outcomes. We suggest that the impact of AEs on mental health is moderated by personality factors. Keywords: Diagnosis and classification; outpatient psychiatry; personality disorders - cluster A (paranoid-schizoid-schizotypal); psychosis; religion Introduction a multifactorial construct with four core dimensions: 1) unusual experiences (pseudo-hallucinations and odd Psychotic experiences are not necessarily pathological1,2 beliefs); 2) cognitive disorganization (difficulties in atten- and some authors suggest they could be better labeled tion and social anxiety); 3) introverted anhedonia (schi- as anomalous experiences (AEs).3 Researchers and clini- zoid loneliness and lack of affection); and 4) impulsive cians have looked for new insights that might allow them non-conformity (impulsivity and violence).7-10 to understand the occurrence of AEs in the general popula- Previous studies of individuals reporting AEs found that tion, especially in investigating the factors that differentiate such individuals may experience good mental health, a healthy AE from a pathological one.2 Following other intelligence, and creativity, and, accordingly, have been studies,4,5 we suggest that personality factors can play a key called ‘‘happy schizotypes.’’11-15 This has also led to role in these different mental health outcomes, and report designations such as ‘‘benign’’ or ‘‘healthy’’ schizo- how a personality factor predicted mental health in a large typy.8,11,12 This is especially common when individuals sample of individuals reporting high levels of AEs. have high levels of unusual experience, but low levels of the other schizotypal factors.16 Schizotypy The psychobiological model of temperament and Schizotypy is a personality trait that interacts with risk for character psychosis and schizophrenia6 and can be understood as One of the most widely used and validated personality models is Cloninger’s.17 His model considers four tem- Correspondence: Letı´cia O. Alminhana, Rua Vicente da Fontoura, 1190/401, CEP 90640-000, Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil. perament and three character dimensions. Temperament E-mail: [email protected] includes: 1) novelty seeking - a measure of impulsivity, Submitted Feb 24 2016, accepted Jun 23 2016, Epub Nov 24 2016. a tendency to activate exploratory activities; 2) harm Personality factors predict mental health outcomes 127 avoidance - a measure of anxiety-proneness, a tendency aware, this is the first study to investigate the relation- to avoid aversive stimuli; 3) reward dependence - a ships between AEs, personality structure, and schizotypy. measure of warm sociability; and 4) persistence - the 17,18 tendency to persevere despite frustration. Character Methods addresses three key aspects about the development of self-concepts: self-directedness is the intrapersonal Participants were 115 subjects with a high frequency aspect, measuring the ability to regulate and adapt behav- of AEs who sought help at seven spiritist centers in the ior in accordance with goals, and is related to self-esteem city of Juiz de Fora, state of Minas Gerais, Brazil. Five and ego maturity; cooperativeness is the interpersonal centers, which accounted for 30% of participants, were aspect, measuring the ability to accept other people and located near the city center. However, most participants engage in empathetic and compassionate sociability; (70%) came from two spiritist centers located in the and self-transcendence is the capacity for transpersonal suburbs. All were individually assessed by two PhD identification, which allows a person to be absorbed in students (a 51-year-old man and a 32-year-old woman) something larger than their individual self, and is with degrees in Psychology. Participants were inter- associated with a vivid imagination and interest in spiritual viewed between April and August 2009 and all interviews 17,18 contemplation. were standardized. Participants were included in the study Studies using this model have found that a particular because they had been identified by the spiritist counselors personality structure - high harm avoidance and self- as individuals with a particular capacity for mediumship (i.e., transcendence, and low self-directedness and coopera- were prone to AEs, in the religious context). To prevent 5,19 tiveness - underpins schizotypal traits. One particular social adjustment bias, we excluded individuals who were study, which compared schizophrenic patients and first- formal members of these centers. Sample size was based degree relatives with healthy controls, found that healthy on the population of people who seek help at spiritist centers relatives scored higher than the control group in self- in the city where the study was conducted. directedness and cooperativeness, as a way to cope The study was accepted by the Universidade Federal with their inherited tendency towards schizophrenia. The de Juiz de Fora Ethics Committee, and all participants authors suggest that mature character (high self-direct- signed an agreement form which explained important edness and cooperativeness) can be a protective factor issues of the study and guaranteed their rights and the 19 against the development of psychopathology. confidentiality of their data. Other research has shown the role of character development in the differentiation between mental health and illness.5,17,19-24 Overall, these studies show that low Instruments scores in self-directedness and cooperativeness are Temperament and Character Inventory-reduced (TCI-R) the most common features of all personality disorders. (140) Moreover, psychotic disorders seem to have the same The TCI-R is rated on a Likert scale ranging from 1 to 5 configuration as found for schizotypal traits. (1 = definitely false; 5 = definitely true). We used the validated Portuguese version of the instrument (240).28 AEs and spiritism in Brazil O-LIFE-R10,29 AEs are relatively common amongst religious individuals This scale measures schizotypy and consists of 40 items. and spiritual or religious populations, who constitute a privileged non-clinical sample in which the occurrence of
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