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TOI TU TE WHENUA, TOI TU TE TANGATA A holistic Māori approach to flood management in Pawarenga A thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Social Science in Geography At The University of Waikato By ELIZABETH-MARY PROCTOR __________ The University of Waikato 2010 ii Abstract This thesis is a study of how tikanga Māori principles could be used in practice in the management of natural hazards and in particular flooding in a rural area, Pawarenga. The aim was to investigate and document Te Uri O Tai Hapū preferred strategies for reducing flood risk in Pawarenga and to consider opportunities to use tikanga Māori principles and values in emergency response. The identification of key concepts and principles of tikanga Māori customs and their connections to whānau and hapū of Te Uri O Tai is key to this study. I used kaupapa Māori research methodologies as a guiding framework since researching in my own community required me to manage accountability both to its members and to the university. In particular it was important to obtain permission from the community before beginning, to ensure my research processes were acceptable, and to return my findings to the community. Qualitative data was gathered from a series of hui and interviews with local community members. Data was analysed inductively and organised into thematic networks. Two major organising themes were identified: resilience and vulnerability. Participants described a broad range of strengths inherent in the community that enabled them to respond to crises such as flood events. A number of cultural, social, physical, economic and political vulnerabilities were also identified; most of these were fundamental aspects of people‘s daily lives and did not prevent them from responding positively when floods occurred, but may have limited the scope of their responses. Tikanga was not a subject that participants felt comfortable talking about, but from the descriptions of how people actually responded during floods I was able to see examples of how tikanga was used. The resilience of the Pawarenga community is taken for granted by residents. When disasters such as floods occur, their resiliencies and strengths are brought into play to ensure the safety of all in the community. Tikanga Māori is an inherent part of this resiliency, and marae structures and protocols already in place provide a vital framework for flood response. I conclude that tikanga already has enormous value in flood response, and for Māori communities is an obvious choice as a foundation for a flood emergency management strategy. Furthermore, iii the value of tikanga as a flood emergency management strategy should be more explicitly recognised and supported by all authorities involved in disaster response and management. It was also clear that multiple dimensions of vulnerability (physical, cultural, social, economic and political) affect the Pawarenga community, and to some extent limit their capacity to respond. In particular political processes that exclude them from participating in decision-making and planning around environmental management generally have left people feeling marginalised, since they are unable to fulfil their kaitiaki role. With civil defence emergency management policies explicitly focused around resilience, participation of Te Uri O Tai Hapū in planning for emergency management should allow for their existing resilience, which stems from the upholding of tikanga, to be recognised and strengthened. However, this will only happen if relationships with the various authorities involved in emergency and natural hazard response are fostered, full participation in decision-making and in responding to natural hazard events is facilitated, and resources are available to support the community with their endeavours. iv Acknowledgements First of all I would like to thank all my whānau who have supported me from the beginning. You have been my rock. Like tikanga, it begins with whānaungatanga. Your approval and support and the various roles you all played in supporting me have been very important for me, remembering that I also include my extended whānau. My sincere acknowledgement goes out to ngā whānau ō Te Uri O Tai kuia and kaumātua, aroha nui mo tō manaaki. To those people who participated who are too many to mention by name, but contributed your knowledge, experiences, and valuable time in assisting me to complete the requirements for this study, kei te mihi. A very special thanks to my big sister Audrey, who like mum upheld ngā tikanga Māori, for always being there throughout my years of studies, and for the book you gave me that helped me understand the wider dimensions and views of tikanga, just when I needed it. I would like to thank my Maōri advisors - kaumatua Pio and kuia Chrissy Jacobs, you have both been wonderful in gently guiding me on this precious journey with your wisdom and knowledge of Te Ao Māori. Thanks also to Malcolm Peri for sharing the unlimited history and stories once again and for reminding me that truth is the best policy and the importance of ―whakatika ngā pūrākau o nehe ra‖. Thanks to the University of Waikato for support, guidance, and mentoring during my studies so that it was a joyful and enlightening experience. To my supervisors Pippa Wallace and John Campbell thank you for your helpfulness in clarifying, planning, and assisting with my processes, and for ensuring my resilience to complete this huge task, and for your time and resources. To Heather, Irimako (Charmaine) and Eru, thank you. You were my strength and guiding light and helped me to always aspire to the true values and reminded me there is only one power and that‘s the power of love within. To all those who have been and always will be part of my journey of transformation, may the sun always shine on you. Me mihi kai tika kia koutou kua awhina ki a mai i ahau. E kore a mihi kia koutou e mutu. v I dedicate this thesis to my grandparents and parents, mother Nellie Proctor (Lunjevich) and father Leckie Proctor. Arohanui ki a koutou mo tō aroha vi Table of Contents Abstract .................................................................................................................. iii Acknowledgements ................................................................................................. v Table of Contents .................................................................................................. vii List of Figures ......................................................................................................... x List of Tables........................................................................................................... x Mihi ......................................................................................................................... 1 Chapter One: Introduction....................................................................................... 3 Te Uri O Tai Hapū in Pawarenga ........................................................................ 3 Pawarenga ........................................................................................................... 5 My connection to Pawarenga .......................................................................... 8 Land use since European settlement ............................................................. 10 Demographic Information ............................................................................. 12 History of flooding in Pawarenga ................................................................. 14 What‘s happening now .................................................................................. 16 Research in Pawarenga ..................................................................................... 16 Research on Community Responses to Flooding.......................................... 18 Summary of Chapter One.................................................................................. 19 Chapter Two: Vulnerability, Resilience and Flood Management in Aotearoa New Zealand .................................................................................................................. 21 Vulnerability, Resilience and Adaptive Capacity ............................................. 21 Vulnerability ................................................................................................. 21 Resilience ...................................................................................................... 26 Adaptive Capacity ......................................................................................... 30 Relationships among Vulnerability, Resilience and Adaptive Capacity ...... 31 Community Participation .................................................................................