Summary: Forget , General Custer, and . The real actors (good and bad) in the Wild West were made of and mycelium! And they didn’t need fictitious sidekicks like Silver, Tonto, Rin Tin Tin or Old Yeller—they rode on the wind, or had very real “pardners” with six A Mycologist’s Fervently Biased Account of legs and numbering in the millions! How the American Frontier Was Molded Collectively, they sustained by Spores and Mycelium or destroyed vast landscapes, brought salvation or ruin to entire Frank M. Dugan communities, deluded prophets USDA-ARS Western Regional Plant Introduction Station, and financiers, or provided 59 Johnson Hall, Washington State University, sustenance and joy. Fungi made Pullman, Washington 99164-6402 USA the Wild West, and are still shaping [email protected] the West’s ecological, economic and cultural destiny. even stored grain. Sometimes (rarely, after the Civil War, areas in the central Key Words: blister rust, cereal thank goodness) fungi can cause USA were still “frontier” (certainly the rusts, dung fungi, Entomophaga, disease in humans. Mycelium (plural, Dakotas, Nebraska, Kansas, Oklahoma, mushroom, mushroom poisoning, mycelia) is a bunch of thread-like stuff even parts of Texas and Minnesota). mushroom wars, pébrine, Puccinia, that comprises the “body” of a My boyhood was in “wild” Montana, rots, Saccharomyces, smuts, (whether mushroom or mold) and with Dairy Queen and Safeway within sourdough, Sporormiella, Tilletia, fungi make a variety of spores (about a comfortable walking distance, but with Valley Fever, yeast hundred different kinds) which grow up wild-roaming elk nearby and buffalo to become more fungi. within an hour’s drive. Perhaps “frontier” is best defined as close proximity to What is (or was) “The Frontier?” aboriginal inhabitants resisting, by force What is (or was) “The West?” of arms, encroachments of farmers, Although fungi are difficult to define miners and ranchers. (Today, most What are spores and mycelium? precisely for the lay person, defining parties use lawyers, seldom bullets or Fungi make spores, each of which “The Frontier” and “The West” is just as arrows, to resolve issues of land, water, makes mycelium, which makes more challenging, probably because they’re or cultural sovereignty.) Alternatively, spores—right? Okay, but what are fungi? always changing! For Americans of “frontier” might mean far (in distance A formal and lengthy definition would colonial times, the Frontier could be or time) not just from amenities, but precisely define the word “Mycota” anything west of the eastern foothills from passable roads, medical care and and might quickly alienate most of my of the Appalachians. Even after law enforcement, in which case the readership. So, for those not already independence, “western frontier” might frontier persisted well into the twentieth well familiar with fungi, suffice it to say mean today’s Midwest (e.g., Indiana, century in many places. I’ve only been that examples of fungi (“Mycota” and Ohio, even western Pennsylvania). on horseback twice in my life, and I’ve stuff that looks similar) are mushrooms “American West” today generally never seen an arrow fired in anger, but (edible or otherwise) molds, and yeast; implies geography considerably west I’ve worn out several pairs of that fungi can cause rusts, smuts, leaf of the Mississippi (probably because boots, served on a fire lookout tower spots or cankers on plants, and that “westerns” vastly outnumber movies miles from the nearest road, listened many fungi can rot fruit, vegetables or about Hiawatha), but during and just to the sweet howl of the coyotes, and 6 FUNGI Volume 5:1 Spring 2012 consider myself from “the West”—so, symbolic—imagine how much poop I hope to be forgiven if I leave such came out of just one of those!), and terms as “the Frontier” and “the West” was conspicuously resurgent with the intentionally vague. introduction of cattle, whose occasional So why were fungi (however you concentrations created veritable define them), important to the West, poopscapes (Davis and Schafer, 2006). or the Frontier (however you define it)? The presence of abundant Sporormiella There are several, overlapping areas of spores has also been correlated with impact. Fungi directly altered landscapes overgrazing by livestock in the 1890s by attacks on vegetation, or maintained (Davis and Kolva, 1977). In addition to landscapes via nutrient recycling; they Sporormiella , those in Podospora deteriorated produce and commercial are especially important on cattle dung products, or were used to make them; (Angel and Wicklow, 1975, with many they caused disease in crops or (more other species discussed). The poop- rarely) humans; and they were a source degrading capabilities of Sporormiella of sustenance, and have become “crops” species were early recognized (Fig. 3). in their own right. In fact, harvesting rights for morels are one of the few remaining issues which might be resolved “informally” with fists, or even Figure 1. When buffalo graze, revolvers, more frequently than with buffalo chips can accumulate lawyers. If you’re in the wrong place with quickly! (Photograph courtesy of a little bad timing, parts of the West Ray Wegner, www.raydw.com). can still get uncomfortably wild, and all because of some pricey mushrooms. This fungus (and several relatives) The following are some of the more live off the remnants of plant material important examples of the myriad ways in herbivore dung. High numbers that fungi molded (pun intended) the of spores of this dung-decomposing western frontier. fungus in sediments are used to infer the past presence of large numbers of Impacts on western grasslands grazing animals, be they cattle, buffalo Paddies of the past: Who cleaned up after the buffalo? In spite of all the “western” movies with scenes of deserts, sagebrush or chaparral, to many of us, “The West” Figure 3. An unsung hero: conjures images of vast grasslands and Sporormiella intermedia, poop herds of buffalo. The most conspicuous components of these grasslands were destroyer (from an early mycological grass (duh!), buffalo, and buffalo poop. treatise, Griffiths 1901). We know, more or less, where all the Of course, fungi are not the only grass went (it succumbed to the plow, organisms documented as decomposing and was replaced by grain—what was dung. Arthropods and bacteria are very left went under livestock or asphalt), important, too. But of the arthropods, and where the buffalo went (well, they those belonging to a minimum of mostly got shot and skinned, or just shot, eight families are actually feeding on and were replaced by cattle, sheep and dung fungi that previously colonized horses). But buffalo were around for a the paddies (Floate, 2011, on cattle long time. And for every mouthful of dung in Canada). Both arthropods and grass going into the front end of the Figure 2. Even with the buffalo in microorganisms are essential to efficient buffalo, there eventually was poop decline, buffalo chips remained poop removal (if either is lacking, poop coming out the back end, and the same so abundant they could be used persists—as was the case with cow was true for domesticated grazers (Figs. for fuel (Photograph courtesy of paddies in Australia before the right 1 and 2). So, long before they got shot, Chronicle of the Old West). beetles were introduced). Ecological why weren’t buffalo wading at least relationships between dung beetles, ankle deep in buffalo paddies? What or mammoths (Davis and Shafer, 2006; fungi and bacteria are complex, but happened to all the poop? It was mostly Kinney, 1996). Actually, Sporormiella fragmentation of the paddies by insects “eaten” by fungi! was probably most abundant in the age apparently boosts rates of decomposition Who were some of the primary of North American grazing megafauna (Lussenhop et al., 1980; Wu et al., 2011). doo-doo fighters of yore? Sporormiella! (of which the mammoth is the most The species of fungi colonizing dung FUNGI Volume 5:1 Spring 2012 7 have a picnic on a nice grassy meadow, beginning in earnest before World War I, remember that it’s thanks to the fungi persisted for some fifty years. Although that you aren’t picnicking on top of poop. enormous in scale, the effort was not particularly successful, and such control Fungal disasters of forest and farm as exists today is largely on the basis of White Pine Blister Rust producing pine trees that are genetically European settlers were not the rust-resistant. But for decades Ribes only invaders to alter entire Western plants were hand-pulled or poisoned ecosystems. White pine blister rust is, as with chemicals by workers, including the name implies, a disease of white pine high school boys, men in the Civilian and other closely related pines (Fig. 5). It Conservation Corps, war internees, was introduced into North America from college students and others. Figure 4. The old in and out: dung Europe in (or about) 1906, and had a The eradication program began in fungi life cycle. devastating effect on the growth of white the western states in 1919. In the inland pines, drastically reducing the utility of Pacific Northwest (the “Inland Empire”) are highly diverse, and apparently differ these trees which were highly prized for the number of men pulling Ribes plants by the type of dung which they prefer, timber production. In nature, the rust in 1934 was 11,000 (Maloy, 1997); over e.g. pronghorn antelope versus bison, cycles back and forth between the pine 8,700 laborers were employed in the etc. (Herrera et al., 2011). A detailed and an alternate host, gooseberry and work in 1936 (Benedict, 1981). “Large synopsis of the importance, ecology, and currant bushes (Ribes spp.). Ultimately, numbers of teachers and college students of coprophilous fungi (many control efforts involved attempts at worked on the project, since the Ribes of which must pass through the digestive destroying the alternate host plant on season coincided with their summer systems of herbivores in order for spores “more than 20 million acres of private, vacation” (Benedict, 1981, see Figs. 6 to germinate, see Fig. 4) is available state and federal lands in over 30 states” and 7). Having grown up in western (Krug et al., 2004). The next time you (Maloy, 1997). Ribes eradication efforts, Montana, and having worked in the

FUNGI (ISSN 1941-4943) is published five times per year (four seasonal issues plus a special issue) by FUNGI, P.O. Box 8, 1925 Hwy. 175, Richfield, Wisconsin 53076-0008, USA. Subscriptions are $38 per year for USA residents; $40 for residents of Canada and Mexico; $50 for all others. Checks should be made out to FUNGI. For credit card orders please see our Web site: www.fungimag.com PUBLISHER’S NOTES: Although many wild mushrooms are quite palatable, some are deadly “I don’t want to miss a single issue!” poisonous. It is advisable to avoid eating any wild organisms, including fungi, unless absolutely certain of identification. And although some mushroom Send me a full, one-year subscription to FUNGI. species are edible for many people, those same species may cause allergic reactions or illness in I want to receive big, colorful issues! others. When in doubt, throw it out. FUNGI wants to 5 ensure that all readers are long-term subscribers. It is (4 seasonal issues + annual special issue) a good idea to have any wild mushroom checked by o $38 USA o $40 Canada or Mexico o $50 for all other Intl. addresses an expert before eating them. It should be understood that the Publisher and all Editors are not responsible Name______for any consequences of ingesting wild mushrooms. Furthermore, the Publisher and all Editors are not Address______engaged, herein, in the rendering of any medical advice or services. All readers should verify all City______State ______Zip ______information and data before administering any drug, therapy, or treatment discussed herein. Neither the Country______Email ______Editors nor the Publisher accepts any responsibility for the accuracy of the information or consequences Place CREDIT CARD orders at the FUNGI website, from the use or misuse of the information contained herein. Unauthorized reproduction of published www.fungimag.com content of FUNGI is strictly forbidden, and or drop your check in the mail today! Make check out to “FUNGI” and send it to: permission for reproduction must be obtained by FUNGI P.O. Box 8 1925 Hwy. 175 Richfield, Wisconsin 53076-0008 USA application in writing to the Publisher. FUNGI If you give us your email address, we’ll send you subscription reminders, announcements, COPYRIGHT ©2012 by . and notices of information placed on the website. Your email address will NOT be traded or sold, All rights reserved. and will not be shared with anyone not directly affiliated with FUNGI. Printed in the USA.

8 FUNGI Volume 5:1 Spring 2012 forests there for over twenty years, I met (“mycangia”) for transporting their several old timers who paid their way fungal buddies (Harrington, 2005; Six through college by pulling gooseberry and Paine, 1999). The beetles construct bushes! I paid for a bit of college myself tunnels (“galleries”) in the inner bark by planting rust-resistant white pine. (sapwood) of their hosts. If Despite this positive fallout in the numerous, the tunnels girdle the form of wages translated into college sapwood, and cause death of the trees. education, “white pine blister rust has Adults and young feed on the fungi that been an ecological disaster for the West” colonize the galleries. Similar beetles (Ciesla, 2002). (ambrosia beetles) live in the xylem (water conducting cells) of the tree, and Bark beetles and their fungi feed on fungi that are transported by the Most readers in the West will be beetles and colonize the xylem, and these aware that bark beetles spell bad news trees likewise die. These partnerships for forests, and sometimes for urban (symbioses) between beetles and fungi . Fewer are aware that the are ancient, and involve multiple species beetles have a partnership with certain of both beetles and fungi (Fig. 8). The fungi, and even have special structures negative impacts of these fungus/

Figure 5. Blister rust, Cronartium ribicola, on white pine and on Ribes (USDA, reproduced in Severin, 1919). A. On white pine, B-D. On Ribes.

- Virginia Biological Farming Annual Conference - Georgia Organics - South Carolina Organic Growers Figure 6. Blister rust camp, Priest Conference Lake, , mid-1920s (Benedict, - Telluride Mushroom Festival, etc... 1981).

Come see our Mushroom Trail Interested in growing for the local market or starting a commercial enterprise? Supplement your income, or start a new business by growing on a small or large scale. Contact us to start growing. Lots of strains native to the South East US Figure 7. Blister rust camp in northern Idaho, one of many in the 1930s (Benedict, 1981). FUNGI Volume 5:1 Spring 2012 9 beetle symbioses on western forests are astounding. Most statistics and all press reports refer to the beetles (you don’t need a microscope to see them), but it’s important to remember that the beetles can’t do what they do without their fungal partners. Of course, neither Native Americans nor the pioneers had the resources to make extensive surveys, but modern statistics are revealing. In the US Forest Service Northern Region (northeastern Washington, northern Idaho, Montana, and parts of North Dakota and South Dakota), more than 1.4 million acres of conifers were infested by bark beetles in Figure 8. Ophiostoma fungus in a Figure 10. Bark beetle outbreaks in 2005, with 2.7 million trees killed in 2006 the West, 2006 (US Forest Service, gallery of Ips bark beetles attacking (Gibson, 2008). “Eastern Oregon ... had pinyon pine/juniper woodland about 370,000 acres ... where bark beetles 2007). (US Forest Service, www.fs.fed.us/ had killed more than 25 percent of the as early as 1914 (Pyne, 1982). These rm/grassland-shrubland-desert/ conifers over a decade” (Dunham, 2008). interactions make for dramatic press research/projects/drought- In Alaska, spruce beetle (Fig. 9) impacted headlines, especially for populated areas damage/). The long “necks” of the urban-forest interface : “New study protrude from globe-shaped shows beetle-killed trees ignite faster” fruiting bodies that make spores. (Missoulian, May 5, 2011, complete with dramatic photo of trees ablaze). Or: “Fire officials in a tri-county area said they’re seeing extreme fire behavior in areas with trees killed by the mountain pine beetle” (Helena Independent Record, May 5, 2011). The masthead of the online Kenai Peninsula Borough Spruce Bark Beetle Mitigation Program (www. Figure 9. Spruce beetle outbreak in borough.kenai.ak.us/sbb/) consists of Alaska—reddish brown trees have been killed (Negrón et al., 2008).

3.2 million acres in the 1990s (Cain and Hayes, 2009). “Mountain pine beetle, Douglas-fir beetle, and spruce beetle were the direct cause of much of the mortality in the West in 2006, affecting over 4 million acres” (US Forest Service, 2007) (Fig. 10). However, two other factors are added, which are truly transformative for landscapes: drought and fire. When these two are added to the unholy Figure 11. Fire in beetle-killed alliance of fungus and beetle, the results timber, Crater Lake National Park, are devastating for landscapes and June 20, 2009 (photo by National humans alike (Fig. 11). “Researchers have Park Service). increasingly placed more emphasis on the apparent reciprocal and sometimes a photograph of a massive fire front synergistic association between fire and smoking its way through beetle-killed bark beetles” (Cain and Hayes, 2009). timber. There are indications that fire Essentially, beetles are attracted to fire- suppression and other recent factors damaged trees, and beetle-killed trees have worsened beetle outbreaks, but provide fuel for fires. Historical beetle- there can be little doubt that the deadly fire interactions have been documented duo of beetle + fungus was present in

10 FUNGI Volume 5:1 Spring 2012 western forest ecosystems from the hazard was getting blown up. The earliest of times, and their impacts ignition of explosive concentrations of continue to be highly visible. smut spores by static electricity was a threat in grain elevators and combines Smuts and Rusts during the early days of agriculture in the Smuts of wheat and barley have been region (Price and McCormick, 1916). It the farmer’s enemies for millennia, and was not unusual to have 6-10 explosions were especially so in the inland Pacific a day in combines across the region, and Northwest. There are several smut fungi some days there were dozens (Price and parasitic on grain – each grain (wheat, McCormick, 1916) (Figs. 12 and 13). barley, oats, etc.) generally is attacked by But, of course, even if farmers didn’t one or two main species of smut. Smut get blown up, smut was a threat to their makes grain look dirty, and it stinks! livelihood through destruction of the crop. “The farmer in whose field the picture [Fig. 14] was taken [in 1956] estimated that he had lost 15,000 bushels of wheat” (Fischer and Holton, 1957). In the latter nineteenth century, bunt Figure 15. Stem rust (Puccinia “sometimes destroyed one-fourth to graminis) life cycle poster, used one-half of the wheat crop in the state in the campaign against barberry; of Kansas” and analogously high losses are recorded for parts of Montana, the note the harvest is shown bound Figure 12. Clouds of smut (Tilletia) Dakotas, and Nebraska (Fischer and in sheaves, the common practice spores during threshing (Price and Holton, 1957). Losses in early twentieth prior to mechanization (poster McCormick, 1916). century Arizona were heavy, and in from United States Department of Utah were as high as “25 to 50 percent Agriculture). to individual farms in 1925” (sources in Fischer and Holton, 1957). The average frontier farmer, smut was truly a feared annual loss in the Pacific Northwest enemy whose visits could spell ruin. during the early twentieth century was Likewise, cereal rusts extracted a five percent (4,000,000 bushels), but horrible toll on crops. Stem rust, one losses for individual farmers could be nearly ninety Figure 13. Smut-exploded early percent, essentially combine (Price and McCormick, disaster for a farming 1916). family (Fischer and Holton, 1957). Moreover, some smuts (the bunts) Moreover, some early replace grain kernels with balls of smut investigators gave spores. One might think that the greatest greater estimates hazard of smut would be economic for average annual damage to the crop. Not so. The greatest losses, e.g., “at least one-fifth of the cereal crops ... destroyed by smut” in North America (an estimate from 1908, in Olmstead and Rhode, 2002). “In the early settlement of western Canada ... it frequently destroyed 30 to 40 percent of the crop (sources in Figure 14. Dense clouds of smut Fischer and Holton, spores during wheat harvest. (APS, 1957). Similar stories www.apsnet.org/edcenter/intropp/ attend smut of lessons/fungi/Basidiomycetes/Pages/ oats, rye and other StinkingSmut.aspx). cereal crops. For the FUNGI Volume 5:1 Spring 2012 11 were serious problems. Pirrong (1995) wrote extensively on friction between the shippers and receivers in Chicago on the one hand, and “the elevators” on the other, over inadequate care of grain resulting in fungal growth. Such spoilage was so consistent that grain standards became a matter of necessity, although agreement on specific standards was slow in coming. Hoffman and Hill (1976) provide details on the history of the US grades and standards for grain. What was at the bottom of all this squabbling? Figure 16. Stem rust as a demon, image used in the campaign against Fungi, of course, rotting the grain. barberry (poster from United States Department of Agriculture). Fruit and vegetables are even more susceptible than grain to fungal spoilage of several rusts attacking cereals, is an during shipment downriver on the (Fig. 17). The Southern Pacific Railroad excellent example. “Normal stem-rust Mississippi during 1834 (Dick, 1971). (through its subsidiary, the Pacific Fruit losses are estimated at 5-10 percent of The system of canals alleviated but didn’t Express), enabled shipping of perishable the wheat crop in the late-nineteenth eliminate spoilage. “Spoilage on the Erie produce to eastern markets, thereby and early twentieth centuries. Regional Canal was ‘so large, that there are dealers transforming entire agricultural regions epidemics in 1878, 1904, 1914, 1916, at Albany and also at Buffalo, whose of the West (Orsi, 2005). And not only 1923, 1925, 1935, and 1937 pushed business it is to buy damaged grain’ ” (in did such refrigerated transport facilitate losses much higher. The 1916 stem-rust O’Brien, 1988). agriculture, it made life easier for the epidemic is estimated to have destroyed The problem persisted and was family. “Although always valuable, ... in the United States ... over 30 percent general. In the early days of wheat kitchen gardens became less crucial of the harvested crop” (Olmstead and farming in the Pacific Northwest, wheat to a family’s survival as other food Rhode, 2002). When you add in leaf was usually bagged in jute sacks for sources became available—canned food, rust and rusts on other cereals, “there transport, even if shipped by sea. Grain first, and later refrigerated and frozen is good reason to think that formal shipped in bulk through the tropics food” (Knobloch, 1996). Railroads estimates seriously understate the (either around Cape Horn or via the revolutionized agriculture by expanding losses” (Olmstead and Rhode, 2002). Panama Canal) would overheat and markets for fresh and preserved produce However, “All plant scientists agree that spoil (Lewis, 1916). “During the earlier from local to continental (Fig. 18). without changing varieties and taking years of wheat farming in [the Columbia Primarily because of fungi, western other defensive measures, losses would Plateau], and for world trade in wheat agriculture did not really blossom until have been much higher than actually in general, the wheat was shipped in this revolution generated refrigerated, observed”—“Aided by the rediscovery jute (or ‘gunny’) sacks. Ships did not long distance transport. of Mendel’s laws around 1900 ... this take wheat in bulk because of possible Fungi to the rescue—Slayer of locusts research accelerated the development spoilage of the entire cargo if any got of rust-resistant hybrids” (Olmstead wet” (Shepherd, 2006). However, even Most readers raised in the West will and Rhode, 2002). An eradication after growth of railroads enabled grain be familiar with the “Miracle of the program against barberry (Figs. 15 and to be stored and shipped in bulk, there Gulls.” The Mormons had successfully 16), alternate host for stem rust, was trekked to Utah, and their first crops more successful than the attempt at were maturing, when insects (“Mormon eradicating Ribes, the alternate host for crickets”) appeared in colossal numbers, white pine blister rust. and threatened to devour everything. Instead, seagulls devoured the insect Conditions of economic development host. Personally, I regard this as Spoilage and the curse of distance & believable, since seagulls will devour just time—To market, to market (before it about anything even vaguely resembling rots!) small meat, and it would have made Distance from markets has always little difference to the gulls whether the been a problem for the frontier farmer. crops were threatened by insects or fried High rates of spoilage characterized baloney sandwiches. Nonetheless, this Figure 17. Without refrigerated, Ohioan and other “western” farm miracle has, unfortunately, overshadowed produce, shipped to markets via New rapid transport, perishable produce the “miracles of the spores” which Orleans prior to the building of canals arrived playing host to a variety of rescued crops of the Mormon pioneers more directly connecting Ohio to eastern charming fungi (Penicillium species in 1878 and 1879. In the latter instances, markets (Gieck, 1988). “Considerable in lemon, photo by W. Janisiewicz, crops were threatened by locusts. corn was ruined owing to spoilage” USDA-ARS). Lockwood (2004) quotes an observer: 12 FUNGI Volume 5:1 Spring 2012 courtesy of Sergio Sanchez-Peña. ofSergio courtesy Photo crops. thesaved Mormon , Entomophaga grylli theby fungus caused summitdisease, hoppers: Figure 19.Endofthe linefor 19). (Fig. control ofpests biological consideredfor around, andsometimes is still fungus The the described. behavior which induces exactly summit disease, , the agent of Entomophaga grylli fungus, a really was “insect” gnawing but his inthe place, right certainly was heart (sic).”by aninsect Well, Brother John’s away gnawed having been of their bodies the wholeinternalmere portion shells, were They other adeatheach with grip. bush,andwere ofacurrant holding sprig that together onthe hadclustered pests of anumber with this morning called ofthe 20th“Brother ward, John Dayes, www.town.los-gatos.ca.us/index.aspx?nid=1555). PublicLibrary, Gatos (photo,Los throughout the country and vegetables fruits offresh wouldenable transport cars Refrigerated . Gatos, tothe cannery, 1893,Los onto fortransport wagons railway cars from Fruit loaded is agriculture. revolutionized transportation Figure 18.Rail (Fig. 20).But (Fig. 1902) (Williams, in bythe thousand” go trees mulberry the unabated. “Let continued 1961). Enthusiasm (Klose, trees 1,750,000 mulberry hadover California of areas producing silk-the principal 2001). By1869, (Cavalier-Smith, pébrine” disease the silkworm bycausing century in the mid19th French silkindustry “devastated the pathogen This of France. the silkindustry on silkworms) of parasite a microsporidian (Nosema, fungus of apathogenic one bythe impact to start enabled silk industry, andwas disease ofsilkworms thepébrine and dreams Beguiling At one time, California dreamed ofa At dreamed onetime,California QuarterPageFungiMag 11/3/108:54AMPage3 T H C I T S I R M A S U R U G M O O R H S U M R E H C A E T o E C O L O G I S T · E N T O M O L O G I S T · or 18” der posters: der Proceeds benefit Sam Ristich Archive Fund Archive Ristich Sam benefit Proceeds X 24” · $25 $25 · 24” Photo from WilliamsPhoto from (1902). ofadream. relics Utah became and inCalifornia trees mulberry toextinction. Millionsof declined in the Westand the industry inFrance sericulture rebounded, ofpébrine, the riddle solved Pasteur saw opportunity. WhenLouis andUtah silk industry, California outthe French , knocked pébrine away.far disease, Whenafungal fungus West, ofa orthe effects Figure 20.Silkspinninginthe · R O T N E M D E M A R F N U www FUNGI Volume 2012 5:1Spring .samristich.com · · · TURALIST S I L A R U AT N A R O VAT I T O M $ 115

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13 sericulture in California ultimately failed, because the French industry recovered (with the help of Louis Pasteur), and because of competition from the Far East, where labor costs were much lower (Klose, 1961; 1964). Similar circumstances surrounded attempts at a silk industry in Utah. himself invested heavily, and supervised the planting of over 100,000 mulberry trees to produce leafy food for the silkworms (Monson, 1996). Utah silk was a notable item at the 1893 World’s Fair in Chicago and tens of thousands more mulberry trees were planted. “Today, the only remnants of pioneer sericulture in Utah are the old mulberry trees” Figure 21. Sourdough Sam leads the giant bees (from Laughead, 1922). (Monson, 1996). His handicapped condition, the result of an exploded barrel of sourdough Yeast, the stuff of legend (sourdough!) (over-active yeast!), did not prevent Sourdough’s super-human exploits. There are two conspicuous impacts of yeast on the Wild West: western cooking care and “feeding” of your sourdough (Rorabaugh, 1979). Later, when cowboys and the western saloon. More of the starter (Ichord, 2003). Sourdough Sam had too much currency, they spent it latter, later. For western cooking, there is, of course, also the very sound-of- on whiskey and rode their horses into is no better example than sourdough limb mascot of the 49ers saloons for more whiskey (Carson, 1963, (Fertig, 1999). The personification of football team. for several versions in folklore). For an sourdough, was Sourdough Sam. Paul extended analysis of alcohol-fomented Yeast, the bringer of delights Bunyan is a prominent part of troubles, including forms of and destruction folklore (or fakelore, depending on your riotous behavior, see Winkler (1968). perspective; he may have been “invented” Although lacking distilled beverages, Commercially produced alcohol, and was certainly promoted by a lumber Native Americans produced a wide invariably the product of Saccharomyces company) and Sourdough Sam was one array of fermented drinks using corn, cerevisiae, was very much in favor of ’s compatriots and his honey, arrowroot, Opuntia or sahuara with settlers and frontiersmen. Small cook (Haney, 1942; Laughead, 1922). (Cereus giganteus) cactus, maguey breweries, distilleries and numerous Sourdough batter is made with yeast (Agave), and other plants (La Barre, saloons flourished. The western saloon (several kinds, usually Saccharomyces 1938). The fermentative agent is not became an integral part of Western cerevisiae, but all fungal), and Sourdough always documented, but species of society, legend, and cinema (Fig. 22). Sam “made everything but coffee yeast were certainly involved. In spite out of sourdough” (Laughead, 1922). of this widespread, albeit uneven, use Purportedly, “Sourdough Sam came from of fermentation, the arrival of distilled a reference [‘an elaboration’] to a cook beverages had a strongly deleterious whose sourdough barrel blew up and effect on aboriginal inhabitants. Much took off an arm and a leg” at Sourdough has been written about this, so a single Lake, Minnesota (Gartenberg, 1950). quotation regarding the Menominee In spite of his physical handicaps, Sam’s (residing now mostly in Wisconsin) exploits were many, including herding will suffice here: “Previous to the giant bees, two of which were kept introduction of alcohol, the Menominee to make honey for Sam’s sourdough dismissed fermented foods as unhealthy. pancakes (Fig. 21). In the real world, When the first French adventurers rolled yeast was a primary foodstuff used for their kegs ashore, the Menominee were bread, biscuits, cake, pie crust, etc. in loath to drink” (Beck, 2002). But, “many Figure 22. ’s saloon, the West as everywhere, and was part quickly accepted its use” and plying Tonopah, Nevada, 1902. In spite of the supplies of every logging camp the Indians with brandy “brought large of being a famous lawman, Earp (Conlin, 1979). Use of sourdough by profits for the traders” (Beck, 2002). The was arrested at least once for “the Forty-Niners” (from the California correlation of alcohol with diabetes and drunkenness (Wikipedia http:// in 1849), still resonates in other diseases among Native Americans en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wyatt_Earp). various cookbooks, e.g., “How did the is a long and tawdry tale (e.g., Joe and Forty-Niners make sourdough starter” Young, 1993). The mixture of alcohol and six-shooters along with “How did the Forty-Niners On the early American frontier, was a perennial hazard, but sustained make sourdough flapjacks” plus hints on whiskey functioned as currency the plots of the “westerns” film industry 14 FUNGI Volume 5:1 Spring 2012 for decades. Although beer and distilled dining experience. All this misery and Alaskan Eskimo mummies (Cockburn spirits, especially whiskey, dominate in joy, commerce and culture, was the et al., 1998). Given the preference of the traditional conception of alcohol in byproduct of the yeast, S. cerevisiae, a Histoplasma for inhabiting bird or bat the West, there was the other beverage, fungus. feces, there is speculation about possible wine. Carosso (1951) provided a history exposure of guano miners working Valley Fever and other fungal-caused of California wine covering most of the deposits in Missouri, chiefly from the nasties nineteenth century. Although there were 1880s through the Depression era already around 100,000 vines near Los Fungi pathogenic on humans (Weaver, 2008). Another fungal nasty, Angeles by 1833, the industry really began are relatively few, but they’ve been Blastomyces, causes blastomycosis, in earnest in 1850-1860 with increasing important in the West. The most import of which there were “several possible wine consumption during the gold rush, fungal disease in the historical West pre-Columbian cases”; it has typically and by the late 1860s, grapes were “one is no doubt coccidiomycosis, caused been documented “mainly in the Ohio of the most popular crops in California” by the fungus Coccidiomyces. “In the and Mississippi valleys ... [including] (Carosso, 1951). Although lack of local 1890s, Portuguese farm labourers who an endemic focus ... in the boreal forest glass manufacture and transportation had worked there [San Joaquin Valley, of northern Minnesota” (Aufderheide costs initially hindered growth, California] were hospitalized in San and Rodriguez-Martin, 1998). Native establishment of a transcontinental Francisco” (Homei, 2006). Although the Americans and early settlers surely railway opened the East to California disease was first recognized in 1892, it encountered the disease, although the wines, and by 1874 the rails were the was not formally described until 1936. incidence in human populations is primary carrier for transcontinental wine The primary area in which the disease low. The disease is sometimes called trade. However, wine was long perceived was strongly endemic was restricted, but North American blastomycosis, and is as the hobo’s lullaby (if the wine were impact in this area was high. “Eventually presumed indigenous to North America. cheap), or as an elitist beverage (if the most of the inhabitants of the region Far more common than either Valley wine were of quality), and wine only undergo an infection with Coccidioides” Fever or the respiratory diseases above, recently became part of the Western (Smith, 1940). Fortunately, full blown was ringworm, a skin disease caused mystique. Someone, somewhere, may symptoms and mortality attend only a by several species of fungi collectively have made a film showing cowboys or minority of cases, but an estimated eight known as dermatophytes. Ringworm outlaws drinking Chablis in the saloon, to ten thousand persons were infected remedies are legion throughout folklore. but I haven’t seen it. at the time of Smith’s (1940) study, Those pertinent to frontier situations Even for those committed to drinking including over two thousand school include: Walnut juice, rubbing with in moderation, there was another children. Persons exposed to dust were carrot, tobacco dregs or juice, cigar down side to progress. Refrigerated most at risk. ashes and saliva, milkweed “milk” transportation “would spell doom for Although other fungal diseases in (“Hoosier” remedies, in Tyler, 1985); the numerous small-town breweries the West have not been as publicized milkweed latex (Missouri, in Humphrey, scattered throughout the West” as Valley Fever, they bear mention. 2000); buttermilk and salt (Pennsylvania (Schwantes, 2003). As I write, this Histoplasmosis is an exceptionally German of Ontario, in Doering, 1936); trend has been happily reversed, and nasty respiratory disease caused by and “ringworm touched nine different I’m looking forward to a glass of our the fungus Histoplasma. There is ways with a thimble would be cured” local stout or pale ale on my next some evidence for the condition in (“Old Northwest” in Buley, 1934).

Mushroaming in Tibet Beyond Details at: www.MushRoaming.com ur “mushroaming” trips to Tibet are a once in a lifetime fungal, botanical and cultural experience in some of the most stunning landscapes on the planet. Tibet Ois not only endowed with an incomparably rich, ancient spiritual culture but also a long tradition in collecting, eating and trading mushrooms. Today, with unprecedented demand for caterpillar fungus (Cordyceps sinensis), matsutake and morels, Tibet has the highest fungal income per capita in& the world. Of great importance are also boletes, Caesar’s, chanterelles, ganoderma, gypsies, wood ears and many other exotic species. We explore Tibetan forests, meadows, mountains and monasteries. Guided by Daniel Winkler and Tibetan local guides. Inquiries: [email protected] Cordyceps Expedition Tibet: May 28 to June 10, 2012 Summer Fungal & Floral Foray Tibet: July-17 to 30, 2012

FUNGI Volume 5:1 Spring 2012 15 Native Americans. Early explorers had only limited experience with fungi. On 19 June, 1806, ate roasted morels, but was unimpressed (“truly an insippid taistless food”) (University of Nebraska Press n.d.; see McFarland, 2010, for a humorous “true” account of the incident). Edible ( Figure 23. Ringworm was a sp.) were found, but not consumed common fungal disease on the by Thomas Say (“quite delicious ... frontier. Home remedies for but Say and his men may have been ringworm varied from harmless unaware or uncertain of this”), one of and ineffective to disgusting and the scientific staff on an expedition harmful, such as the one portrayed (1819-1820) led by Major Stephen H. here. Just in case you were seriously Long to the Rocky Mountains (Evans, 1997). Nonetheless, many European contemplating trying this one, don’t! immigrants to the American or Canadian It is inadvisable because it increases prairies brought with them a fondness of danger of serious infection (from mushrooms. References to immigrants Werner, 2010). and mushrooms or mushroom hunting encompass persons from Bohemia Some remedies (Fig. 23) are presently (Gabaccia, 2000; and Welsch, 1987, discouraged. the latter referring Willa Cather’s writings), Norway (Merriken, 1999), Shrooms in forest and prairie: Figure 24. Good identification and Switzerland (Sandoz, 1984). Such guides were unavailable throughout American Indians ate a variety was the enthusiasm for mushrooms, much of frontier times and in of common edible mushrooms (the that Minnesota pioneer Lucy Morris meadow mushroom, chanterelles, actively “promoted the harvesting of most places. This example (Taylor, puffballs, etc.) although this was not true ‘The Neglected Crop,’ shaggy-mane and 1894) illustrated twelve species. of all tribes (Dugan, 2011). Some tribes horse mushrooms” (Morris, 1976, from There are no valid general criteria used specific fungi in ceremonies and for introduction to the reprint of 1914). distinguishing edible from ritual objects, and fungi played a role in There are even “manna from heaven” poisonous fungi, and it is essential Native American folklore (Blanchette, stories about mushrooms, albeit not as to know individual species. 1997; Dugan, 2011). At least one tribe, spectacular as the Biblical version. Olds the Western Mono (in the Sierra (1978) relates a story about a Nevada Edgar Dewdney’s trek in 1879 from Ft. Nevada) conducted burns “to improve family in dire need of money and Benton to Canada, a difficult part of his quality and promote abundance” of sustenance, reduced to eating bitter sage journey, as “he felt unwell throughout— certain morels, cup and coral fungi hen (normally not so bad, but far too from eating mushrooms, he surmised” (Anderson and Moratto, 1996). It is “sagey” during August when subsisting (Titley, 1999). Worse could happen. sometimes the case that only a minority on sage brush seeds). Fortunately, one Medical records of mushroom poisoning of the species can be identified, as with of the children stumbled upon a place in the old West include Dawson (1878), the Miwok (a Northern California tribe), where “the entire countryside had who treated a case of three individuals who consumed mushrooms (especially popped up with mushrooms.” From the with ice, opium, blisters, warm hops, in winter) but only a , Lycoperdon description, these were possibly Agaricus hypodermic injections of brandy, and sculptum ( sculpta), has been campestris (meadow mushroom) or a enemas. One of the three expired, either identified to species (Barrett and Gifford, closely related species. At any rate, sale from mushrooms or the treatments. 1933). But the Miwok themselves of mushrooms netted ten dollars, which The mushrooms were not identified. In recognized at least ten species, including in those days was soon translated into “a a similar case, Cheney (1871) treated a the one of which “death was the result of wagon load of supplies ... I called that bill family of five, three of whom ultimately eating it” by bleeding from the nose and of grub my ‘Manna from heaven’ ” (Olds, perished in spite of (or because of) vomiting. There was some hope if only 1978). Also bountiful, and what was receiving doses of opium and whiskey, a small quantity had been consumed, probably another Agaricus cousin of the and turpentine enemas. Again, the in which case death might be averted meadow mushroom, were mushrooms mushrooms were unidentified. Logan by prompt consumption of boiled deer which could be “the size of a dinner (1868) attended to a family of four brain cakes (Barret and Gifford, 1933). plate”; a single large specimen “sufficed who had consumed mushrooms and Dugan (2011), Kuhnlein and Turner to make a delicious stew” (Mattes, 1988, one of whom ultimately died. Dr. (1991) and Moerman (1998) summarize on military life in frontier ). Logan’s treatments included hot water documentation on mycophagy Mushrooms can be tricky, and on the feet, cold water on the head, (essentially, mushroom munching) by mistakes apparently occurred, as on soapy enemas, a glass of milk, brandy, 16 FUNGI Volume 5:1 Spring 2012 phosphate of lime, and compounds between commercial pickers over the interactions unique to The West, whereas containing glycerol or camphor. The pricey fungus (sic) that are worth close others occurred wherever the frontier mushrooms were not identified, but were to their weight in gold” (Galagher, happened to be as it migrated westwards. described as small and resembling “the 1995). “People get pretty possessive If you think the Wild West is over and well known esculent species.” ... somebody comes along ... they get done, think again if you poke your nose Useful identification guides were slow touchy ... A lot of times we wind up into someone else’s morel patch. in coming. One of the earliest specific to with fights, illegal weapons discharge” Acknowledgements: The author thanks the United States was Taylor (1894) (Fig. (quoted in Gallagher, 1995). Sometimes Lori Carris, Dean Glawe and Barry 24), but the range of species covered was the gunfire is rationalized as warning Pryor for constructive review of the quite small. In the absence of reliable, manuscript. illustrated guides, people depended on Literature Cited folklore. Some such lore persists, even online. How to poison a cowboy? Tell Anderson, M.K., and M.J. Moratto. him some simple “rules” for mushrooms: 1996. Native American land-use practices i) Salt on the gills turns them yellow, and ecological impacts, pp. 187-206. In: poisonous; turns them black, Sierra Nevada Ecosystem Project: Final wholesome. ii) Warts on the cap and Report to Congress, vol. II, Assessments growing in the woods means poisonous; and scientific basis for management “true” mushrooms grow in clearings options. Davis: University of California, or pastures. iii) “False” mushrooms Centers for Water and Wildland taste bad, turn blue when cut, and are Resources. moist on the surface. iv) Gills of a true Angel, K., and D.T. Wicklow. 1975. mushroom are pink to liver colored and Relationships between coprophilous the flesh is white (Dusty, Your Cowboy fungi and fecal substrates in Colorado Sidekick n.d.). Even simpler were the grasslands. Mycologia 67: 63-74. criteria of Louis Tomastik in Sitton Figure 25. Newspaperheadlines Aufderheide, A.C., and C. Rodriguez- (2004), “The good mushrooms were about conflicts amongst commercial Martin. 1998. The Cambridge thicker and kind of a different color mushroom harvesters (Parks and Encyclopedia of Human Paleopathology. ... poison ones were thinner, and they Schmitt, 1997). Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, had that little comb.” (Feel free to eat U.K. mushrooms by these sorts of rules, but shots: “Commercial pickers firing shots Barrett, S.A., and E.W. Gifford. 1933. keep close at hand the phone number into the air to establish their territory Miwok Material Culture. Bulletin of the of a poison control center, preserve a from time to time were misinterpreted Public Museum of the City of Milwaukee specimen of the mushroom, and be as shots fired at other pickers” (Kimball 2(4). prepared to sign up for liver or kidney and Nichols, 2008). Nonetheless, results Beck, D.R.M. 2002. Siege and Survival: transplants—or maybe keep those deer have sometimes been fatal (Gallagher, History of the Menominee Indians, pp. brain cakes handy, unless you’d rather try 1995). At least one academic has 1634-1856. University of Nebraska Press, the turpentine enemas.) placed the “mushroom wars” into the Lincoln, Nebraska. context of “the Wild West revisited” Benedict, W.V. 1981. History of white Mushroom wars – The Wild West returns? including analysis of property rights and pine blister rust control—A personal The Wild West is famous for its prediction of “a crackdown on gun play” account. USDA Forest Service FS-355. conflicts over water rights, grazing (Coffman, 1995). 47 pp. rights, mining claims, and other fights Blanchette, R.A. 1997. Haploporus Conclusions over resources. Prior to the arrival of odorus: a sacred fungus in traditional settlers, disputes over hunting grounds Western grazing lands, forests and Native American culture of the northern might be resolved by spears, arrows farms have histories interwoven with plains. Mycologia 89: 233-240. and war clubs. Now there’s a new twist. fungal mycelia and drenched in showers Buley, R.C. 1934. Pioneer health and With the ability to transport refrigerated of fungal spores. Impacts of fungi on medical practices in the Old Northwest harvests to high-paying customers, wild these landscapes have varied from the prior to 1840. Mississippi Valley Historical gourmet mushrooms have become a benign to horrific, and the same may be Review 20(4): 497-520. coveted, and sometimes hotly disputed, said of impacts on the settlers, Indians, Cain, R.J., and J.L. Hayes. 2009. Bark resource. “Some of these confrontations miners, loggers and other denizens of beetle conditions in western forests involve verbal threats, others involve the West. Fungi made the daily bread and formation of the Western Bark display or discharge of firearms” (Parks and beverages of frontier life, robbed Beetle Research Group, pp.1-23. In: The and Schmitt, 1997) (Fig. 25). farmers and merchants of livelihoods Western Bark Beetle Research Group: A Law enforcement officials by destroying their produce, and caused Unique Collaboration with Forest Health were reported as “preparing for a poisoning and disease amongst the Protection, Proceedings of a Symposium phenomenon that has some of the unlucky or unwary. The vastness and at the 2007 Society of American Foresters trappings of the 19th-century gold wildness of the western American Conference, October 23–28, 2007, rush camps: violent confrontations landscape rendered many of these Portland, Oregon. FUNGI Volume 5:1 Spring 2012 17 J.L. Hayes and J.E. Lundquist, compilers. PNW-RB-257. 89 pp. www.arlis.org/docs/ Herrera, J., R. Poudel, and H.H. Khidir. Carosso, V.P. 1951. The California vol1/A/299614170.pdf. 2011. Molecular characterization of Wine Industry, 1830-1895. University of Dusty, Your Cowboy Sidekick. n.d. coprophilous fungal communities reveals California Press, Berkeley, California. Preparing and cooking food in the Old sequences related to root-associated Carson, G. 1963. The Social History of West. Kids-n-Cowboys. www.kids-n- fungal endophytes. Microbial Ecology 61: Bourbon. University of Kentucky Press, cowboys.com/frontier-foods.html. 239-244. Lexington. Evans, H.E. 1997. The Natural Hoffman, K.J., and L.D. Hill. 1976. Cavalier-Smith, T. 2001. What are History of the Long Expedition to the Historical review of the US grades and fungi? pp 3-37. In: The Mycota VII Rocky Mountains (1819-1820). Oxford standards for grain. Illinois Agricultural Part A, Systematics and Evolution, D.J. University Press, New York. Economics, January 1976: 1-9. McLaughlin, E.G. McLaughlin, and P.A. Fertig, J.M. 1999. Prairie Home Cooking: Homei, A. 2006. Medical Lemke eds. Springer-Verlag, Berlin. 400 Recipes that Celebrate the Bountiful development and epidemiology in the Cheney, W.F. 1871. Cases of mushroom Harvests, Creative Cooks, and Comforting USA, UK and Japan. Medical Mycology 44: poisoning. Pacific Medical and Surgical Foods of the American Heartland. Harvard S39-S54. Journal 5: 119-121. Common Press, Boston. Humphrey, L. 2000. Quinine and Ciesla, W.M. 2002. Invasive Insects, Fischer, G.W., and C.S. Holton. 1957. Quarantine: Missouri Medicine Through Pathogens and Plants in Western Biology and Control of the Smut Fungi. the Years. University of Missouri Press, and Pacific Island Forests, INTECS Ronald Press, New York. Columbia, Missouri. International, Ft. Collins, Colorado. 120 + Floate, K.D. 2011. Arthropods in cattle Ichord, L.F. 2003. Skillet Bread, xiv pp. dung on Canada’s grasslands, pp. 71-88. Sourdough, and Vinegar Pie: Cooking Cockburn, A., E. Cockburn, and T.A. In: Arthropods of Canadian Grasslands in Pioneer Days. Millbrook Press, Reyman. 1998. Mummies, Disease and (Volume 2): Inhabitants of a Changing Minneapolis, Minnesota. Ancient Cultures. Cambridge University Landscape, Biological Survey of Canada. Joe, J.R., and R.S. Young (eds.) 1993. Press, Cambridge, U.K. K.D. Floate, ed. Diabetes as a Disease of Civilization: The Coffman, R.B. 1995. The mushroom Gabaccia, D.R. 2000. We Are What Impact of Culture Change on Indigenous wars. The Freeman 45(6), www. We Eat: Ethnic Food and the Making Peoples. Walter de Gruyter, Berlin. thefreemanonline.org, 8 pp. of America. Harvard University Press, Kimball, N., and K. Nichols. 2008. Conlin, J.R. 1979. Old boy, did you get Cambridge, Massachusetts. Mushroom pickers clear out after fight. enough of pie? A social history of food in Gallagher, D. 1995. Expensive fungi The Daily Inter Lake, 15 July 2008, www. logging camps. Journal of Forest History thrive on wood ash and soil disturbance. dailyinterlake.com. 23: 164-185. Authorities brace for confrontations Kinney, W.C. 1996. Conditions of Davis, O.K., and D.A. Kolva. 1977. between rival pickers. Times, rangelands before 1905, pp. 31-45. In: Pollen analysis of Wildcat Lake, Whitman 23 April 1995, http://articles.latimes. Sierra Nevada Ecosystem Project: Final County, Washington: the last 1000 years. com/1995-04-23/news/mn-57746_1_ Report to Congress, vol. II, Assessments Northwest Science 51: 13-29. wood-ash and scientific basis for management Davis, O.K, and D.S. Shafer. Gartenberg, M. 1950. W.B. Laughead’s options. Davis: University of California, 2006. Sporormiella fungal spores, great advertisement. Journal of American Centers for Water and Wildland a palynological means of detecting Folklore 63: 444-449. Resources. herbivore density. Palaeogeography, Gibson, K. 2008. Bark beetle conditions Klose, N. 1961. California’s Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology Northern Region 2007. USDA Forest experimentation in sericulture. Pacific 237: 40-50. Service Northern Region Forest Health Historical Review 30: 213-227. Dawson, J.A. 1878. Mushroom Protection Field Office, Missoula. 55 pp. Klose, N. 1964. Louis Prevost and the poisoning. Transactions of the Medical www.fs.fed.us/r1-r4/spf/fhp/publications/ silk industry in California at San Jose. Society of the State of California byregion/barkbeetlecond07.pdf. 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Ecology and G.F. Bills, and M.S. Foster, eds. Elsevier Ethnomycology: Fungi in Ceremonies, evolution of mycophagous bark beetles Academic, Amerstam. Crafts, Diets, Medicines, and Myths. APS and their fungal partners, pp 257-291. Kuhnlein, H.V., and N.J. Turner. 1991. Press, St. Paul, Minnesota. In: Ecological and Evolutionary Advances Traditional Plant Foods of Canadian Dunham, P. 2008. Incidence of insects, in Insect-Fungal Associations, F.E. Vega Indigenous Peoples: Nutrition, Botany and diseases, and other damaging agents in and M. Blackwell, eds. Oxford University Use. Gordon and Breach, Netherlands. Oregon’s forests. USDA Forest Service Press, New York. La Barre, W. 1938. Native American 18 FUNGI Volume 5:1 Spring 2012 beers. American Anthropologist, New Forest Service bark beetle research in the Sitton, T. (ed.) 2004. Harder than Series 40(2): 224-234. Western United States: Looking toward Hardscrabble: Oral Recollections of the Laughead, W.B. 1922. The Marvelous the future. 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The Frontier World of Logan, T.M. 1868. Mushrooms, and Forest Service, PNW-GTR-393, 22 pp. Edgar Dewdney. UBC Press, Vancouver, their poisonings; with cases. Pacific Pirrong, S.C. 1995. The efficient scope British Columbia. Medical and Surgical Journal of private transactions-cost-reducing Tyler, V.E. 1985. Hoosier Home 11: 481-494. institutions: The successes and failures of Remedies. Purdue University Press, West Lussenhop, J., R. Kumar, D.T. Wicklow, commodity exchanges. Journal of Legal Lafayette, Indiana. and J.E. Lloyd. 1980. Insect effects on Studies 24: 229-255. University of Nebraska Press/ bacteria and fungi in cattle dung. Oikos Price, D.J., and E.B. McCormick. University of Nebraska-Lincoln 34: 54-58. 1916. Dust explosions and fires in grain Libraries-Electronic Text Center. Maloy, O.C. 1997. White pine blister separators in the Pacific Northwest. US The Journals of the Lewis and Clark rust control in North America: A case Department of Agriculture Bulletin 379. Expedition. http://lewisandclackjournals. history. Annual Review of Phytopathology 22 pp. unl.edu. 35: 87-109. Pyne, S.J. 1982. Fire in America. US Forest Service. 2007. Forest insect Mattes, M.J. 1988. Indians, Infants, and University of Washington Press, . and disease conditions in the United Infantry: Andrew and Elizabeth Burt on Rorabough, W.J. 1979. The Alcoholic States 2006. US Forest Service, 176 pp. the Frontier. University of Nebraska Press, Republic: An American Tradition. Oxford www.fs.fed.us/foresthealth/technology/ Lincoln, Nebraska. University Press, New York. pdfs/ConditionsReport_06_final.pdf McFarland, J. 2010. America’s morel Sandoz, M. 1984. Sandhill Sundays Weaver, H.D. 2008. Missouri Caves history. Fungi 3(2): 4-5. and Other Recollections. University of in History and Legend. University of Merriken, E.R. 1999. Looking for Nebraska Press, Lincoln, Nebraska. Missouri Press, Columbia, Missouri. Country: A Norwegian Immigrant’s Alberta (Republication of 1970). Welsch, L.K. 1987. Cather’s Kitchens: Memoir. University of Calgary Press, Schwantes, C.A. 2003. Going Places: Foodways in Literature and Life. Calgary, Alberta. Transportation Redefines the Twentieth- University of Nebraska Press, Lincoln, Moerman, D.E. 1998. Native American Century West. Indiana University Press, Nebraska. Ethnobotany. Timber Press, Portland, Bloomington. Werner, D. 2010. Where There Is No Oregon. Severin, H.C. 1919. The most important Doctor: A Village Health Care Handbook, Monson, C.S. 1996. Mulberry Trees: insect enemies and plant diseases revised ed. Hesperian, Berkeley, The basis and remnant of the Utah silk attacking the leaves of currants and California. industry. Economic Botany 50: 130-138. gooseberries. Tenth Annual Report of the Williams, C. 1902. Silk culture in Morris, L.L.W. 1976. Old Rail Fence State Entomologist of South Dakota: 22-32. California. Overland 40: 365-370. Corners: Frontier Tales by Minnesota Shepherd, J.F. 2006 (online draft). The Winkler, A. M. 1968. Drinking on the Pioneers. Reprint, with introduction, settlement and agricultural development American frontier. Quarterly Journal of of Old Rail Fence Corners: The A.B.C.’s of wheat-producing areas in Australia and Studies on Alcohol 29: 413- 445. of Minnesota History, 1914. Minnesota the Pacific Northwestern United States, Wu, X., J.E. Duffy, P.B. Reich, and S. Historical Society Press, St. Paul. XIVth International Economic History Sun. 2011. A brown-world cascade in the Negrón, J.F., B.J. Bentz, C.J. Fettig, N. Congress, Helskinki, Finland, 21-15 dung decomposer food web of an alpine Gillette, E.M. Hansen, J.L. Hayes, R.G. August 2006 (cited with permission of meadow: effects of predator interactions Kelsey, J.E. Lundquist, A.M. Lynch, the author). www.helsinki.fi/iehc2006/ and warming. Ecological Monographs 81: R.A. Progar, and S.J. Seybold. 2008. US papers3/Shepherd.pdf. 313–328. FUNGI Volume 5:1 Spring 2012 19