Leading Groups
Framing, Presenting, Collaborating, and Facilitating
® ira ia The Road To Learning w w w . m i r a v i a . c o m
Laura Lipton & Bruce Wellman, Co-Directors About the Developers
Laura Lipton, Ed.D is Co-Director (with Bruce Wellman) of MiraVia LLC, a resource and development organization specializing in learning and learner-focused approaches to educational practice. She works with schools and school districts to build capacity for growth; designing and conducting workshops on learner-centered instruction, integrated curriculum and authentic assessment. She facilitates organizational adaptivity and learning through training and development in shared leadership, action research, group dialogue and cognitive coaching. Laura pursues personal growth opportunities through her study and research in the fields of organizational culture and change and cognitive science. She is author and co-author of numerous publications related to organizational and professional development, learning-focused schools and classrooms and literacy development. Her publications include: Data-Driven Dialogue: A Facilitator’s Guide to Collaborative Inquiry; Mentoring Matters: A Practical Guide to Learning-Focused Relationships; More Than 50 Ways to Learner- centered Literacy; Supporting the Learning Organization: A Model for Congruent System-wide Renewal; Shifting Rules, Shifting Roles: Transforming the Work Environment to Support Learning; Organizational Learning: The Essential Journey and Pathways to Understanding: Patterns & Practices in the Learning-Focused Classroom. Laura can be contacted at: 3 Lost Acre Trail • Sherman, CT • 06784 P. 860-354-4543 • F. 860-354-6740 • e-mail: [email protected]
Bruce Wellman, M.Ed. is Co-Director of MiraVia LLC. He consults with school systems, professional groups and agencies throughout the United States and Canada, presenting workshops and courses for teachers and administrators on learning-focused classrooms, learning-focused supervision, presentation skills and facilitating collaborative groups. Mr. Wellman has served as a classroom teacher, curriculum coordinator, and staff developer in the Oberlin, Ohio and Concord, Massachusetts public schools. He holds a B.A. degree from Antioch College and M.Ed. from Lesley College. He is the author and co-author of numerous publications related to organizational development, professional development, group development, and learning-focused classrooms. His publications include: Data- Driven Dialogue: A Facilitator’s Guide to Collaborative Inquiry; Mentoring Matters: A Practical Guide to Learning-Focused Relationships; The Adaptive School: A Sourcebook for Developing Collaborative Groups; Teacher Talk That Makes a Difference; Shifting Rules, Shifting Roles: Transforming the Work Environment to Support Learning; and Pathways to Understanding: Patterns and Practices in the Learning-Focused Classroom.
Bruce can be contacted at: 229 Colyer Road • Guilford, VT • 05301 P. 802-257-4892 • F. 802-257-2403 • e-mail: [email protected]
All materials in this handbook not specifically identified as being reprinted from another source are copyright ©2006 by MiraVia, LLC. You have permission to make copies for your own classroom use. You may not distribute, copy, or otherwise reproduce any portion of these materials for sale or for commercial use without written permission.
We are greatful for the friendship and guidance of master presenter, Dr. Robert Garmston for his teaching and idea develop- ment in this arena. We are most appreciative of his contributions to our thinking and to these materials.
2 • MiraVia, LLC www.miravia.com • Outcomes
As a participant in this workshop you will:
Learn principles and formats for designing effective group work;
Expand your repertoire of strategies for energizing groups and supporting information processing;
Refine your toolkit of verbal and nonverbal skills and moves;
Increase your confidence when framing, presenting, collaborating and facilitating.
• MiraVia, LLC www.miravia.com • 3 Four Box Synectics
______is like
______because ......
4 • MiraVia, LLC www.miravia.com • Hopes Fears
• MiraVia, LLC www.miravia.com • 5 A Continuum
Framing Presenting
Skillful leaders consciously take a framing stance when they Presenters teach and transform group members by enriching name task outcomes, timelines, constraints, and expectations and extending their knowledge, skills and attitudes. for both the work and the ways of working. How these Successful presentations are outcome driven not activity messages are delivered is as important as the content of the driven. Clarity of outcomes and success criteria for message. Often, the process is the content, as group achieving these outcomes are the most important element in members attempt to parse the nonverbal communcations of planning a speech, seminar or workshop. the leader to discern the leader’s emotions about and commitment to the information being delivered. A rich repertoire of instructional strategies informs the choices available to the presenter. Matching repertoire to By anchoring a space in the room away from the main clear outcomes through continuous assessment of goal working or facilitating space, the leader can “get the message achievement supports flexibility in-the-moment and over off to the side” (Grinder, 1997). This nonverbal message can time. By designing presentations as a learning experiences then be supported by graphics positioned in that spot such as for other adults, skillful presenters focus more energy on the timelines, project success criteria and group norms. These learning and the learners, less energy on the content alone “messages” remain in the room in the framing space, and less energy on themselves as speakers. allowing the leader to then shift stances by physically shifting position to a presenting, collaborating, or facilitating Knowledge of adult learning and how to productively engage space. group members is as important as the content itself. In fact, content has no meaning in and of itself. Learners, Voice tone matters greatly. Framing statements need to be individually and collectively create meaning from a delivered in a credible voice that is carefully modulated to presentation. By structuring and scaffolding learning convey the sense of expectations and possibilities for a experiences for group members, skilled presenters help them particuluar group and its work that day. transform information into ideas and ideas into actions. FRAME
PRESENT COLLABORATE FACILITATE
Information and analysis
6 • MiraVia, LLC www.miravia.com • of Interaction
Collaborating Facilitating To collaborate means to work together. In this stance, the To facilitate means to “make easier”. Facilitators conduct group leader and group members co-develop information, sessions and meetings in which the purposes might include, ideas and approaches to problems. Mindful group leaders dialogue, discussion, information processing, planning, also use this stance as an opportunity to model the ways in problem-solving and decision making. Facilitators direct the which professional colleagues interact as a standard for procedures used during a session by choreographing the professional practice. This stance signals trust and respect energy within the group and maintaining a focus on one for group members and a belief in their capabilities as process and one content at a time. thinkers and as professionals. A flexible array of nonverbal and verbal tools supports Room arrangements and where the group leader is positioned facilitators in their work. While many of these overlap with relative to other group members indicates when this is the the tools of presenting and collaborating, they take on added operative stance. By sitting side-by-side, focused on importance within this stance as skilled facilitators maintain common information, problems or issues, the group leader group energy and focus on ideas and information and not on physically and symbolically joins the group as an equal. themselves. Pronoun use is important. By using phrases like “Let’s think about....,” “Let’s generate....,” or “How might we....?”, Facilitators and group members negotiate a tacit contract leaders invite participation and remove themselves from the during each session in which they interact. During this spotlight. negotiation group members determine whether or not they will give facilitators full permission to organize and Group leaders need to carefully monitor their actions when orchestrate their activities. Permission to facilitate is not occupying this stance. Their own enthusiasm and interest in derived by role. The emotional state of the group, the time the topic or issue at hand may override the intention to co- of day, and the topics before the group are some of the create ideas and possibilities. False collaboration may build variables that might influence a group’s decisions. Group resentment or become a disguised presentation. member engagement, cooperation and willingness to take emotional and cognitive risks are the major manifestations of their agreement to follow the lead of facilitators.
• MiraVia, LLC www.miravia.com • 7 Five Orientations
Group leaders typically operate from one or more of the following positions during a session with adult groups (Bedrosian, 1987). These orientations also influence the ways in which leaders collaborate and facilitate.
1. Boss. This orientation is based on positional authority in which speakers support their ideas by framing them within the organization’s history, mission, goals, policies, and procedures. How a message is communicated is often more important and more memorable than the contents of the message. Group members tend to listen to “the position” by paying attention to the tone and demeanor of the speaker. The boss is the one who frames the nonnegotiables in terms of constraints and goals. It is best to give the “boss” a specific place in the room for these messages and then shift to a fresh space for sharing information, to collaborate or to facilitate.
2. Expert. An expert shares information that is current, practical and drawn from both knowledge of a technical field and from the wisdom of practice. The influence of this posture rests in the ability to synthesize information from an area of expertise and organizing and presenting it coherently and energetically. The expert tends to be the orientation most open to attack; especially if the perspectives and or advice being offered challenge current mental models or patterns of practice. This identity is problematic for facilitators. In fact, the person in the room with the greatest expertise should probably not be the facilitator for that topic. Like the boss, the “expert” needs a specific space in the room from which information emerges. Graphic support and text-based information often allows “the object” to be the expert and not the person.
3. Colleague. This stance reduces potential distance between the group leader and other group members. Colleague/leaders share information while being open to discovering new information from others. By referring to experiences similar to those of group members, the leader using this stance occupies a “one-of-you” orientation. Speech patterns include the collegial “we”, “us” and “our”. Eliciting data from the group and extending that data and examples from group members also reduces the distance between the “colleague” and other group members. This stance is usually the most effective choice when working with groups of which the leader is a member or with whom the leader has a close relationship. For leaders from outside the group, this stance is possible if the leader is a member of similar groups or can authentically reference examples from similar work settings. This is the posture of the collaborative stance and can be an effective facilitation approach as long as group leaders know when and how to stay neutral to the content and not impose their beliefs or preferences on the group.
4. Sister/Brother. Group leaders using this stance communicate with concern and warmth by appealing to the close spirit of a healthy working team. Such leaders share the ups and downs of their own learning journeys. This is an especially effective stance when the goal is to motivate group members to stretch personally and professionally beyond the boundaries of current comfort zones. A possible downside to this stance is that some group members may feel encouraged to share highly personal learning or personal problems with the hope that you can help to resolve these issues for them. This is by nature a collaborative stance. It can also work for group leaders if they strategically balance self-disclosure with task and process focus.
5. Novice. This stance is infused with enthusiasm for recent discoveries and their meaning for the group leader. By openly admitting a lack of comprehensive background knowledge and skills, the novice/leader must still be well-informed about the topic and sufficiently immersed in the topic’s applications to the needs of group members. This is often the approach taken by group members presenting to their own groups. The freshness of the approach and the vitality of the presentation can renew or awaken the interests of other group members. This orientation often invites collaboration. Novice group leaders can garner group support by asking for help and feedback from group members. 8 • MiraVia, LLC www.miravia.com • The Group Leader’s Mind
Macromaps
ANTICIPATE MONITOR RECOVER
DESIGN ELEMENTS
• GOALS/OUTCOMES • SUCCESS INDICATORS • STRATEGIES/PROCESSES • CHOICE POINTS/CONCERNS
PARTICIPANT RESOURCEFULNESS • EMOTIONAL • PHYSICAL • MENTAL
GROUP LEADER RESOURCEFULNESS • EMOTIONAL • PHYSICAL • MENTAL
• MiraVia, LLC www.miravia.com • 9 Planning Outcomes
Task Outcomes • Result (Product, Performance, Decision) • Action (Implement, Transfer, Desist) • Knowledge (Declarative, Procedural, Conditional)
Process Outcomes • Shared tools and structures • Verbal and nonverbal skillfulness • Balanced advocacy and inquiry
Relationship Outcomes • Congurence with shared norms and values • Balanced participation • Productive cognitive conflict
10 • MiraVia, LLC www.miravia.com • Planning Outcomes
Think about a group with which you work and an upcoming project. Briefly describe the group and its work. Then clarify your:
Task Outcomes:
Process Outcomes
Relationship Outcomes
• MiraVia, LLC www.miravia.com • 11 Nested Levels of Learning
Mission/ Spirit
Identity
Values/Beliefs
Capabilities
Behaviors/Skills
Environment
Robert Dilts
12 • MiraVia, LLC www.miravia.com • Six Domains of Development
All groups face two challenges. One of these is survival, growth and adaptation in their environments. The other challenge is an internal integration that permits daily functioning and the ability to adapt. While it is important for leaders to understand the two constant group tasks, it is difficult to assess and intervene with group development at this level of description. To do these two tasks well, each group must be able to function skillfully within each of six domains. Knowing the knowledge bases, skills, behaviors and structures of each domain is an essential first step. Knowing the assumptions held by the group about each domain reveals the mental models and drivers of the choices group members are making.
1. Getting Work Done 4. Managing Systems
This theme incorporates ideas and tools As systems become more complex, the ability for getting necessary work done to think systematically and know when and efficiently and effectively. Groups skilled how to set aside linear logic is important. in this domain assume that their work is This theme helps groups learn which interventions create the greatest change with manageable. the least effort and illuminates applications of rational and nonlinear principles from the new sciences to improve schooling.
2. Doing the Right Work 5. Developing Groups
This theme provides guidelines for doing This theme presents principles and tools the work that matters most. Application of for assessing and developing effective this knowledge base supports clear groups and examines ways to improve vision, values, and goals to focus group the communication habits of groups as a energy. means of increasing a group's effectiveness.
3. Working Collaboratively 6. Adapting to Change
This theme focuses on how to work as The more turbulent the environment, the equals with people of different resources more a group's energy must focus outward. to create positive results. Collaborative This theme provides maps and tools for group members see diversity as a generating adaptivity, freeing trapped energy, necessary resource and help subcultures coping intelligently with inter- and intragroup conflict and working with ordinary and to connect with and value one another. unmanageable problems.
Source: The Adaptive School: Developing and Facilitating Collaborative Groups, Robert Garmston and Bruce Wellman, Christopher-Gordon Publishers, Norwood, MA. • MiraVia, LLC www.miravia.com • 13 Assessing the Six Domains of Group Development The six domains are inextricably intertwined; woven together they make a whole. Knowledge for one domain is also necessary in another. As in all dynamical systems, what affects one affects the others. Because of this interactive nature, an assessment instrument seeking detail about either the "things" or "energy" in each domain would contain redundancies. Mastery of discussion and dialogue, for example, are requirements in the first and third domains. To be effective at dialogue, internalization of group-member capabilities and norms of collaboration is necessary and is also a prerequisite for managing conflict in the fourth, fifth, and six domains. To maximize discussion effectiveness, successful meeting skills are required, which is a focus in the first and fourth domains.
In contrast to assessing "hard data," the energies in system dynamics has traditionally been harder to measure, more prone to measurement error, and therefore less relied upon as a data source for group development. "But the importance of measurement error diminishes when the investigative focus shifts from concern about the system's current state to understanding the system's behavior over time, which is often the purpose of a systems dynamics model." Measurement-error importance also declines when data are used to promote conversations about how a group might strengthen itself in contrast to being used for external evaluation.
We have found the simple Likert scale displayed below and the following process to be useful for group self- assessment. Organize a faculty into subgroups of three or four members each. Have them discuss each domain using the descriptions above. Have them rate their group by loose consensus on each domain, using a 1-to-5 scale.
Sample Likert Scale
1 Beginning 2 Emerging 3 Developing 4 Integrating 5 Innovating
Suggest that a way of calibrating their place on the scale might be to locate, in general, where the group functions along a continuum of unconscious incompetence (they don't know they don't know) to unconscious competence (performing with effortlessness). Rate the major knowledge areas in each domain.
Beginning Unconscious incompetence
Emerging Unconscious incompetence and conscious competence
Developing Conscious competence
Integrating Conscious competence and unconscious competence
Innovating Unconscious competence
Now have subgroups report their assessment to the entire group. Search for agreements across subgroups and set those aside. Locate areas of disagreement and seek to understand the differences in perception. Come to an accommodation in ratings. From this analysis, have the group select a domain for further study and development.
14 • MiraVia, LLC www.miravia.com • Assessing The Six Domains of Group Development
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1. Getting Work Done
2. Doing the Right Work
3. Working Collaboratively
4. Managing Systems
5. Developing Groups
6. Adapting to Change
Source: The Adaptive School: Developing and Facilitating Collaborative Groups, Robert Garmston and Bruce Wellman, Christopher-Gordon Publishers, Norwood, MA.
• MiraVia, LLC www.miravia.com • 15 Five Energy Sources for High-Performing Groups
Efficacy The group believes in its capacity to produce results and stays the course through internal and external difficulties to achieve goals. The group aligns energies within itself and outside itself in pursuit of its outcomes.
Flexibility The group regards situations from multiple perspectives, works creatively with uncertainty and ambiguity and values and utilizes differences within itself and the larger community of which it is a part. The group attends to rational and intuitive ways of working.
Craftsmanship The group strives for clarity in its values, goals and high standards. It applies these as criteria for its planning, actions, reflections and refinements. It attends to both short- and long-term time perspectives. It continuously refines communications processes within and beyond the group.
Consciousness The group monitors its decisions, actions and reflections based on its values, norms and common goals. Members are aware of the impact their actions have on each other, the total group and persons and groups beyond this immediate group.
Interdependence The group values its internal and external relationships. It seeks reciprocal influ- ence and learning. Members treat conflict as opportunities to improve and learn about themselves, their own group and other groups. The group trusts its interac- tions and the processes of dialogue.
From The Adaptive Schools Leadership Institute, Developed by Robert Garmston and Bruce Wellman
16 • MiraVia, LLC www.miravia.com • Group Efficacy
• Learns from its experiences and shapes itself accordingly. • Is motivated by and committed to achieving shared goals. • Productively manages the tension between the vision of the desired state and the realities of the existing state. • Focuses its resources where it can make the biggest difference. • Knows what it doesn’t know, needs to know (or do) and develops strategies for attainment. • Decides what not to do.
Group Flexibility
• Collectively shifts perspectives. • Honors and utilizes diversity within the group. • Accesses a wide repertoire of thinking and process skills. • Navigates internal tensions related to confusion and ambiguity. • Attends to rational and intuitive ways of working. • When stuck, generates and uses multiple options for moving ahead.
• MiraVia, LLC www.miravia.com • 17 Group Craftsmanship
• Creates, holds, calibrates and refines performance and product standards. • Continuously refines inter and intra group communications. • Envisions and manages multiple time orientations (balancing past, present and future focus). • Extends and manages appropriate time horizons for its own learning and project success. • Honors the pathway from novice to expert performance. • Invests energy in honing and inventing process tools.
Group Consciousness
• Is aware of how its own assumptions and knowledge interfere with its learning. • Is aware of and stands outside itself to reflect on its processes and products. • Is aware of its core values, norms and group identity and self-corrects as needed. • Is explicit and aware of its criteria for decision making. • Monitors congruence with its meeting standards and self-corrects as needed. Group Interdependence
• Values its interactions and trusts the processes of dialogue. • Envisions the potential of the group. • Is aware of its relationships and how its webs of interconnections are sources of mutual influence. • Regards disagreement and conflict as a source of learning and transformation for the group and group members. • Regards knowledge and knowing as fluid, provisional and subject to improvement from information outside itself.
18 • MiraVia, LLC www.miravia.com • EFFECTIVE LEARNERS:
Link new information to prior knowledge
Engage with process and content simultaneously
Access and organize information
Require internal and external mediation
Need others to articulate and elaborate meaning
Employ cognitive and metacognitive strategies
Resolve disequilibrium through inquiry and through experimentation Search for and pursue personal learning goals
• MiraVia, LLC www.miravia.com • 19 Organizing Principles for Teaching and Learning
1. What learners bring to the learning process matters. Prior knowledge, complete with misinformation and misconceptions is the starting point for learning, not an obstacle to learning. Learners, then, need access to their own knowledge. Norms of dialogue and collaboration support learners in articulating their knowledge base. In such an environment it needs to be safe not to know. Knowing what we don't know and being able to frame our questions is a personal learning gift.
2. How we know is as important as what we know. Action is often driven by unconscious maps. Surfacing these deep structures opens up the possibility of reshaping and reforming belief systems. In this way, we develop shared understandings of how we come to believe and behave as we do.
3. Learners have a commitment to entire schemes of understanding. The human brain is a pattern-seeking, sense making organ. Thus, learning is the active engagement of the mind in making sense of information, ideas and constructs. Individual world view or personal schema, shape the integration of discrete bits of knowledge and information. To learn deeply and shift long- held assumptions means to articulate and sometimes confront personal world-views.
4. Knowledge is socially constructed. How we talk together matters as much as that we talk together about important matters. Respect for differences is essential here. The mutually constructed learning environment is a resource for learning, not the by-product of learning.
5. Shaping the learning environment is the prime focus for group leaders. Rich contexts for learning must be cultivated in the school and classroom. Content expertise about human development, change processes, construction of knowledge and effective educational practices is the quiet assumption in such a model. Process expertise on the part of group leaders is the public assumption in such a scheme as they make the learning agenda for the group transparent.
6. Exploration and dialogue with other adults is as much our work as is our time in the classroom and schools. In order to continue learning, personally and organizationally, it is essential that we plan, reflect, and problem-solve collaboratively with colleagues. These collaborations do not keep us from our work, they enhance our capacity to do our work with style and grace.
Source: Costa, A., Lipton, L., and Wellman, B. (1997). Shifting rules, shifting roles: Transforming the work environment to support learning, in S. Caldwell (Ed.), Professional Development in Learning-Centered Schools (pp. 92-114). Oxford, Ohio, National Staff Development Council.
20 • MiraVia, LLC www.miravia.com • The Pathways Learning Model
Activating and Engaging
Organizing and Integrating Engage prior knowledge, skills, and understandings
Synthesize and represent information Expand the knowledge base for individuals and groups Managing Develop frameworks and models Surface and articulate frames of reference Modeling Catalog and index new understandings Mediating Monitoring
Exploring and Discovering
Examine and differentiate information in light of current schema
Investigate hypotheses, concepts, and principles
Reconsider and tentatively refine schema
Organizing Principles of Learning-focused Classrooms
Each phase of the teaching/learning cycle is purposefully designed to support current learning theory. The framework is implemented in a learning environment where participant engagement with information and materials (authentic tasks) and with fellow learners (interactive group work) combines with conscious monitoring of participant success and instructional effectiveness (on-going assessment).
• MiraVia, LLC www.miravia.com • 21 The Pathways Learning Model
Activating and Engaging Organizing and Integrating • associating • identifying • classifying • reflecting • brainstorming • predicting • defining • representing • enumerating • problem posing • dev. analogies • sequencing • estimating • recalling • dev. metaphors • seriating • forecasting • speculating • evaluating • sorting Declarative • hypothesizing • visualizing • generalizing • summarizing Procedural • interpreting • symbolizing • prioritizing • synthesizing Conditional
Exploring and Discovering • analyzing • identifying • comparing • inferring • computing • measuring • contrasting • observing • describing • questionin • distinquishing • relating • experimenting • seeking causality • explaining • seeking effects
Cognitive Processes in Learning-Focused Classrooms
Strategies in each phase of the teaching/learning cycle cue specific types of thinking. The Activating and Engaging phase prompts generative and associative thinking; Exploring and Discovering exercises processing skills; and the Organizing and Integrating phase directs the learner towards synthesis and evaluation. The graphic above displays the recursive nature of learning. Although the instructional design identifies strategies in each phase of the cycle, an engaged learner’s thinking will move within and among each phase in a variety of ways while moving towards deeper understanding.
22 • MiraVia, LLC www.miravia.com • Managing Resourcefulness
Physical Techniques Mental Techniques
• Breathe • Overprepare
• Progressive relaxation • Written notes
• Walk • Mentally rehearse
• Uncross your legs • Reconnaissance
• Dangle your arms/twist your wrists • Take a long view
• Make faces • Paradoxical intervention
• Center yourself physically • Prayer or mantra
• MiraVia, LLC www.miravia.com • 23 Nonverbal Skills
1. Choose Voice • Approachable • Credible
2. Separate Attention from Message • Do not talk when not talking • Freeze gestures • Attend to breathing patterns
3. Signal role change
4. Preserve presentation spots
5. Decontaminate problem spots
6. Go visual (three point communication)
24 • MiraVia, LLC www.miravia.com • The Importance of Nonverbal Communication
THE GOAL: • To expand your range of nonverbal skills
THE PURPOSE: • To enhance your credibility as a facilitator
• To provide frames for anticipating, monitoring, and recovering when "things" go wrong.
• To get psychological permission to be in charge and to deal with issues
TO BE IN CHARGE: • of focusing energy and attention • of supporting understanding of content input and process directions • of managing transitions
TO DEAL WITH • by separating the message from the messanger ISSUES: • by establishing and maintaining a positive relationship with the group • by separating problems from solutions
Adapted from the work of Michael Grinder.
• MiraVia, LLC www.miravia.com • 25 Communicating Meaning
Non-verbal Verbal Components Components
Pitch Posture 65% Gesture Volume
Proximity 35% Inflection
Muscle tension Pace
Facial expression Words
Proportion of meaning inferred from non-verbal and verbal components of a communication
Source: Burgoon, J.K., D. B. Buller, and W.G. Woodall (1989). Nonverbal Communication: The Unspoken Dialogue. N.Y., Harper and Row.
26 • MiraVia, LLC www.miravia.com • Choose Voice
Our voice pattern signals our intention in the moment. Our tone, pace, rhythm and other elements form important para-language elements that are often stronger than the words we use.
CREDIBLE VOICE: • for attention moves • for direction giving • for amplifying important content information
ELEMENTS: • narrow range of modulation • dropping of the chin • holding the head still • leaning back slightly • chin tilt for relationship
APPROACHABLE VOICE: • for relationship • for creating psychological safety -paraphrasing -inquiring -stimulating responses
ELEMENTS: • wider range of modulation • eye contact • head bouncing • leaning forward
• MiraVia, LLC www.miravia.com • 27 Separating the message from the Messenger
• Go visual
• Get the message off to the side
• The listener's eyes follow the speaker's eyes
• Use neutral language to name the issue(s) it, that, the data, the survey
• Use specific descriptors for issues
• Separate issues from solutions, physically and verbally
• Choose the appropriate voice for each element within the structure, credible for issues --- approachable for solutions.
28 • MiraVia, LLC www.miravia.com • NOTES
• MiraVia, LLC www.miravia.com • 29 Ways of Talking
Conversation
Deliberation
Dialogue Discussion • ------• ------
Monitoring Monitoring self Behaviors self process Seven Norms process whole of details Collaboration Outcome Outcome Understanding Decision
Professional Community
Used with permission from The Center for Adaptive Schools
30 • MiraVia, LLC www.miravia.com • Dialogue and Discussion
A team performing at peak levels creates an alignment of energies—the group functions as a whole— learns from its activities and keeps getting better. Such collective learning from experience has three critical dimensions: the need to think insightfully about critical issues, act in innovative, coordinated ways and foster the development of peak team performance by other teams within the organization.
The power for such generative learning in organizations comes from the synergy between dialogue and discussion. Dialogue is diverging, discussion is converging. To capture this synergy, several factors must be present.
1. Team members are on the way to mastering the skills of discourse that use both dialogue and discussion.
2. Team members can distinguish between the purposes and processes of the two forms of dis- course and know when to enlist them.
3. Team members can engage the three conditions for dialogue. • suspend assumptions • regard one another as colleagues • engage a facilitator who holds the context of dialogue
4. Team members become observers of their own thinking.
5. Team members monitor and respectfully divert forces opposing productive dialogue and discus- sion. Dialogue Discussion • Different views are presented as a way of • Different views are presented and defended discovering a new view in search of the best view to support a decision • Free and create exploration of complex and • Analyze and dissect an issue from many subtle issues points • A deep listening • Winning is usually the goal (one's view prevails) but must take second priority to coherence and truth • A suspending of one's views • From percussion, concussion—a ping- ponging of something between us • Deepens understanding • Decisions are made
• MiraVia, LLC www.miravia.com • 31 First Turn/Last Turn
1. Read individually. Highlight 2-3 items.
2. In turn -- share one of your items, ----- but do not comment on it - The First Turn.
3. Group members comment in round-robin order about the item. (No cross talk)
4. The initial person who named the item then shares his or her thinking about the item and gets - The Last Turn.
------5. Repeat the pattern around the table.
Used with permission from: B. Wellman & L. Lipton, (2004). Data-Driven Dialogue: A Facilitator's Guide to Collaborative Inquiry. Sherman, CT: MiraVia LLC.
32 • MiraVia, LLC www.miravia.com • Dialogue
“I believe in all that has not yet been spoken.” Rainer Maria Rilke, The Book of Hours: Love Poems to God
Dialogue is one of the most ancient forms of human communication. Our tribal ancestors gathered around their fires crafting humanity and community with stories, songs and conversations. By learning the processes of dialogue we restore the patterns of our elders and embrace habits still practiced by indigenous peoples across the planet. Many of these communication and thinking patterns were set aside during the development of western culture as the early Greek philosophers and later European thinkers shaped language and listening models for logic, reasoning and persuading. These habits of mind molded our culture as we now know and experience it, producing the technological, social and political structures that make us who we are today. By embracing the processes and patterns of dialogue, we do not deny other habits of mind. Dialogue is an important addition to individual and group repertoire. It extends personal and collaborative capabilities by supporting speaking and listening behaviors that link people and ideas. This collective search seeks connections, not fissures and wholes, not parts. At the most fundamental level, dialogue is a processes of listening and speaking to understand each other’s, ideas, assumptions, beliefs and values. To understand others does not imply agreement or disagreement with their viewpoints. Dialogue seeks and explores the layers of meaning within ideas. The physicist, David Bohm, brought consciousness to dialogue in its more modern form, promoting it as an intentional communication process to develop deeper forms of collective thinking. He combined knowledge of quantum physics with understandings influenced by his work and association with the Indian philosopher, Jiddu Krishnamurti. Bohm sought patterns of thought in individuals and patterns of thought in society. From his studies with Krishnamurti, he learned the value of observing his own internal stream of consciousness and extended this to the value of observing the ways in which collective thought unfolds during purposeful conversations.
• MiraVia, LLC www.miravia.com • 33 “Dialogue comes from the Greek word dialogos. Logos means ‘the word’, or in our case we would think of the ‘meaning of the word’. And dia means ‘through’ - it doesn’t mean two. A dialogue can be among any number of people, not just two. Even one person can have a sense of dialogue within himself, if the spirit of dialogue is present. The picture or image that this derivation suggests is of a stream of meaning flowing among and through us and between us. This will make possible a flow of meaning in the whole group, out of which will emerge some new understanding. It’s something new, which may not have been in the starting point at all. It is something creative. And this shared meaning is the ‘glue’ or ‘cement’ that holds people and societies together.” David Bohm— On Dialogue
Bohm’s work influenced the work of William Isaacs, and his colleague,Peter Senge, at the MIT Center for Organizational Learning. Isaacs calls dialogue a conversation with a center not sides. It requires a full commitment as a listener to understand others and a full commitment as a speaker to be understood by others. Like a magnetic field, the practice of dialogue gives a shape and structure to a spirit of sustained collective inquiry within and between people. Within this container, we find the psychological safety to talk about the hard-to-talk-about things that matter. To craft this container requires a blend of internal and external quiet so we can hear ourselves, hear others and hear ourselves hear others. “Our conversations organize the processes and structures which shape our collective future” (Isaacs, 1999). This thinking together in itself is a value and an outcome. The process is also the product. Dialogue is an adaptive force when used within groups and organizations. The practice of dialogue develops self-organizing systems that clarify and maintain core identities. Given the nonlinear nature of systems and the forces around systems, planned actions and interactions are often difficult to predict with clarity and confidence. Dialogue helps us to find connection and meaning within the noise.
Used with permission from: B. Wellman & L. Lipton, (2004). Data-Driven Dialogue: A Facilitator's Guide to Collaborative Inquiry. Sherman, CT: MiraVia LLC.
34 • MiraVia, LLC www.miravia.com • How Much Dialogue?
Brief dialogue when...
1. Examining issues from various points of view. 2. Achieving mutual understanding prior to decision making. 3. Bringing together people with shared interests who trust each other. 4. Getting leaders and followers to understand each other’s position on specific issues. 5. Enhancing mutual understanding among groups or a community on a specific issue.
Midrange dialogue when...
6. Working through an emotional laden issue. 7. Reaching across style, gender and cognitive differences. 8. Bringing together people with shared interests who trust each other. 9. Surfacing the internal contradictions in change and leadership efforts that often go unnamed and unaddressed. 10. Preparing the ground for decision making on a sensitive issue. 11. Seeking understandings among people who hold opposing views on controversial issues such as assessment, standards, and English as a second language.
Extended dialogue when...
12. Preparing the ground for negotiations between groups who mistrust one another and who come from different cultures. 13. Achieving higher levels of teamwork among organizations with different sub cultures. 14. Working together to develop a new paradigm for innovation. 15. Tapping into people’s pooled experience in the interest of achieving a higher level of thought and intimacy.
This information is adapted from Daniel Yankelovich’s book, The Magic of Dialogue: Transforming Conflict into Coop- eration (Simon & Schuster, 1999).
• MiraVia, LLC www.miravia.com • 35 Developing Capacity for Work Team Discourse Productive work teams use skills of talking together and can recognize and redirect verbal moves of defensiveness. Defensiveness moves are not in themselves “negative” but are usually employed to protect self or others from discomfort or embarrassment.
Mental and verbal skills of discourse: 1. Choose appropriate form 2. Suspend assumptions 3. Employ 7 norms of collaboration 4. Access holonomous states of mind 5. Work from the balcony 6. Recognize and redirect forces opposing productive discourse 7. Apply round-robin reflection
Forces opposing productive team discourse: 1. Smooth over 2. Wage abstraction wars 3. Say “that’s interesting” 4. Shelter idea from criticism 5. Confront person to squash idea 6. Play broken record 7. Change the subject 8. Pull rank 9. Dig in heels 10. Hold nonnegotiable assumptions
Effective work teams clarify mental and verbal skills of discourse and redirect the forces opposing productive team discourse to achieve two different types of consensus:
Focusing Consensus Through discussion, a group seeks the common denominator in multiple individual views.
Conceptual Consensus Through dialogue, a group looks through each other’s views to see something they might not have seen alone.
Thought is largely a collective phenomenon
36 • MiraVia, LLC www.miravia.com • Suspension Suspension is the essential internal skill of dialogue. Suspension draws upon mental, emotional and values-based resources. Within conversation and dialogue, there inevitably come points of personal conflict. These often occur when we feel we are not being heard or that our points of view are being distorted by others. Our anger or uneasiness at these times can be on the edge of our own awareness, yet our discomfort influences our listening and can influence our overt responses which in turn influence the internal and external behaviors of others in the group.
As we increase our skill in dialogue, we come to recognize these moments as points of choice. The first choice is whether or not to allow the feelings to surface. The second choice is whether or not to trust the feelings. With increased awareness and experience, we come to realize that these feelings are based on our perceptions—on our internal experiences and interpretations. We then start to notice our own listening and start to listen to our listening as we listen to others.
The next choice we face is whether or not to check out our perceptions with others in the group or whether to listen further to observe how others are responding and how further dialogue shapes the meaning of the moment. The danger in confronting perceived distortions is that this can polarize the conversation or narrow the dialogue to a few issues and a few people.
To suspend means to set aside our perceptions, our feelings, our judgments and our impulses for a time and listen to and monitor carefully our own internal experience and what comes up from within the group. "Ultimately, dialogue achieves a state of knowing one's thought as one is having it" (Schein, 1993).
Schein, E. (1993, Autumn). On dialogue, culture and organizational learning. Organizational Dynamics, 22 (2), 40-51.
• MiraVia, LLC www.miravia.com • 37 Norms Inventory - Rating My Perceptions of Myself
Pausing to allow time for thought
1. I pause after asking questions.
Low ______/______/______/______High
2. I pause after others speak to reflect before responding.
Low ______/______/______/______High
3. I pause before asking questions to allow time for artful construction.
Low ______/______/______/______High
Paraphrasing within a pattern of pause - paraphrase - question to ensure deep listening
1. I listen and paraphrase to acknowledge and clarify.
Low ______/______/______/______High
2. I listen and paraphrase to summarize and organize.
Low ______/______/______/______High
3. I listen and paraphrase to shift levels of abstraction.
Low ______/______/______/______High
Probing to clarify
1. I seek understanding of the meaning of words.
Low ______/______/______/______High
2. I seek understanding of data, explanations, ideas, anecdotes and generalizations.
Low ______/______/______/______High
3. I seek understanding of assumptions, perceptions and interpretations.
Low ______/______/______/______High
© Center for Adaptive Schools
38 • MiraVia, LLC www.miravia.com • Putting ideas on the table and pulling them off / placing data and perceptions before the group
1. I state the intentions of my communications.
Low ______/______/______/______High
2. I provide relevant facts, ideas, opinions and inferences.
Low ______/______/______/______High
3. I remove or announce modification of ideas, opinions and points of view.
Low ______/______/______/______High
Paying attention to self and others to monitor our ways of working
1. I help balance participation and open opportunities for other's to contribute and respond.
Low ______/______/______/______High
2. I restrain my impulses to react, respond or rebut at inappropriate times or in ineffective ways.
Low ______/______/______/______High
3. I maintain awareness of the group’s task, processes and development.
Low ______/______/______/______High
Presuming positive intentions to support a non-judgmental atmosphere
1. I communicate respectfully whether I agree or disagree.
Low ______/______/______/______High
2. I embed positive presuppositions in my paraphrases, summaries and comments.
Low ______/______/______/______High
3. I embed positive presuppositions when I inquire or probe for specificity.
Low ______/______/______/______High
Promoting a spirit of inquiry
1. I inquire to explore perceptions, assumptions and interpretations.
Low ______/______/______/______High
2. I invite others to inquire into my perceptions, assumptions and interpretations.
Low ______/______/______/______High
3. I inquire before I advocate.
Low ______/______/______/______High
• MiraVia, LLC www.miravia.com • 39 Norms Inventory - Rating Our Perceptions of Our Group
Pausing to allow time for thought
1. We pause after asking questions.
Low ______/______/______/______High
2. We pause after others speak to reflect before responding.
Low ______/______/______/______High
3. We pause before asking questions to allow time for artful construction.
Low ______/______/______/______High
Paraphrasing within a pattern of pause - paraphrase - question to ensure deep listening
1. We listen and paraphrase to acknowledge and clarify.
Low ______/______/______/______High
2. We listen and paraphrase to summarize and organize.
Low ______/______/______/______High
3. We listen and paraphrase to shift levels of abstraction.
Low ______/______/______/______High
Probing to clarify
1. We seek understanding of the meaning of words.
Low ______/______/______/______High
2. We seek understanding of data, explanations, ideas, anecdotes and generalizations.
Low ______/______/______/______High
3. We seek understanding of assumptions, perceptions and interpretations.
Low ______/______/______/______High
© Center for Adaptive Schools
40 • MiraVia, LLC www.miravia.com • Putting ideas on the table and pulling them off / placing data and perceptions before the group
1. We state the intentions of our communications.
Low ______/______/______/______High
2. We provide relevant facts, ideas, opinions and inferences.
Low ______/______/______/______High
3. We remove or announce modification of ideas, opinions and points of view.
Low ______/______/______/______High
Paying attention to self and others to monitor our ways of working
1. We balance participation and open opportunities for each other to contribute and respond.
Low ______/______/______/______High
2. We restrain our impulses to react, respond or rebut at inappropriate times or in ineffective ways.
Low ______/______/______/______High
3. We maintain awareness of the group’s task, processes and development.
Low ______/______/______/______High
Presuming positive intentions to support a non-judgmental atmosphere
1. We communicate respectfully whether we agree or disagree.
Low ______/______/______/______High
2. We embed positive presuppositions in our paraphrases, summaries and comments.
Low ______/______/______/______High
3. We embed positive presuppositions when we inquire or probe for specificity.
Low ______/______/______/______High
Promoting a spirit of inquiry
1. We inquire to explore perceptions, assumptions and interpretations.
Low ______/______/______/______High
2. We invite others to inquire into our perceptions, assumptions and interpretations.
Low ______/______/______/______High
3. We inquire before we advocate.
Low ______/______/______/______High
• MiraVia, LLC www.miravia.com • 41 Assessing Seven Norms of Collaborative Work in a Key Work Setting
Low High
Pausing
Paraphrasing
Probing
Putting ideas on the table
Paying attention to self and others
Presuming positive intentions
Promoting a spirit of inquiry
© Center for Adaptive Schools
42 • MiraVia, LLC www.miravia.com • Team Goals
• MiraVia, LLC www.miravia.com • 43 Probing/Inquiring
What do facilitative participants do to demonstrate the norm of probing or inquiry?
Facilitative participants ask questions to clarify communication, construct understanding and deepen meaning.
They probe to elicit deleted information when they hear or read unspecified:
Nouns and Pronouns The students, parents, adminis- Which students, specifically? trators, textbooks, they, the district, people...
Verbs I want them to think, do, feel, Think, how, specifically? propose, engage, study, learn...
This group is better, larger, Comparators smarter, slower, more pro- Than what or who? found...
They probe to clarify values when they hear or read language which might possibly represent generali- zations or distortions:
Rule Words We can't What would happen if you did? We shouldn't Who made up that rule? We must What would happen if you We have to, ought... didn't?
Universal Quantifiers Everyone, all, no one, never, Everyone? always... Can you think of someone who does not? You mean everyone in North America?
44 • MiraVia, LLC www.miravia.com • Paraphrasing
An effective paraphrase expresses empathy by reflecting both the feeling and the content of the message.
Paraphrasing sends three messages: • I am listening • I understand you (or am trying to) • I care
Acknowledging: • Head nods • Fillers (uh - huh, ok, hmm) • Echo
Three Paraphrasing Forms: • Acknowledge/Clarify—a brief statement reflecting what was said in the listener's words • Summarize/Organize—a statement illuminating themes or containers • Shift the level of abstraction—a statement reframing ideas at a logical level different from the speaker's word
Reflection Stems to Consider: • You're suggesting...... • So, on the one hand we want to start now, • You're thinking...... but on the other hand...... • You're wondering...... • So, you are valuing...... • So, for now, your most immediate goal • What is being assumed here is...... is...... • The intention seems to be...... • There seem to be three themes here..... • ......
Paraphrase: From the Greek: para, beyond + phrazein, to tell = to tell beyond. Webster: A rewording of the thought or meaning expressed in something that has been said or written.
• MiraVia, LLC www.miravia.com • 45 Mediational group members pay attention to:
Paraphrasing Content Empathy
• Verbal calibration • Physical reflection • Physical referencing • Voice tone Filters - characters in space - concepts in space • Positive presuppositions • Acuity: nonverbal - verbal - sequence of events - sequence of ideas • Choosing: matching - stretching - time orientation • Responding: nonverbal - verbal Logical Level Stems
• Acknowledge/clarify • “You’re feeling...” • “In other words...” • Summarize/organize • “You’re saying that...” • “You’re hoping...” • Shift level of abstraction • “So, what you want is...”
Questioning Content Invitation
• Inquiring for: • Attending fully - details • Approachable voice - values • Plural forms - beliefs • Exploratory language - sources • Positive presuppositions - generalizability • Nondichotomous questions
Cognitive Operations
• Analyze • Synthesize • Compare • Contrast • Evaluate
46 • MiraVia, LLC www.miravia.com • PARAPHRASING TO ESTABLISH RELATIONSHIPS,
INCREASE UNDERSTANDING AND MEDIATE THINKING Paraphrasing is one of the most valuable tools in a facilitator’s and in an engaged group member’s toolbox. Well-crafted paraphrases signal to others that they have our full attention. This skill requires listening at multiple levels and setting aside any chatter that might be rattling around in our own heads. At the basic level, a paraphrase communicates that we understand other’s thoughts, emotions, questions and ideas, or that we are attempting to do so. This signal that we are listening earns us psychological permission to inquire for the values, beliefs and assumptions behind the ideas of group members. It also earns us permission to inquire for details and press for elaboration of ideas, perceptions and proposals. Without a paraphrase, such inquiries may be perceived as an interroga- tion. Thoughtfully designed paraphrases reduce the gap between speakers and responders, commu- nicating a sense of regard and a desire to understand. Questions, however well intended and gently posed, are distance. Well-crafted paraphrases and appropriate pauses stimulate more thought than do questions alone. The pattern of pausing, paraphrasing and questioning supports relationship and learning. Mediational paraphrasing is a process, organized by: • An intention to support thinking and problem-solving. • The attention of the paraphraser, who listens carefully for the essence of the message. • The communication skills of the paraphraser. Mediational paraphrases contain three essential elements; they label the speaker’s content, they label the speaker’s emotions about the content and they frame a logical level for holding that con- tent (see Figure 2.2). Skilled paraphrasing treats responses as gifts. The paraphrase reflects a speaker’s thinking providing opportunity for further consideration. In this way, the paraphrase connects the speaker and listener in a flow of discourse.
Figure 2.2: Template for Paraphrase
Invitation
Logical Level Invitation
Emotion Content
Invitation Logical Level
Invitation
• MiraVia, LLC www.miravia.com • 47 THREE INTENTIONS, THREE TYPES OF PARAPHRASES Three types of paraphrases, with three different intentions, increase the range of possible responses. While each supports relationship and learning, paraphrases that shift the level of abstraction are more likely to create new levels of understanding. Paraphrases often move through a pattern of acknowledg- ing and clarifying, then summarizing and organizing, then shifting the level of abstraction. However, there is no right sequence or formula for applying these responses. Cues from the speaker will help suggest the most appropriate form. Attentive facilitators and colleagues watch and listen for these cues, which include inflectional emphasis or repetition of certain words, often accompanied by gestures. Versatility in the use of paraphrase types gives skilled facilitators and skilled group members a wide range of actions from which to choose and an effective repertoire for supporting the growth of individu- als and of groups as a whole.
ACKNOWLEDGING AND CLARIFYING By restating the essence of another’s statements, acknowledging and clarifying paraphrases provide opportunities to identify and calibrate content and emotions. Within their structure, they communicate a desire to understand ideas and they communicate our value for the speaker and what she or he is feeling and saying. Effective acknowledging and clarifying paraphrases eliminate the personal pronouns I and me, as in “What I think I hear you saying is . . . ” or “it seems to me that you are saying that . . .” Using these first person pronouns shifts the attention from the speaker to the paraphraser, which is not the intention of skillful paraphrasers. Further, such personal pronouns are statements of interpretation not statements of reflection. While they are often intended as clarifications, there is a short distance between interpretation and judgment. An acknowledging and clarifying paraphrase packaged within an approach- able voice encourages corrections or clarifying responses from the speaker, reinforcing his or her owner- ship of the conversation.
SUMMARIZING AND ORGANIZING Summarizing and organizing paraphrases offer themes and containers which shape initiating state- ments and separate jumbled issues. This type of paraphrase is especially useful in group work when there have been multiple speakers and a large volume of information shared. Summarizing and organizing paraphrases capture key elements and offer organization to the initating statement, facilitating group reactions and responses. They provided shape and structure to conversations. These “shapes” include providing containers or categories.
SHIFTING THE LEVEL OF ABSTRACTION Shifting the level of abstraction is a paraphrase that moves language, and thinking to a higher or lower logical level. The intention of this type of paraphrase is to illuminate large ideas or categories, which often leads speakers to new discoveries. When shifting down, this type of paraphrase focuses and clarifies, thereby increasing the precision of thinking. For individuals and groups who think in highly sequential and concrete patterns, the shift up helps them to explore a bigger picture and provides a wider context for thought. For individuals and groups that tend to think in highly global patterns, the shift down grounds thinking in specific examples and concrete patterns. We move to higher levels of thought and abstraction by naming big ideas: including concepts, categories, goals, and values.
48 • MiraVia, LLC www.miravia.com • A paraphrase that shifts to a higher level of abstraction is often particularly effective in problem- solving situations. Initially, more abstract language widens the potential solution set and encourages broader exploration of ideas and strategies for problem solving. For example, a group member might say: “This multiple choice test doesn't measure my students’ thinking ability.” To which a facilitator or another group member might respond: “You’re looking for assessment tools that provide a more authen- tic picture of your students’ performance.” We focus thinking by moving to lower levels of abstraction when ideas and concepts need ground- ing in details. We do so by offering specific details or examples within the paraphrase.
INTONATION MATTERS Voice tone matters. The approachable voice, with its lilting cadence and upward ending inflection is an essential ingredient of successful paraphrases. This intonation pattern indicates your intention to check for accuracy in your paraphrase and invites correction, if needed. When a facilitator or group member uses a credible voice, which has a more modulated intonation, ending in a downward tick, the paraphrases tends to sound presumptuous, as if he or she were reading the speaker’s mind or telling them what they think. The approachable voice, with its rising inflection often motivates responses that are as thoughtful as the responses stimulated by well-crafted questions.
Timing is everything. Appropriately-timed paraphrases provide pivot points for shaping and shifting conversations. By acknowledging group members, summarizing the flow of the conversation or shifting the level of abstraction up or down as needed, a facilitator can move the conversation through the paraphrase alone or redirect group attention with a targeted question. The facilitator’s paraphrase provides a space for deciding the next move. Options include: paraphrase then question, paraphrase then give a direction, or paraphrase then offer information. Skillful facilitators artfully frame and energize dialogue and collaborative inquiry by using a pattern of pauses, paraphrases and questions that open or focus thinking. In terms of group development, paraphrasing is a social resource. By subsuming the comments of all group members, including those without social or role status within summarizing and organiz- ing paraphrases, skillful facilitators help their ideas be heard by others in the group. Such paraphrases subtly influence the sociology of a group. This is an especially useful approach for groups in which who says what carries more weight that what is being said.
• MiraVia, LLC www.miravia.com • 49 Three Types of Paraphrasing
Acknowledge/Clarify: Summarize/Organize Shift level of abstraction a brief statement in the listeners a statement that offers themes or a statement that shifts the own words. containers conversation to a higher or lower level of abstraction
Metaphorically: a mirror Metaphorically: baskets /boxes Metaphorically: elevator/ escalator
• You're concerned about.... • You seem to have two goals Shifting up: here: one is about ____ and the • value • You would like to see.... other is about _____. • belief • goal • You're feeling badly about.... • We seem to be struggling • assumption with three themes: where to • concept ___, how to _____, and who • category should______. • intention
• On the one hand we _____ Shifting down: and on the other we______. • example • nonexample • strategy • choice • action • option
50 • MiraVia, LLC www.miravia.com • Presuming Positive Intentions
Positive Presuppositions Presume: • Capacity
• Positive intentionality
• Prior and ongoing thought
Questions:
• Are framed from a spirit of inquiry
• Seek multiple perspectives rather than single causes
• Show acceptance
• Use a variety of introductory phrases, such as
As you . . . When you . . . While you . . .
Name Those Presuppositions
• A skillful group wouldn't always get defensive and confused.
• Even this group should be able to solve that problem.
• Thanks for sharing. Does anyone have a constructive idea?
• Can we hear some practical suggestions now?
• If the subcommittee had listened to us, we wouldn't be talking about this now.
• A caring facilitator wouldn't have let that happen.
© Center for Adaptive Schools • MiraVia, LLC www.miravia.com • 51 NOTES
52 • MiraVia, LLC www.miravia.com • Advocacy
Make your thinking and reasoning visible
Describe the focus of your advocacy. “An issue that is important to me is...” "My assumptions are..."
Describe your reasoning. “I came to this conclusion because...”
Describe your feelings. “I feel ______about this.”
Distinguish data from interpretation. “This is the data I have as objectively as I can state it. Now here is what I think the data means.”
Reveal your perspective. “I'm seeing this from the viewpoint of ______or ______or ______.”
Frame the wider context that surrounds this issue. “Several groups would be affected by what I propose...”
Give concrete examples. “To get a clear picture, imagine that you are in school X...”
Test your assumptions and conclusions
Encourage others to explore your model, assumptions and data. “What do you think about what I just said? Do you see any flaws in my reasoning? What can you add?”
Reveal where you are least clear. “Here’s one area you might help me think through...”
Stay open. Encourage others to provide different views: “Do you see it differently?”
Search for distortions, deletions and generalizations. “In what I’ve presented, do you believe I might have overgeneralized, or left out data or reported data incorrectly?”
Adapted from Senge, P., et al. (1994). The fifth discipline fieldbook. New York: Doubleday.
• MiraVia, LLC www.miravia.com • 53 Inquiry
Invite others to make their thinking visible --creating psychological safety
• Attend fully- by being physically and emotionally present with others.
• Use an approachable voice - tonal quality signals our intention to inquire not interrogate.
• Use plural forms - plurals open the questions, producing more than one possible appropriate answer.
• Use exploratory language - to qualify your questions and make them "safer" to answer. “What are some of ... How might you... What are your hunches about...?”
• Use nondichotomous questions - these are questions that cannot be answered "yes" or "no" or "true" or "false".
• Use positive presuppositions - these language forms assume capacity and positive intentions. "Given your knowlege of....", As an experienced professional...."
• Use a pattern of pausing, paraphrasing and inquiring or probing for specificity.
Inquire for the elements of the advocacy template that the speaker has not yet illuminated.
• Describe the focus of your advocacy. “What are some of your assumptions about this issue?
• Describe your reasoning. “Given your concern and knowledge of this issue, what are some of the observations and data that are influencing you?"
• Describe your feelings. “What are some of your feelings about this issue?"
• Distinguish data from interpretation. “Help us to understand some of your interpretation of the data?"
• Reveal your perspective. “What are some of the perspectives you are considering as you reflect on this issue?"
• Frame the wider context that surrounds this issue. “As you consider the bigger picture, what are some of the factors and possible ripple effects that might be involved?"
• Give concrete examples. “What are some examples that occur to you about how this might play out?'
54 • MiraVia, LLC www.miravia.com • From Inquiry to Advocacy
Signal your intention to shift from inquiring to advocating
Gesture, posture, voice qualities and silence have contextual meaning based on the setting and verbal message. Mark your intentions to transition from inquiry to advocacy with some of these forms of paralanguage. For example:
• Shift your body. To signal a shift in the direction of the conversational energy.
• Break eye contact. To momentarily break rapport.
• Pause.To "gently interrupt" the speaker and refocus attention.
• Employ a frozen gesture. To nonverbally hold the pause.
• Use an approachable voice. To maintain psychological safety.
• Use transition stems. To relate your new thought to the flow of the conversation.
Use transition stems
"Here is a related thought..."
"I hold it another way..."
"Hmmm, from another perspective..."
"An additional idea might be..."
"An assumption I'm exploring is..."
"Taking that one step further..."
© Center for Adaptive Schools
• MiraVia, LLC www.miravia.com • 55 Notes
56 • MiraVia, LLC www.miravia.com • Meeting Success Structures
1. Decide who decides.
2. Define the sandbox.
3. Develop standards.
4. Design the surround.
Organizing Principles
1. Meeting success is influenced more by the collaborative norms of the group than by the knowledge and skills of the group's facilitator.
2. The power of the group to produce results is rooted in the quality of the relationships among the participants.
3. In high-performing groups the five states of mind are the self- organizing values for every group and every meeting.
© Center for Adaptive Schools
• MiraVia, LLC www.miravia.com • 57 Decision Making
How will the
decision-making Who decides? process be
communicated? Who are we in the decision- How will the decision -- before making process? be communicated? Concretely and -- during Informing, Recommending, Deciding Symbolically
-- and after What decision- the decision making process will be used? (and to whom)
© Center for Adaptive Schools
58 • MiraVia, LLC www.miravia.com • Consensus as the Holy Grail
Consensus is one form of decision making but not the only form. Some groups get stuck trying to use consensus processes without a consciousness of the differences between dialogue and discussion.
There are two types of consensus: (a) opening consensus, which develops through dialogue, and (b) focusing consensus, which develops through discussion (Senge, 1990). Opening consensus means the consideration of perspectives and possibilities. Focusing consensus means winnowing choices by clarifying criteria and applying these criteria to the choices. Focusing consensus for complex issues depends upon effective opening consensus.
Ultimately, consensus is a value and belief system more than a decision-making process. Unless groups and group members are willing to hang out with the process for as long as it takes, they are not usually ready for full consensus decision making.
Work at The Center for Conflict Resolution points to the following necessary conditions for effective consensus decision making (Avery, Auvine, Streibel & Weiss, 1981).
1. Unity of purpose. There should be basic core agreements on what the group is about and how it operates.
2. Equal access to power. Consensus cannot work in formal hierarchies. Informal power also needs to be equally distributed.
3. Autonomy of the group for external hierarchical structures. It is very difficult for groups to use consensus processes if they are part of a larger organization that does not honor this way of making decisions.
4. Time. Consensus takes time and patience. Participants have to believe in the usefulness of this method enough to follow it and not the clock or calendar.
5. Attending to process. Group members must be willing to spend group time reflecting on process and modifying it as needed.
• MiraVia, LLC www.miravia.com • 59 6. Attending to attitudes. Group members must be willing to examine their own attitudes and be open to change. The key ingredients are trust and cooperation.
7. Willingness to learn and practice skills. Communication, meeting participation, and facilitation skills must be continually honed and refined to make consensus processes work.
Sufficient Consensus Groups with whom we work are usually better served by "sufficient consensus." This generally means that at least 80% of the group is willing to commit and to act. It also means that the others agree not to block or sabotage.
Sufficient consensus relies on both dialogue and discussion for its effectiveness. The norm of balancing advocacy and inquiry is essential. Any dissenting voices must be able to influence and persuade 80% of the group to carry the day. This also means that other group members can paraphrase and draw matters to a close if only a few voices line up on one side of an issue.
60 • MiraVia, LLC www.miravia.com • • Decide Who Decides
• Define Define the Sandbox the Sandbox • Develop Standards • Design the Surround
Every group needs to be clear about which issues are within its sphere of responsibility and which lie outside its decision-making authority. Groups conserve precious energy by focusing resources where they have direct influence.
All groups have interests that intersect with other groups' decision-making authority. Collegial and political considerations must honor these overlapping areas of concern.
Individual and collective vigilance in this area is an essential ingredient of group success. Here are some examples of groups for which this structure is important:
• Departments • Curriculum task forces • Ad hoc study or advisory groups • Grade level teams • Site councils • Faculties
Here is an example of a school site council defining its sandbox.
• Develop site plan
• Develop budgets
• Consult with bilingual advisory committee
• Consult with Title I parents
• Review student progress
• Review other data such as parent involvement survey
• Recommend the number of staff development days
• Review (annually) school discipline policy
© Center for Adaptive Schools • MiraVia, LLC www.miravia.com • 61 The Unhappy Technology Committee
One of us was recently asked to consult with an elementary principal that was “under siege”.
The school technology committee, composed of parents and teachers, had written and received a
technology grant from a community business partner. The initial elation at receiving the funding
had been replaced by frustration.
The committee had submitted a list of desired equipment to the principal. The principal
submitted the requisition for the equipment, but was then contacted by the District Technology
Coordinator who informed the principal that that the desired equipment was not compatible with
the District Master Technology Plan. The Principal informed the committee. The committee was
very upset. One of the parents involved who was knowledgeable about computers said that the
District plan was totally outdated. The committee argued that since they had secured the funding
they should be able to purchase the best equipment available for their students. They accused the
principal of wasting their time and ignoring their recommendations. The disagreement had
escalated to a very unpleasant situation.
What are some of the possible underlying causes of the committee’s unhappiness?
What are some of the things the Principal could have done to avoid this problem?
Courtesy Suzanne Riley [email protected]
62 • MiraVia, LLC www.miravia.com • • Decide Who Decides
• Define the Sandbox • Develop Standards
Develop Standards • Design the Surround
• One Process
• One Topic
• Balance Participation
• Engage Cognitive Conflict
• Understand and Agree on Roles
© Center for Adaptive Schools
• MiraVia, LLC www.miravia.com • 63 Meeting Standards
64 • MiraVia, LLC www.miravia.com • Four Possible Meeting Roles
• Engaged Participant
• Facilitator
• Recorder
• Person With Role or Knowledge Authority
© Center for Adaptive Schools
• MiraVia, LLC www.miravia.com • 65 Engaged Participant
• Uses seven norms of collaboration
• Monitors own and others' adherence to meeting standards
• Sets and tests working agreements
• Seeks and provides data
• Clarifies decision-making processes and levels of authority
• Opens the door for others to speak
• Tests consensus
• Listens to own listening
• Is conscious of own assumptions and knowledge and how these interfere with own listening
© Center for Adaptive Schools 66 • MiraVia, LLC www.miravia.com • Facilitator
• Remains neutral to content
• Clarifies role with group
• Focuses group energy
• Keeps group on task
• Directs processes
• Encourages everyone to participate
• Protects participants and ideas from attack
• Contributes to agenda planning
• Elicits clarity regarding meeting follow-up
© Center for Adaptive Schools • MiraVia, LLC www.miravia.com • 67 Recorder
• Remains neutral to content
• Supports facilitator
• Records basic ideas as the facilitator paraphrases them
• Keeps eyes on charts and not on group members
• Writes legibly using upper and lower case printing
• Uses alternating colors to separate ideas
• Uses icons and simple graphics
• Keeps all charts visible to support "group memory"
© Center for Adaptive Schools
68 • MiraVia, LLC www.miravia.com • Person With Role Authority
Before and After the Meeting
• Coordinates agenda design • Develops group-member leadership • Coordinates the activities of subcommittees • Sees that meeting follow-through occurs • Provides for evaluation
Person With Role or Knowledge Authority
During the Meeting
• Informs group about constraints and resources • Advocates for own ideas • Inquires about the ideas of others • Actively participates
© Center for Adaptive Schools • MiraVia, LLC www.miravia.com • 69 Meeting Inventory Decide Who Decides
• We were clear about who we are in the decision making process. 1 - 2 - 3 - 4 - 5
• We were clear about the decision making processes being used. 1 - 2 - 3 - 4 - 5
Define the Sandbox
• We were clear about which parts of the issue(s) we explored live in our sandbox. 1 - 2 - 3 - 4 - 5 Develop Standards
• We adhered to one process at a time. 1 - 2 - 3 - 4 - 5
• We adhered to one topic at a time. 1 - 2 - 3 - 4 - 5
• We balanced participation. 1 - 2 - 3 - 4 - 5
• The degree to which I felt listened to. 1 - 2 - 3 - 4 - 5
• The degree to which I listened to others. 1 - 2 - 3 - 4 - 5
• We engaged in productive cognitive conflict. 1 - 2 - 3 - 4 - 5
• We were clear about meeting roles . 1 - 2 - 3 - 4 - 5
Design the Surround
• We managed the environment to support our work. 1 - 2 - 3 - 4 - 5
______
Date Group
© Center for Adaptive Schools 70 • MiraVia, LLC www.miravia.com • COORDINATING COUNCIL Meeting Assessment Date______
My relationship to C. Council is: Time I arrived ______Centralized Services _____ Program Coordinator _____ Time I left ______Regional Coordinator _____ Council Member _____ Executive Council _____ Fiscal Committee _____ CDE _____ Other Visitor _____
As a Group High Low HigH 5 4 3 2 1 1. To what degree did our manner of working today reflect our norms of: • Demonstrating Mutual Respect: Respect people and ideas—such respect does not represent agreement. • Employing Skillful Listening: Seek first to understand, then to be understood. H • Using Sufficient Consensus: Each person has equal voice, the group works to understand all views, distinguish between dialogue and discussion and 75% agreement of those present constitutes consensus. 2. To what degree did our manner of working today reflect our principles of: • Making a commitment to collaboration and sharing of resources—work to coordinate the best solutions to common and differing needs across regions. • Maintaining a statewide perspective focused on student needs. • Focusing on making a difference in classrooms throughout the state. • The Council's actions shall be built upon respect, sharing, collaboration and communication. 3. To what degree were today’s decisions sound? 4. To what degree did today’s processes of dialogue, discussion and decision making support informed decision making? 5. To what degree did our manner of working today reflect our knowledge of new by- laws?
As an Individual
1. To what degree were you respected and listened to? 2. To what degree were you able to respect and listen to others? 3. To what degree were you able to suspend judgments, feelings, attitudes, biases, autobiographical listening, and self-talk when appropriate? 4. To what degree did you have opportunities to influence? 5. To what degree did you advocate your views?
Other comments that would support the Coordinating Council's goal of becoming increasingly effective at collaborating across differences.______
• MiraVia, LLC www.miravia.com • 71 Meeting Types and Functions
• Scheduled Staff Meetings for communication, coordination and managing work agendas
• Focused Discussions for planning, problem solving and decision making
• Creative Dialogue for sense making, collective reflection and innovation
• Formalized Meetings for reporting, approving, developing policy
• Public Forums for input, community building and communication
© Center for Adaptive Schools
72 • MiraVia, LLC www.miravia.com • Meeting Organizer: Seven Phases
Preparing
The facilitator: • Greets Opening • Describes role • Provides inclusion • Gets purpose, process, agenda stated
The facilitator: • Introduces topic Processing • States purpose • Describes process • Checks for understanding • Runs processes
The facilitator: • Structures summary Transitioning • Foreshadows next topic
The facilitator: • Clarifies commitments and communication Closing • Structures meeting assessment processes
Reflecting + Implementing
• MiraVia, LLC www.miravia.com • 73 Agenda Construction
Assuming a group is doing reasonably well at maintaining the five standards for successful meeting - one content at a time, one process at a time, balanced participation, engaged cognitive conflict and agreement on meeting roles - the primary remaining challenge is to construct agendas that are organized for effectiveness and are not too long. This is the major problem many groups encounter in scheduled staff meetings and focused discussions.
Principles for Agenda Design
1. State clear outcomes • for the meeting and for each agenda item • state these behaviorally - list what will be seen and heard as evidence of success.
2. Separate reports and minutia from action items • cluster reports and set a time limit for several - e.g., 5 reports, 15 minutes • have reporters prepared to communicate the bottom line
3. Maximize member participation • frequently engage subgroups - pairs, quartets, etc. in reflecting, generating ideas, responding to proposals, summarizing what occurred, etc.
4. Post public agendas • visual processes are more effective than auditory strategies for directing group attention and energy • show predicted times for each item, or clusters of, agenda items
5. Consider emotions with which people may begin the meeting • surface and address resistance, distress, confusion at the beginning of the meeting
6. Structure reflection time about meeting processes • use each meeting as an opportunity for a working group to learn from its experiences and improve
74 • MiraVia, LLC www.miravia.com • Principles for Designing the Surround
1. All participants and the facilitator should be able to see and hear each other.
2. The seating arrangements should enable members to focus on the flip chart (or other writing devices) and the facilitator.
4. Seating arrangements should distinguish participants from non-participants.
5. Seating arrangements should accommodate movement, sub-grouping with different partners and personal ownership of the entire room in contrast with identifying with a single chair or table.
6. Memory displays and public recording should support sound thinking about meeting content and processes.
© Center for Adaptive Schools • MiraVia, LLC www.miravia.com • 75 • Decide Who Decides
• Define the Sandbox • Develop Design the Surround Standards • Design the Surround
In his book, Smart Schools (1992), David Perkins describes "the surround" as the features around learners which by their very presence mediate thinking and behavior. Psychological, emotional, cognitive and physical elements contribute to the surround. Meeting designers and group developers give careful consideration to the following elements:
• Physical space and room arrangement. Specific tasks require conscious room arrangement and materials provisioning. The room arrangement both communicates and structures the desired interaction.
• Task, norms and standards charts. As reminders of task focus and working agreements, high-performing groups position charts stating outcomes for their tasks and charts reminding participants of collaborative norms, meeting standards and group-member capabilities.
• Charting materials. Group memory and graphic processes support learning and retention. Charting materials such as markers, tape, pads and easels need to be readily available. Wall space also needs to be considered. Blank walls without other art work are best for meeting rooms. This lets each group craft the space to its own needs.
• Emotional space. People do not come to meetings as blank slates. They carry unfinished business from other aspects of their day and from previous meetings. Inclusion activities such as a grounding support people in becoming fully present both physically and emotionally. Group-member consciousness about the emotional surround is also enhanced through processing questions that address both thoughts and feelings.
© Center for Adaptive Schools 76 • MiraVia, LLC www.miravia.com • Facilitators
pursue
Three Universal Goals
Task Process Group Development
which have
Measurable Outcomes
Cognitive Affective Product
which require the management of
Energy Information Action
which are achieved through the application of
Strategies & Moves Maps Interventions
resulting in
Goal Achievement © Center for Adaptive Schools • MiraVia, LLC www.miravia.com • 77 Facilitator Self-Reflection
1. Who am I? About what do I care? Who much do I dare?
2. Who is my client? The contact client -- an intermediate client -- a primary client -- an ultimate client? (See Sourcebook pp 99-100 & 281-284)
3. What are my outcomes in this setting?
4. How is my expertise simultaneously an asset and a liability?
5. How can I distinguish between being right and being effective?
6. What lenses do I wear?
7. What types of capacities do I need to develop for this assignment?
© Center for Adaptive Schools
78 • MiraVia, LLC www.miravia.com • A List of Facilitator Responsibilities
Because facilitators are non-directive regarding meeting content, some misconstrue this to mean that the role is a passive one. Nothing could be farther than the truth. The facilitator is the group’s instrument for sound process choices leading to full expression and understanding of relevant ideas and information, access to the diversity of group resources, sound decision making and problem solving efforts and group ownership for what the group produces. During the meeting, the facilitator is responsible to the group, not individuals within the group.
To perform these responsibilities the facilitator must be assertive where group dynamics and processes are concerned. To this end a facilitator may:
1. inform participants how agenda items will be handled 2. assure participant understanding of topics and processes 3. decide which discussion tools to use 4. identify who will speak in what order 5. call on silent people 6. ask vocally dominant people to limit their contributions 7. ask people to rephrase negative comments 8. paraphrase to shift the conceptual level of the conversation 9. call for breaks 10. resequence agenda items 11. push for closure 12. insist on details being stated 13. interrupt and redirect individuals 14. stop the group to focus attention on process 15. ask penetrating questions 16. challenge assumptions 17. modify meeting design during the course of the meeting 18. teach the group process tools 19. protect the facilitator’s personal energy
© Center for Adaptive Schools
• MiraVia, LLC www.miravia.com • 79 The Focusing Four
• Brainstorm
and then
• Clarify
and then
• Advocate
and now
• Canvass
for a sense of the group's preferences
© Center for Adaptive Schools
80 • MiraVia, LLC www.miravia.com • Suggestions for Conducting a Focusing Four Consensus Activity
1. Explain each of the four steps before starting the activity 2. Check for participant understanding 3. Explain that the hand count or “vote” at the canvass stage will not make the decision regarding which services to recommend. The group will decide and be guided, not bound, by the data 4. Begin the process
Brainstorm:
• Record brainstormed ideas on chart paper • Elicit ideas only • Discourage criticisms or questions • Push for between 8-18 ideas
Clarify:
• Ask if any items need to be clarified • The author provides the clarification • Facilitator observes the questioner during clarification and stops the clarification when ques- tioner indicates nonverbally or otherwise that he/she understands
Advocate:
• Participants may advocate for as many items as they wish and as many times as they wish • Statements of advocacy must be phrased in the positive • Statements of advocacy must be brief
Canvass:
• Ask individuals in the group to identify which few of the ideas they feel are most important • To determine what a few is, use the formula: one-third plus one (If there are 12 items on the list, ask the group to identify 5 which are most important to them; if there are 15 items on the list, ask the group to identify 6.) They do not need to be placed in rank order • Take a hand count to determine which items are of greatest interest to the group
© Center for Adaptive Schools
• MiraVia, LLC www.miravia.com • 81 Soft Consensus One Possible Sequence of Facilitative Behaviors
General Approach Specific Things You Can Say or Do
Get agreement on outcomes and "Do you all want to try to agree on the color to paint the staff room?" decision making levels of authority "It's your agreement. I can help you reach consensus if you want consensus." (Agreement #1)
"If you can't reach consensus after 30 minutes, is it OK for Jane to make the decision based on what she has heard here?" (Agreement #2)
"Jane, are there any boundaries the group neesd to consider?" (Jane may say... yes--the color needs to be in the district's approval list.)
Establish ground rules/define roles "As your facilitator, my role is to..." "Do you want hard or soft facilitation?" Brainstorm and chart criteria "Is it OK for me to faciliate?" (Agreement #3)
"What criteria do you want to guide your selection of colors?"
Get ownership of brainstormed list "Is this list of criteria complete? ..."
"Do you want to add any more... OK ... Now is it complete?" (Agreement #4)
Get agreement on content "Does everybody know enough about each of these criteria? ... OK. Could someone take 30 seconds to describe that criteria to her? ..."
"Anybody need more information on any criteria (Agreement #5)
Brainstorm colors "What colors might fit these criteria?"
Eliminate choices "Are there any colors here anyone can't live with ?... OK. Help others understand why."
"Is it OK to remove this from the list?" (Agreement #6)
Suggest a decision process "Which colors most closely match the criteria and preferences of group members?"
"Let's see if one will emerge that everyone can live with."
Use public recording "OK, it seems that everyone can live with the color ____. Is that the one you want Jane to arrange for?"
OR
"OK, it seems that two colors are satisfactory to everyone. Can Jane make the decision for you?" (Agreement #7) Developed by Jane Ellison and Carolee Hayes
82 • MiraVia, LLC www.miravia.com • SYNECTICS—FOUR BOX
GROUP DEVELOPMENT SYNECTICS SUPPORTS novice groups by engaging members with each other and with tough-to-talk-about topics. The four-box organizer provides a focus, or Organizing and third point, for reference and idea generation. For skillful groups, this strategy Activating sustains and expands thinking by opening frames of reference and inviting Integrating and Engaging divergent perspectives.
Exploring ATTENTION TO TASK: and Discovering This strategy focuses group attention on the topic under consideration, as well as efficiently surfacing underlying issues, attitudes and understandings.
ATTENTION TO PROCESS: The brainstorming process supports creative idea development. Brainstorming requires two critical protocols: Accepting all offerings without judgment, and separating idea generation from elaboration and clarification. Productive groups increase their flexibility by developing a repertoire of metaphorical thinking tools such as Four Box Synectics.
ATTENTION TO RELATIONSHIP: The open-ended quality of this strategy reduces right/wrong dynamics, inviting participation by all members. Opportunities to hear everyone’s ideas develop an appreciation for the mind styles of others. Experiences such as this increase respect for multiple points of view and the power of productive humor to diffuse potential tensions.
MOVING ALONG THE DEVELOPMENTAL CONTINUUM
AS THE GROUP DEVELOPS, YOU MIGHT EXPECT TO SEE/HEAR: • increasing solicitation of ideas from quieter members • increasing listening and piggybacking on previous comments • strategic use of creative thinking skills when groups get stuck
FOUR BOX SYNECTICS
coffee toast
orange juice bacon
Teaching is like a(n)______c_o_f_fe_e______because . . . • MiraVia, LLC www.miravia.com • 83 SYNECTICS—FOUR BOX
OUR BOX SYNECTICS promotes metaphorical and creative thinking. This strategy applies a four-frame organizer that supports participants in quickly generating novel ideas about topics that they are about to Fexplore. Industrial psychologists, William Gordon and George Prince coined the term Synectics by joining two Greek roots: syn—bringing together and ectics—diverse elements. They use the term to mean ‘a metaphorical problem solving process’ in order to ‘make the familiar strange’ or ‘make the strange familiar’.
MANAGING: TIME: • Reproduce a copy of the Four-Box Synectics recording form for each table 15–20 minutes group. • Organize table groups of 4–6 participants. GROUPING: • Select a concept or topic as the focus of comparison. 4–6 participants per task group
MATERIALS: INSTRUCTIONS TO FACILITATOR 1 Four-Box Synectics Recording 1. Determine a recorder: Some options include: numbering-off using random selection, group Page for each table group designee, participant volunteer, or facilitator’s choice. 2. As a large group generate common labels within a category for each of the four boxes and record these on the overhead transparency master: Some options include: favorite foods, regional food specialties, regional tourist attractions or local experiences, sports or recreational activities, common household objects, or international landmarks. 3. Model an example based on one of the labels in one of the quadrants. The goal is to generate 3–4 comparisons in each of the four cells. 4. After three minutes of brainstorming, ask the group to pause. Offer another minute for each task group to choose a greatest hit from each cell to share with the full group. 5. After another minute, refocus the group for sharing.
MODELING: Select one of the labels in one of the quadrants and offer an example of a synectical connection. “ _____ is like ____ because . . .”
MONITORING: Pay attention while task groups are sharing out their greatest hits. The nature of the synectic comparisons, as well as the group responses to them, offer useful information about the emotional state of the group and the relationships between and among participants.
MEDIATING: Inserting a structured brainstorming activity prior to the synectics process scaffolds metaphorical thinking. Have task groups brainstorm lists of parts, materials, properties, functions and processes associated with the object or activity label in each quadrant. Using their lists, each table group makes associations between the objects and activities and the detailed lists of parts, materials, properties, functions and processes. Generating these elements enhances group members’ capacities to produce creative connections. Note: It is often useful to briefly review brainstorming protocols prior to beginning the process.
VARIATIONS/APPLICATIONS • Make it a Visual Synectics by providing an image for comparison, rather than items or categories. Give small groups a small selection of picture cards to choose from, or display one image on the overhead projector for work groups to process. Then follow steps 4–5 above. • Try this process using compare and contrast: [This object or activity] is like; as well as is not like [the topic] because . . . • Use Four-Box Synectics at the end of a work session to organize and integrate information and concepts.
84 • MiraVia, LLC www.miravia.com • SAY SOMETHING
GROUP DEVELOPMENT FOR NOVICE GROUPS, partnered structures provide a psychologically safe way to build relationship and focus on potentially difficult-to-discuss topics. For more Organizing and skillful groups, pairs can accelerate shared understanding. Combining partners Integrating Activating creates a foundation for larger group configurations ready to tackle cognitively and and Engaging emotionally complex tasks.
Exploring ATTENTION TO TASK: and This strategy focuses group members on information relevant to the task at hand. It is Discovering effective in providing a starting point for more extended conversations.
ATTENTION TO PROCESS: As with all partnered work, this strategy balances participation and provides a time- effective method for exploring information. The small group and brief time frame makes this strategy useful for considering emotionally charged topics.
ATTENTION TO RELATIONSHIP: The structured exchange facilitates sharing of ideas, perspectives, and understanding. Often, a highlight or important point for one partner illuminates new ways of thinking for the other and vice versa.
MOVING ALONG THE DEVELOPMENTAL CONTINUUM
AS THE GROUP DEVELOPS, YOU MIGHT EXPECT TO SEE/HEAR: • succinct presentation of ideas in a brief amount of time • increasing focus on the task • partners purposeful elaboration on each other’s ideas • shifting from task completion to broadening understanding as the goal
Notes
• MiraVia, LLC www.miravia.com • 85 SAY SOMETHING AY SOMETHING is a paired reading strategy developed by Egawa and Harste (2001) for constructing meaning from text-based information. Through structured exchanges, group members develop relationships Sbetween new information and what they already know or believe. This thinking out loud, supported by attentive listening, enhances individual and shared understandings.
MANAGING: • Identify an appropriate piece of text or other focusing material. Prepare a copy TIME: for each group member. Varies depending on the reading. • Establish partners. Generally 15–20 minutes. GROUPING: Pairs INSTRUCTIONS TO FACILITATOR
1. Identify the text and the stopping points, or have partners look over a piece of text and MATERIALS: decide together how far they will read silently before stopping to say something. A reading selection for each 2. Describe the nature of the interactions, explaining that the something might be a question, participant. An overhead a brief summary, a key point, an interesting idea or a new connection. transparency timer. 3. Once each partner has reached the chosen stopping point, both partners exchange comments, or say something. 4. Partners continue the process until the selection is completed. 5. After a designated amount of time, engage the whole group in a discussion of the text.
MODELING: When giving the directions, provide one or two examples of appropriate say somethings. These should be succinct, thoughtful and related the text.
MONITORING: The time frame for this strategy is intentionally brief. It is effective to post a public timer displaying the full time allotment, so partners can determine how long to converse, and how quickly to move on to the next reading.
MEDIATING: To focus the paired interactions, or to stimulate a specific type of thinking, the facilitator may want to provide a say something stem for completion. For example, “one connection to my work is . . .”, or “a question that comes to mind when I read this is . . .” Use the same stem, or provide variation for each stopping point.
VARIATIONS/APPLICATIONS • Say Something can be focused around a variety of products, such as student work samples, homework assignments, or data sets. • Use trios, rather than pairs, for more perspectives, or if the group has an uneven number. • Key Concepts/Key Ideas is a variant of Say Something. It works in a similar pattern, but participants read the entire selection first (rather than designated sections) highlighting points of interest. Then, partners alternate turns sharing their comments and responding.
86 • MiraVia, LLC www.miravia.com • FIRST TURN/LAST TURN
GROUP DEVELOPMENT THE FIRST TURN/LAST TURN strategy supports novice groups in developing norms of dialogue and experiencing the essence of collaborative inquiry. It is also Organizing useful for more experienced groups when they are dealing with emotionally and Integrating Activating charged or technically complex information. The restriction of cross talk honors and the contribution of each group member to the whole that is emerging. Engaging Exploring ATTENTION TO TASK: and This strategy supports groups by presenting and investigating information in a non- Discovering threatening manner. The structure minimizes off-task comments and nonessential elaboration.
ATTENTION TO PROCESS: Collaborative inquiry requires attentive listening and respect for the ideas of others. This strategy structures an environment for listening and being listened to. The round-robin pattern slows the pace of response, providing individuals with time for reflection and a protected space within which to offer comments.
ATTENTION TO RELATIONSHIP: Listening to others without commenting is not a well-established habit in most groups. Within the First Turn/Last Turn process, some group members, especially those with high relationship needs or passionate opinions about the content will be challenged by the constraints of this process. Anticipate this tension and proactively acknowledge and highlight it during the task directions and process modeling demonstration.
MOVING ALONG THE DEVELOPMENTAL CONTINUUM
AS THE GROUP DEVELOPS, YOU MIGHT EXPECT TO SEE/HEAR: • increasing comfort with silence and longer pauses between speakers • increasingly substantive responses to the content and to previous comments • paraphrasing of previous comments prior to adding thoughts • comments about the comments as individuals become more comfortable being metacognitive about emerging ideas and patterns of thought • increasing comfort by group members in sharing controversial observations or opinions
Notes
• MiraVia, LLC www.miravia.com • 87 IRST TURN/LAST TURN is a structured process for engaging in dialogue and collaborative inquiry. It develops an appreciation for the power of listening and the personal and shared learning possibilities in Fexploring diverse perspectives. This strategy provides a clear protocol that is especially helpful for newly forming groups and for any groups working with controversial topics or technically complex information.
MANAGING: • Select relevant information (e.g. text, data sets, student work samples). • Organize table groups of 6–8 participants representing a variety of roles and perspectives. • Distribute materials to participants. TIME Approximately 30–45 minutes
INSTRUCTIONS TO FACILITATOR GROUPING 1. Have task group members individually read/examine the selected material, highlighting 2– 6–8 participants per task group 3 items. Items could be points of agreement, points of disagreement, provocative statements, interesting facts, or curiosities. MATERIALS Transparency of task directions 2. Describe and model the round-robin process. Emphasize the restriction of cross talk. A copy of selected materials for 3. Determine the first speaker. Some options include: numbering-off and randomly selecting a each group member starting number, group designates, participant volunteers or facilitator’s choice. Highlight pens
Facilitator Tip: It is often useful to designate the starting speaker. These individuals set the tone (integrity of process, quality of response) for the remainder of the group. Their positive modeling increases the likelihood of honoring the process.
Consider who will go first (naming a point of interest) and who will go second, (commenting on the designated passage). It is generally not desirable to establish a response pattern in which an individual with role authority is the initial or second speaker. In many cases this pattern inhibits the responses of other group members.
4. Run the process for a designated time period. The complexity of text materials, experience of group members, familiarity with the structure and/or topic and length of time of the meeting are all variables in determining time allotment. Be sure to inform the group that not everyone will necessarily have a chance to initiate a comment. 5. Reconvene the full group for process/content reflections.
MODELING: Physically demonstrate the round-robin process with one task group, standing behind each group member to simulate the pattern of participation. Clearly designate the starting person for the groups.
MONITORING: Scan groups for consistent application of the round-robin process. Look for one person speaking at a time with no cross- conversations.
MEDIATING: Intervene with groups if you hear cross talk or conversation that violates the round-robin pattern. If a task group is not correctly implementing the process, gently share your observation of its behavior. Inquire about where they are in the process, or what might be causing tension or difficulty.
VARIATIONS/APPLICATIONS • You can use the First Turn/Last Turn to explore a variety of information sources, including: – research selections or syntheses – articles from journals or newspapers – student work samples – data sets (graphs, tables, aggregated survey results, etc) • As an option to verbally sharing ideas about the content, groups can use the Matchbook Definitions tool to capture their thinking. 88 • MiraVia, LLC www.miravia.com • ROUND THE ROOM AND BACK AGAIN
GROUP DEVELOPMENT THIS STRATEGY builds interdependence, enables access to the rich resource of colleagues and increases confidence for each group member by providing Organizing and information pertinent to the topic under study. For novice groups, having a shared Integrating Activating knowledge base provides a foundation for working together. and Engaging ATTENTION TO TASK: Exploring The efficiency of producing and pooling an information bank facilitates task completion. and This strategy surfaces participants’ experiences and frames of reference regarding the Discovering topic under consideration.
ATTENTION TO PROCESS: Participation in this strategy provides a safe risk for many individuals, providing everyone with a baseline of shared information.
ATTENTION TO RELATIONSHIP: Relationships are built and reinforced when individual’s ideas are validated and extended through interaction with colleagues.
MOVING ALONG THE DEVELOPMENTAL CONTINUUM
AS THE GROUP DEVELOPS, YOU MIGHT EXPECT TO SEE/HEAR: • increasing efficiency in moving around the room to interact with group members • increasing confidence in sharing, seeking and retaining ideas
Notes
• MiraVia, LLC www.miravia.com • 89 ROUND THE ROOM AND BACK AGAIN
OUND THE ROOM AND BACK AGAIN engages group member’s previous knowledge and experience, as well as their energy. This simple strategy is effective for transitions between topics or when introducing a R new one. Consider using this strategy instead of a formal break. It provides a physical stretch when time is tight and you need to move the agenda forward.
MANAGING: • Organize tables groups of 3–6 participants. TIME: • Each participant will need note paper. 15 minutes (about 3 minutes for initial auditory collection) GROUPING: INSTRUCTIONS TO FACILITATOR: 3–6 participants per task group 1. Have each participant take out a sheet of paper and write one example of the topic the group is MATERIALS: about to explore. (e.g., name one source of data that you use beyond norm-referenced test Note paper scores.) 2. Individuals then set aside their writing materials and on the facilitator’s direction move around the room sharing their examples and listening to the examples of others. The challenge is to rely only on auditory memory. 3. Time is called after about two minutes, or as people’s memory banks fill up (seven items, plus or minus two). Individuals then return to their seats and write down as many examples as they can recall. 4. Table groups then pool their examples and extend their lists.
MODELING: Give a clear example of an item that would be appropriate for this strategy. The items should be short, succinct and easy to remember. For example, various data sources, qualities of an effective literacy program, criteria for assigning grades, or effective resources for hands-on science instruction.
MONITORING: Timing is sensitive in this strategy. You want to provide enough time for gathering multiple items, but not so much that people become overloaded. You might inquire randomly to determine how many items individuals have collected. Five to seven is about right.
MEDIATING: Be clear that the focus is on idea generation, not elaboration. The goal is to develop an extensive, shared list of information, examples, or ideas related to a topic.
VARIATIONS/APPLICATIONS • Have table groups extend their pooled information bank. • Have table groups compare/contrast their lists to an expert source, such as a hand-out or previously prepared list. • Have table groups categorize their information banks. • Collect examples from each table to create a full group master list.
90 • MiraVia, LLC www.miravia.com • Futures Wheel
The futures wheel is a graphic tool for forecasting ripple effects resulting from an innovation or from a disaster. It is based on the notion that any event has both positive and negative ripple effects. The aftermath of a natural disaster is an excellent case in point. The physical destruction creates many ongoing negative effects on the environment and on peoples' lives. Often though, building codes are reexamined and rewritten based on what scientists and engineers learn by examining the wreckage.
To apply this tool to a task, innovation, or project, share the following graphic organizer.
1. Write the name of the event or innovation in the center of the wheel.
2. Work outward to the first layer of circles. Notice that there are two negatives and two positives. Take care to have the negatives and the positives be as diverse as possible from one another.
3. Now proceed to the second layer. Notice that each negative and each positive leads to its own negative and postive ripple effect.
4. Move outward to the third layer in a similar manner. Participants are often surprised at the possible positive and negative effects at the third layer.
5. Depending on the topic, group members can now explore possible changes in policy, or brainstorm options that might thrive in the new environment.
6. The Futures Wheel is an excellent launching point for study groups or task forces.
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92 • MiraVia, LLC www.miravia.com • Outcome Mapping
What follows are several ways of envisioning the mental processes of outcome mapping. In each case the sequence of thinking is important. The desired state (outcomes and behaviors) must be defined before identifying necessary internal resources. These must be defined before any solution strategies are explored. Select language forms that most effectively communicate to you and those you work with the strategic thinking of outcome mapping. Ultimately you will arrive at six major statements they are ...
1. The problem is ...
2. The outcome is ...
3. The desired behaviors are ...
4. The internal resources required to achieve the desired behaviors are ...
5. The intervention strategies (behaviors) intended to develop and/or access the internal resources are ...
6. The interventionist's internal resources needed in order to perform the intervention strategies are ...
Two Tips
1. After listing behaviors in step 3 above, select a few to start with. Selection criteria might include a.) Those most likely to be easily and successfully achieved, and b.) Those which might have the greatest domino affect on other desired behaviors.
2. Test behaviors in steps 3 and 6 against the following criteria: a.) Stated in the positive; b.) Outcome is achievable, c.) It's ecological: It's safe for a person's values, belief system. If achieved, the person will not be hurt or damaged (emotionally, professionally, etc.). Congruent with the person; d.) Observable in sensory experience. Can tell if it has occurred; and e.) Preserves the positive by-product of the existing state.
• MiraVia, LLC www.miravia.com • 93 Desired State Planning A Way of Planning for What Might Be Rather than for What Is
• Develop an Ideal State or Outcome - Given the issue or concern, what would be the ideal state or outcome that we would want to achieve? The ideal outcome describes what we want to see, hear or feel taking place. Ideal outcomes are usually broad, global statements that describe a desired ideal state that we want to shoot for.
Process - Depending upon the size of the group, individuals, partners or trios list possibilities. - The group reviews the possibilities and selects commonalities - The group formulates an acceptable statement that describes the ideal
• Identify the desired behaviors that when performed will enable individuals in the group to move toward achieving the ideal state - What behaviors could we perform within the next 6 to 12 months that would tell us that we are moving towards achieving our ideal state? These behaviors are: - achievable - congruent with our values, situation and the desired state - observable: we will know when and how they are being performed
Process - List possibilities - Select our best bets using the criteria of achievable, congruency, and observable.
• Identify the inner resources we will need to perform the desired behaviors - What inner resources will we need to enhance or develop in order to enable us to perform these behaviors? What attitudes, knowledge, and/or skills will we need to have and be able to demon- strate
Process - List possibilities - Select the most promising
• Identify strategies, activities or tactics that are most likely to produce the inner resources - What strategies, activities or tactics are most likely to assist us in enhancing or developing these inner resources?
Process - List possibilities - Select the most feasible - those that are most likely to develop the inner resources
• Develop an Action Plan to develop the inner resources: Process - Use Position Paper planning or Translation planning
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98 • MiraVia, LLC www.miravia.com • Circle Map with Frame of Reference
The Circle Map is a simple yet powerful graphic organizer that helps groups focus their thinking and make connections between ideas. Its purpose is to help learners put things in context. Adding a frame of reference makes conscious a group's perspective and increases understanding of its own and others' points of view. Structure groups of 4-6 members, who will work with markers and chart paper. The chart paper recording builds in focus and shared ownership among group members. Directions: 1. On a piece of chart paper, each group draws a large circle with a smaller circle in the center; leaving the outside corners free for later use. 2. The small circle holds the topic: a word, symbol, or picture that represents or labels the issue, concept or idea being addressed. 3. In the outside circle group members fill-in words and phrases they associate with the topic. This step surfaces experiences, perspectives and current thinking about the topic. 4. After four to five minutes, stop and direct group members to review their items and, in the upper right hand corners of their chart paper, generate categories that organize the ideas contained in the large circle.
Focusing Frame of Reference 1. Support the group in consciously surfacing the frame of reference that they are bringing to the topic. Some focus questions include: • What prior knowledge/ experience influences your view? • What are some cultural and personal influences on your perspective? • How do your present roles (teacher, parent, union official, administrator), influence your point of view? • What information would not be here if you were not involved in these roles? VARIATIONS: Circle Map: • Have each group swap papers with a neighboring group and categorize the items in the circle • Give groups an opportunity to walk about and view their colleagues' circle maps, TOPIC then return to their own work to extend and refine. Frame of Reference: • Ask the small groups to impose a specific frame of reference on their work - - ask: what items would be added if you were (fill-in perspective)?
W hat we have in our heads is a theory of what the world is like, a theory that is the basis of all our perceptions and understanding of the world, the root of all learning, the source of all hopes and fears, motives and expectancies, reasoning and creativity. . . . If we make sense of the world at all, it is by interpreting our interactions with the world inlight of our theory, the theory is our shield against bewilderment. Frank Smith
Adapted from: Hyerle, David, (1990) Designs for Thinking Connectively, Innovative Sciences, Inc, Cary, NC.
• MiraVia, LLC www.miravia.com • 99 100 • MiraVia, LLC www.miravia.com • Force Field Analysis
All planning processes and problem solving activities require identifying and balancing the competing forces that support or impede successful implementation and problem resolution. The force field analysis tool graphically organizes this information and encourages searching for the elements and energies that might be involved in a situation.
1. Sketch a “fishbone” diagram on chart paper.
2. Generate examples of the “forces” that support problem resolution. These should include the reasons for the desired outcome and resources that support problem resolution.
3. Then, generate examples of the “forces” that might inhibit problem resolution. These should include major push backs in the environment and missing resources that might get in the way of problem resolution.
4. Identify which of the “forces for” and “forces against” might be the strongest factors that planners and implementers will have to address.
5. Craft plans or revisit current plans in light of these forces.
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102 • MiraVia, LLC www.miravia.com • Reflections
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• MiraVia, LLC www.miravia.com • 103 Walk-About Review
NAME NAME NAME
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104 • MiraVia, LLC www.miravia.com • Resources
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• MiraVia, LLC www.miravia.com • 107 Resources Joyce, B. (Ed.) (1990). Changing School Culture Through Staff Development in The 1990 Yearbook of the Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.
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110 • MiraVia, LLC www.miravia.com • Wildlife Partners
Make an appointment with 4 different people—one for each slot. Be sure you each record the appointment on your page. Only make the appointment if there is an open slot at that spot on each of your forms.
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