DRAFT Government of Nepal Ministry of Physical Planning and Works Department of Roads

Public Disclosure Authorized ROAD SECTOR DEVELOPMENT PROJECT (New Project Preparation and Supervision Services) (IDA GRANT NO: H339 – NEP)

Socio-economic Baseline Study

Public Disclosure Authorized

Public Disclosure Authorized

MMM Group Ltd. (Canada) in JV with SAI Consulting Engineers (P) Ltd. (India) in association with

Public Disclosure Authorized ITECO Nepal (P) Ltd. (Nepal) & Total Management Services (Nepal)

September 2010

Social Assessment August 2010

TABLE OF CONTENTS

1. SOCIAL ECONOMIC BASELINE OF ROAD SECTOR DEVELOPMENT PROJECT (RSDP) ...... 1-1 1.1 Background ...... 1-1 1.2 Road Lengths and Design Standards from the TOR ...... 1-2 1.3 Objectives ...... 1-2 1.3.1 General objective: ...... 1-2 1.3.2 Specific objectives: ...... 1-3 1.3.3 Scope of Work ...... 1-3 1.4 Methodology ...... 1-4 1.4.1 Reconnaissance survey: ...... 1-4 1.4.2 Sampling ...... 1-4 1.4.3 Sampling Strategy for the Survey ...... 1-5 1.4.4 Selection of Enumeration Areas (Cluster Sampling) ...... 1-5 1.4.5 Sampling Size and categorization of the respondents ...... 1-5 1.4.6 Sample of control zone: ...... 1-5 1.5 Census survey: ...... 1-5 1.6 Group interview and Focus Group Discussion ...... 1-5 1.6.1 Public Consultation ...... 1-5 1.6.2 Observation ...... 1-6 1.7 The Road Projects ...... 1-6 1.8 Socio-demographic characteristics of the project districts ...... 1-6 1.8.1 Religious Composition of the population in the Project districts ...... 1-7 1.8.2 Poverty Profiles of the Project Districts ...... 1-7 1.8.3 Income sources of the project districts ...... 1-9 1.8.4 Demographic features of the sampled households ...... 1-10 1.8.5 Ethnic Composition in the project areas...... 1-10 1.8.6 Literacy status of the households ...... 1-11 1.8.7 Occupation of the project area people ...... 1-11 1.8.8 Land holding size in the project area: ...... 1-12 1.8.9 Land Use and Agriculture ...... 1-12 1.8.10 Landownership Status ...... 1-13 1.8.11 Owner Cultivators in all Road Sections ...... 1-13 1.8.12 Tenancy status ...... 1-13 1.8.13 Cropping pattern in the project areas ...... 1-14

2. SOCIAL ECONOMIC BASELINE OF GOKULESHWOR- THAKTHOLI ..... 2-1 2.1 Socio-economic Analysis ...... 2-1 2.1.1 Introduction ...... 2-1 2.1.2 Age and sex of the sampled household heads: ...... 2-1 2.1.3 Ethnic composition ...... 2-1 2.1.4 Marital status of the respondents ...... 2-2 2.1.5 Literacy status of the Respondents: ...... 2-2 2.1.6 Occupation of the sampled household heads ...... 2-3 2.2 Economy ...... 2-3 2.2.1 Occupation of the family members ...... 2-3 2.2.2 Land use and agriculture ...... 2-4 2.2.3 Average land holding size in the project areas ...... 2-4 2.2.4 Income and poverty status of the area ...... 2-5 2.2.5 Expenditure Pattern...... 2-6 2.2.6 Food sufficiency status ...... 2-7

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2.2.7 Food management ...... 2-8 2.3 Migration ...... 2-8 2.3.1 Internal migration pattern of the households ...... 2-8 2.3.2 Reasons for migration ...... 2-8 2.3.3 Out migration ...... 2-9 2.3.4 Reasons and duration of out migration: ...... 2-10 2.4 Access to Social Services ...... 2-10 2.4.1 Education ...... 2-10 2.4.2 Health ...... 2-11 2.4.3 Market centers ...... 2-12 2.4.4 District headquarters ...... 2-12 2.5 Gender Issues ...... 2-12 2.5.1 Property right Status of Women ...... 2-13 2.6 Child labor ...... 2-13 2.7 Vulnerable Communities ...... 2-14 2.8 General attitude towards the road project and acceptance of the people ..... 2-15 2.8.1 Reasons of acceptance ...... 2-15 2.8.2 Assumed Negative Impacts of the road project: ...... 2-16

3. SOCIAL ECONOMIC BASELINE OF THAKTHOLI-DARCHULA ...... 3-1 3.1 Socio-economic Analysis ...... 3-1 3.1.1 Introduction: ...... 3-1 3.1.2 Age and sex of the sampled household heads: ...... 3-1 3.1.3 Ethnic Composition: ...... 3-1 3.1.4 Marital status of the respondents ...... 3-2 3.1.5 Literacy status of the Respondents: ...... 3-3 3.1.6 Occupation of the sampled household heads ...... 3-3 3.2 Economy ...... 3-3 3.2.1 Occupation of the family members ...... 3-3 3.2.2 Land use and agriculture ...... 3-4 3.2.3 Average land holding size in the project areas: ...... 3-4 3.2.4 Income and poverty status of the area ...... 3-5 3.2.5 Expenditure Range...... 3-6 3.2.6 Food sufficiency status: ...... 3-7 3.2.7 Food management during deficit months ...... 3-8 3.3 Migration ...... 3-8 3.3.1 Internal migration pattern of the households ...... 3-8 3.3.2 Reasons for migration ...... 3-9 3.3.3 Out migration ...... 3-9 3.3.4 Reasons and duration of out migration ...... 3-10 3.4 Access to Social Services ...... 3-10 3.4.1 Education ...... 3-11 3.4.2 Health ...... 3-11 3.4.3 Market centers ...... 3-12 3.4.4 District headquarters ...... 3-12 3.5 Gender Issues ...... 3-13 3.5.1 Introduction ...... 3-13 3.5.2 Property right Status of Women ...... 3-13 3.6 Child labor ...... 3-14 3.7 Vulnerable Communities ...... 3-15 3.8 General attitude towards the road project and acceptance of the people ..... 3-15 3.8.1 Reasons of acceptance: ...... 3-16 Road Sector Development Project, (IDA Grant No: H339-NEP) New Project Preparation & Supervision Page ii

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3.8.2 Assumed Negative Impacts of the road project: ...... 3-16

4. SOCIAL ECONOMIC BASELINE OF KALANGAGAD- CHAINPUR ...... 4-1 4.1 Socio-economic Analysis ...... 4-1 4.1.1 Introduction ...... 4-1 4.1.2 Age and sex of the sampled household heads ...... 4-1 4.1.3 Ethnic Composition ...... 4-2 4.1.4 Demographic features of the Sampled Households: ...... 4-2 4.1.5 Marital status of the respondents ...... 4-3 4.1.6 Literacy status of the Respondents: ...... 4-3 4.1.7 Occupation of the sampled household heads: ...... 4-3 4.2 Economy ...... 4-4 4.2.1 Occupation of the family members ...... 4-4 4.2.2 Land use and agriculture ...... 4-4 4.2.3 Average land holding size in the project areas: ...... 4-5 4.2.4 Income and poverty status of the area: ...... 4-5 4.2.5 Expenditure pattern ...... 4-7 4.2.6 Food sufficiency status ...... 4-8 4.2.7 Food management during deficit months ...... 4-8 4.3 Migration ...... 4-9 4.3.1 Internal migration pattern of the households...... 4-9 4.3.2 Reasons for migration ...... 4-9 4.3.3 Out migration ...... 4-9 4.3.4 Reasons and duration of out migration: ...... 4-10 4.4 Access to Social Services ...... 4-10 4.4.1 Education ...... 4-11 4.4.2 Health ...... 4-11 4.4.3 Market centers: ...... 4-12 4.4.4 District headquarters ...... 4-12 4.5 Gender Issues ...... 4-13 4.5.1 Property right Status of Women ...... 4-13 4.6 Child labor ...... 4-14 4.7 Vulnerable Communities ...... 4-15 4.8 General attitude towards the road project and acceptance of the people ..... 4-15 4.8.1 Reasons of acceptance: ...... 4-16 4.8.2 Assumed Negative Impacts of the road project: ...... 4-16

5. SOCIAL ASSESSMENT OF SITALPATI-MUSIKOT ..... ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED. 5.1 Socio-economic Analysis ...... Error! Bookmark not defined. 5.1.1 Introduction ...... Error! Bookmark not defined.

6. SOCIAL ASSESSMENT OF CHHINCHHU-JAJARKOT ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED. 6.1 Socio-economic Analysis ...... Error! Bookmark not defined. 6.1.1 Introduction ...... Error! Bookmark not defined.

7. SOCIAL ASSESSMENT OF KHIDKIJYULA-MANMA .. ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED. 7.1 Socio-economic Analysis ...... Error! Bookmark not defined. 7.1.1 Introduction ...... Error! Bookmark not defined.

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8. SOCIAL ASSESSMENT OF MANMA- JUMLA ..... ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED. 8.1 Socio-economic Analysis ...... Error! Bookmark not defined. 8.1.1 Introduction ...... Error! Bookmark not defined.

9. SOCIAL ASSESSMENT OF NARAYANGHAT-MUNGLING ...... ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED. 9.1 Socio-economic Analysis ...... Error! Bookmark not defined. 9.1.1 Introduction ...... Error! Bookmark not defined.

10. GENDER ANALYSIS ...... 5-1 10.1 Introduction ...... 5-1 10.2 Gender Status ...... 5-2 10.2.1 Female Literacy Rates ...... 5-2 10.2.2 Ownership of Property...... 5-3 10.2.3 Work Participation of Women ...... 5-3 10.2.4 Mobility Pattern ...... 5-3 10.2.5 Decision-making Status...... 5-4 10.2.6 Probable Project Impact on Women ...... 5-4 10.3 Gender Sensitivity and Mitigation Measures ...... 5-5 10.3.1 Supervision Consultants ...... 5-6

11. VULNERABILITY ...... 6-1 11.1 Introduction ...... 6-1

12. STAKEHOLDER PARTICIPATION AND PUBLIC ACCEPTANCE ...... 7-1 12.1 Background ...... 7-1 12.2 Project Impact ...... 7-2 12.2.1 Adverse Impacts ...... 7-2 12.2.2 Demographic and General Socio-economic Condition of the Affected Villages 7- 2 12.2.3 Major Occupation and Sources of Income of the Population ...... 7-2 12.2.4 Access to Forest Land and Use of Forest Land ...... 7-2 12.2.5 Increase in the Price of Agricultural Land ...... 7-2 12.2.6 Developed Market Centers: ...... 7-3 12.2.7 Schools ...... 7-3 12.2.8 Health and Environment ...... 7-3 12.3 Perceived Benefits from the Project ...... 7-3 12.3.1 Perceived Losses from the Project ...... 7-3 12.3.2 Local employment: ...... 7-3 12.4 HIV/AIDS and human trafficking ...... 7-3

13. CHILD LABOR ...... 8-1 13.1 Background ...... 8-1

14. SUMMARY ...... 9-1 14.1 Socio-Economic Profile ...... 9-1 14.1.1 Study area ...... 9-1 14.1.2 Methodology: ...... 9-1 14.1.3 Socio-economic Condition ...... 9-1 Road Sector Development Project, (IDA Grant No: H339-NEP) New Project Preparation & Supervision Page iv

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14.1.4 Population structure: ...... 9-1 14.1.5 Caste/ ethnicity ...... 9-2 14.1.6 Religious Composition:...... 9-2 14.1.7 Literacy status ...... 9-2 14.2 Economy ...... 9-2 14.3 Occupation of the people ...... 9-2 14.3.1 Land holding size in the project area: ...... 9-3 14.3.2 Land Use and Agriculture ...... 9-3 14.3.3 Landownership Status ...... 9-3 14.3.4 Tenancy status ...... 9-3 14.3.5 Cropping patterns ...... 9-3 14.4 Vegetables production ...... 9-4

15. CONCLUSION ...... 10-1

TABLES Table 1 .1: Road sections, length and design standards are summarized ...... 1-2 Table 1.2: Proposed road sections and scope of work in each road sections resent study ...... 1-3 Table 1.3: Distribution of Project Roads ...... 1-6 Table 1.4a: Socio-demographic Profile of the Project Districts ...... 1-6 Table 1.4b: Religious Composition of Population by District ...... 1-7 Table 1.4c: Development Region and Poverty Incidence (1995-96 & 2003-04) ...... 1-8 Table 1.5: Poverty incidences in different areas in Nepal (1995-96 and 2003-04)...... 1-8 Table 1.6a: Poverty profile in the project districts 2006 ...... 1-8 Table 1.6b: Income Distributions (%) of Total Income of Project Districts ...... 1-9 Table 1.7a: Demographic Features of the Sampled Household ...... 1-10 Table 1.7b: Percentage of population distribution by Ethnic groups ...... 1-10 Table 1.8: Literacy status of the project area ...... 1-11 Table 1.9: Occupation of the sampled households in the project area ...... 1-12 Table 1.10: Average land holding size in the project areas ...... 1-12 Table 1.11: Land ownership status (owner-cultivator) in the project areas ...... 1-13 Table 1.12: Tenancy status in the project areas ...... 1-14 Table 1.13: Total area of land allocated for different types of crops in the project area ...... 1-14 Table 1.14: Areas and types of vegetable produced by the households in the project areas ...... 1-15 Table 2.1: Population Composition of the Affected VDCs ...... 2-1 Table 2.2: Age and sex of the household head ...... 2-1 Table 2.3: Demographic Features of the Sampled Households ...... 2-2 Table 2.4: Marital status of respondents ...... 2-2 Table 2.5: Literacy status of the respondent ...... 2-3 Table 2.6: Occupation of the household heads ...... 2-3 Table 2.7: Occupation of the family members ...... 2-3 Table 2.8: Land ownership status and land use types in the area...... 2-4 Table 2.9: Average land holding size in the project area ...... 2-4 Table 2.10: Annual income of the households ...... 2-5 Table 2.11: Income by different sources ...... 2-5 Table 2.12a: Expenditure range of the households ...... 2-6 Table 2.12 b: Household expenditure in different consumption items ...... 2-6 Table 2.13: Food sufficiency from own agricultural production...... 2-7 Table 2.14: Measures to make deficit ...... 2-8 Table 2.15: Migration pattern and duration of migration of the households ...... 2-8 Table 2.16: Reason for migration ...... 2-9 Table 2.17: Number of persons out migrated from the settlements...... 2-9 Table 2.19: Reason and duration of out migration ...... 2-10 Table 2.22: Where do the women go for health services ...... 2-11 Table 2.23: Means of transportation for vaccinating children ...... 2-11 Table 2.24: Involvement of male and female in different activities ...... 2-12 Table 2.25: Property right of women ...... 2-13 Road Sector Development Project, (IDA Grant No: H339-NEP) New Project Preparation & Supervision Page v

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Table 2.26: Participation of children in various works ...... 2-13 Table 2.27: Presence of vulnerable communities ...... 2-14 Table 2.27: Perception and acceptance of the people towards the road project...... 2-15 Table 2.28: Positive aspect of road improvement project* ...... 2-15 Table 2.29: Negative aspect of road improvement project* ...... 2-16 Table 3.1: Population Composition of the Affected VDCs ...... 3-1 Table 3.2: Age and sex of the household head ...... 3-1 Table 3.3: Ethnic composition of the population ...... 3-1 Table 3.4: Demographic Features of the Sampled Households ...... 3-2 Table 3.5: Marital status of respondents ...... 3-2 Table 3.6: Literacy status of the respondent ...... 3-3 Table 3.7: Occupation of the household heads...... 3-3 Table 3.8: Occupation of the family members ...... 3-3 Table 3.9: Land ownership status and land use types in the area...... 3-4 Table 3.10: Average land holding size in the project area ...... 3-5 Table 3.11: Annual income of the households ...... 3-5 Table 3.12: Income by different sources ...... 3-6 Table 3.13 a: Average yearly expenditure of the households (in NRs) ...... 3-6 Table 3.13b: Household expenditure in different consumption items ...... 3-7 Table 3.14: Food sufficiency from own agricultural production...... 3-8 Table 3.15: income sources to manage food during deficit months ...... 3-8 Table 3.16: Migration pattern and duration of migration of the households ...... 3-9 Table 3.17: Reason for migration ...... 3-9 Table 3.18: Number of persons out migrated from the settlements...... 3-9 Table 3.19: Duration of living of out migrant persons out of village ...... 3-10 Table 3.20: Reason and time length of out migration ...... 3-10 Table 3.21: Access to social services ...... 3-10 Table 3.22: Prenatal care by women ...... 3-11 Table 3.23: Where do the women go for health services ...... 3-11 Table 3.24: Means of transportation for vaccinating children ...... 3-12 Table 3.25: Involvement of male and female in different activities ...... 3-13 Table 3.26: Property right of women ...... 3-13 Table 3.27: Participation of children in various works* ...... 3-14 Table 3.28a: Vulnerable persons inn the road project area...... 3-15 Table 3.28b: Perception and acceptance of the people towards the road project ...... 3-15 Table 3.29: Positive aspect of road improvement project* ...... 3-16 Table 3.30: Negative aspect of road improvement project* ...... 3-17 Table 4.1: Population Composition of the Affected VDCs ...... 4-1 Table 4.2: Age and sex of the household head ...... 4-1 Table 4.3: Distribution of population by ethnic composition ...... 4-2 Table 4.5: Demographic Features of the Sampled Households ...... 4-2 Table 4.6: Marital status of the population ...... 4-3 Table 4.7: Literacy status of the respondent ...... 4-3 Table 4.8: Occupation of the household heads ...... 4-4 Table 4.9: Occupation of the family members ...... 4-4 Table 4.10: Land ownership status and land use types in the area ...... 4-5 Table 4.11: Average land holding size in the project area ...... 4-5 Table 4.12: Annual income of the households ...... 4-6 Table 4.13: Income by different sources ...... 4-6 Table 4.14: Annual Expenditure of the households ...... 4-7 Table 4.15: Household expenditure in different consumption items ...... 4-7 Table 4.16: Food sufficiency from own agricultural production...... 4-8 Table 4.17: Sources of income to manage food during deficit months ...... 4-8 Table 4.18: Migration pattern and duration of migration of the households ...... 4-9 Table 4.19: Reason for migration ...... 4-9 Table 4.20: Number of persons out migrated from the settlements ...... 4-10 Table 4.21: Duration of living of out migrant persons out of village ...... 4-10 Table 4.22: Reason and time length of out migration ...... 4-10 Table 4.23: Access to social services ...... 4-11 Table 4.24: Prenatal care by women ...... 4-11 Road Sector Development Project, (IDA Grant No: H339-NEP) New Project Preparation & Supervision Page vi

Social Assessment August 2010

Table 4.25: Where do the women go for health services? ...... 4-11 Table 4.26: Means of transportation for vaccinating children ...... 4-12 Table 4.27: Involvement of male and female in different activities ...... 4-13 Table 4.28: Property right of women ...... 4-13 Table 4.29: Participation of children in various works* ...... 4-14 Table 4.30a: Age and ethnicity of vulnerable communities ...... 4-15 Table 4.30b: Perception and acceptance of the people towards the road project...... 4-15 Table 4.31: Positive aspect of road improvement project* ...... 4-16 Table 4.32: Negative aspect of road improvement project* ...... 4-16 Table 5.1: Occupation of FGD participant female ...... 5-1 Table 5.2: Male and Female Literacy Rates* by Districts ...... 5-2 Table 5.3: Envisaged Project Impact as Expressed by Women ...... 5-4 Table 5.4: Tasks of Supervision Consultant ...... 5-6 Table 11.1: Vulnerability Status of all road projects ...... 6-1 Table 11.2: Vulnerability Status of all road projects ...... 6-2 Table 12.1: Public acceptance and Assumed Impacts of the road project ...... 7-1 Table 12.2: envisaged adverse impacts of road improvement project* ...... 7-2 Table 14.1 VDCs and population covered during the study ...... 9-1 Table 14.2: Literacy status of the project area...... 9-2 Table 14.3: Average land holding size in the project areas ...... 9-3

ANNEXES

Annex I: Social Tables Annex II: Questionnaires

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ABBREVIATIONS

AADT Annual Average Daily Traffic ACV Aggregate Crushing Value AIV Aggregate Impact Value AMSL Average Mean Sea Level ASL Average sea level CBO Community Based Organization CBR California Bearing Ratio CFUG Community Forestry Users Group CSB Crushed Stone Base Cu.m Cubic Meter DADO District Agriculture Development Office DBST Double Bituminous Surface Treatment DCP Dynamic Cone Penetration DDC District Development Committee DFO District Forest Office DHM Department of Hydrology and Meteorology DoR Department of Roads EMAP Environmental Management Action Plan EPR Environmental Protection Rule FGD Focus Group Discussion GESU Geo Environmental And Social Unit GoN Government Of Nepal GSB Gravel Sub-Base HH House Holds IEE Initial Environmental Examination IFD Intensity Frequency Duration IRR Internal Rate of Return ISB Improved Sub-Base LCF Local Consultative Forum LL Liquid Limit MC Moisture Content MDD Modified Dried Density MoPPW Ministry Of Physical Planning And Works MSA Million Cumulative Standard Axles NAB Natural Aggregate Base NGO Non Governmental Organization NPV Net Present Valuye NRDUC New Road Development and Upgrading Component OD Origin and Destination OMC Optimum Moisture Component OS Otta Seal PI PlasticityIndex ESA Equivalent Standard Axle RCC Reinforced Cement Concrete RL Reduced Level RMDP Road Maintenance and Development Project RoW Right of Way STDs Sexually Transmitted Diseases

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VAT Value Added Tax VCDP Vulnerable Community Development Plan VDC Village Development Committee

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1. SOCIAL ASSESSMENT OF ROAD SECTOR DEVELOPMENT PROJECT (RSDP) 1.1 Background The Government of Nepal (the Government) has engaged the Consultant to undertake preparatory activities for the processing of a new loan for the proposed Road Sector Development Project- 2 (RSDP-2), under the currently on-going Road Sector Development Project -1. This study is to identify the benefits from north-south connectivity enhancing transport facilities in the mid-western and far-western development regions, focusing primarily for poverty reduction and enhancing the economic life of the remote hill people, and to enhance the international as well as domestic trade through improving Narayanghat- Mungling road which connects Kathmandu with outer parts of the country (east and west). Department of Roads has carried out Priority Investment Plan (PIP) for the period 2007- 2016. As per recommendation of the PIP, sections of the roads Satbanj- Gokuleshwore- Darchula, Khodpe- Kalingagad- Bajhang and Surkhet- Kalikot- Jumla are being upgraded to bituminous sealed standards using low cost technology under the Road Sector Development Project (RSDP) through grant assistance from the International Development Association (IDA), towards the cost of Road Sector Development Project (IDA Grant No. 339-NEP). The study was proposed keeping in view of the transport status of rural and hill Nepal that poor connectivity in remote rural areas has been a major development constraint for Nepal. Inadequate feeder roads worsen the isolation of remote rural areas, mostly in northern hilly regions in the mid-west and far-western development regions. Growing congestion is also an emerging constraint at the east-west highway around the borders due to higher volume of traffic. To address these constraints, DOR has prepared Priority Investment Plan (PIP 2007- 2016). Remote areas have high poverty incidence and limited connectivity to markets and social services, which are required to develop its economy as well as integrate them more effectively with the primary markets in neighboring countries. Mid and far-west Northern hilly regions are closest to access points to Indian borders rather than to Kathmandu. Thus it is envisaged that the interior hills and rural areas can be benefitted by trans-border trade rather than depending on the capital city. The border roads in Nepal serve traffic not only for east-west trades but also for cross-border trades. All major border points have been serving even interior remote parts of the country irrespective of hill or terai. The western hill economy depends more on trans-border trade and services, ass the poor road transport to connect domestic market and industrial areas. Thus connecting hill districts and providing transport access to the remote population also required improvement. It is also required to improve the road conditions of remote rural areas with markets within country and with neighboring countries as well as enhance access to border roads for smooth traffic for domestic and regional trades. The project is relevant to achieving results of the Country Strategy and Program (2010-2014), enhancing global-local connectivity to facilitate regional balance in economic growth, as well as the Regional Cooperative Strategy and Programs (2006-2008), improving South Asia sub regional connectivity and facilitating interregional trade in South Asia. Improving transport efficiency and linking the various regions within the country helps to enhance production, market, services and administrative centers. The regional economic imbalance is one of the basic characteristics of Nepalese agriculture based economy. The agriculture products are wasting due to the inaccessibility of market without transport facility. The hill regions are rich in cash crops, and collection of herbs, on the contrary the terai produces cereal crops. The supply system has many more constraints and the remote hilly areas require storage of food and other necessary commodities for long period of time prior Road Sector Development Project, (IDA Grant No: H339-NEP) New Project Preparation & Supervision Page 1-1

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to monsoon. Primarily the Karnali zone has severe food deficit and the government has been supplying subsidized food grains since long back. To reduce all these regional imbalances the proposed project aimed to improve the mid-western and far-western hill roads. This study contains social impact assessment of following roads focusing on poverty analysis, and preparation of Resettlement Plan for the following roads under Road Sector Development Project (RSDP2). Table 1 1.2 Road Lengths and Design Standards from the TOR The Gokuleshor-Thaktholi-Darchula road section is a part of Mahakali highway divided into two parts for the present study on the basis of design standard and status of this road as Gokuleshor to Thaktholi requires new study as the land has not been acquired for road improvement. The Thaktholi Darchula section has been already acquired the total 15 meters ROW and RAP has been prepared previously. Gokulesor-Thaktholi –Darchula connects East –West highway at Atariya (Kailali) passing through Dadeldhura and the district headquarter of Darchula, The Kahlangagadh-Chainpur road is a feeder road which connects district headquarters of Bajhang. Khidkijyula-Manma-Jumla road connects East West highway at Kohalpur (Banke) and remote hill districts Kalikot and Jumla. The Chhinchhu- Jajarkot road also connects Kohalpur and Surkhet and Jajarkot. Sitalpati –Musikot section connects East-West highway at Amelia Dang district and passes through Salyan and reaches to Rukum. Narayanghat –Munglng road section is a part of national highways like East-West highway and Prithvi highway to connect east and west terai and Kathmandu. Thus, all proposed road sections have high economic importance connecting terai and the remote areas intersecting in mid-western terai. The road sections, length and design standards are summarized in Table 1.1 below.

Table 1 .1: Road sections, length and design standards are summarized No. Road section km Design std. District 1a Gokuleshwoer –Thaktholi 41 1 lane Otta seal Darchula 1b Thaktholi-Darchula 35 1 lane Otta seal Darchula 2 Kalangagadh Chainpur 47 1 lane Otta seal Bajhang 3a Khidkijyula –Manma 28 1 lane Otta seal Dailekh, Kalikot 3b Manma-Jumla 76 1 lane Otta seal Kalikot, Jumla 4 Chhichhu-Jajarkot 84 1 lane Otta seal Surkhet, Salyan, Jajarkot 5 Sitalpati-Musikot 86 1 lane Otta seal Salyan, Rukum 2 lane Asphalt 6 Narayanghat-Mungling 36 Chitawan Concrete Total 430

1.3 Objectives 1.3.1 General objective: The general objective of this study was to carry out baseline study assessing general impacts of road on social and economic life of the people of the zone of influence and conduct census survey of affected persons /households, review and update of feasibility study reports and RAP completed earlier and prepare baseline report and Resettlement Action Plan.

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1.3.2 Specific objectives:  review and update existing documents related to baseline study and Resettlement Action Plan (RAP) prepared previously,  prepare new baseline report/ RAP and feasibility reports whatever roads have not been studied earlier,  collect baseline information  carry out household survey of road influence areas, and census of affected persons/households to assess the impact of roads, and to prepare baseline report and VCDP  assess the socio-economic condition of control zone to compare the impact on social life with and without road. 1.3.3 Scope of Work The project is being divided into two major parts. The first part covers feasibility and design and the second part is construction supervision phase. The present study primarily focuses on feasibility and design phase. The scope of work to fulfill the objective, this study was concentrated on assessment of social impacts of different roads in central, mid-western and far-western regions collecting baseline information. The social Impact of roads due to improvement in existing conditions, basically on poverty situation, identification of vulnerable group/community, loss of private, public property and assets, social services, economic resources in all road sections, through household survey and census. A comparative study of project beneficiaries and non-beneficiaries was conducted, through household survey of sampled control zones. Detailed enumeration of lost property and other assets was conducted to evaluate the resettlement plan and compensation of losses. The project is the follow on project of RSDP 1, hence the present task is to complete the social assessment and to recommend the social safeguard for construction. The land acquisition and compensation has been completed in Thakthoi-Darchula and Khidkijyula- Manma by RNDP. Rest of the road sections are under the new study so required to conduct detail study and to identify the number of PAPs for social safeguard, Narayanghat-Mungling section is in operation since more than 2 decades thus the land acquisition or compensation for loss assets may arise occasionally. The feasibility of all six roads and detail design an RAP of two roads (25%) was prepared. Gokuleshor-Darchula road (73km) and Khalangagadh-Chainpur road (50km), comprise 25% of total 444 km. As prescribed in the ToR the feasibility study focused on the following Table 2 Table 1.2: Proposed road sections and scope of work in each road sections resent study Approximate Roads Scope of work length Gokuleshwor-Thaktholi 41 km Baseline study and preparation of RAP Thaktholi -Darchula road 32 km Update of previous RAP Poverty and social assessment, SM Framework, Kalangagadh Bridge- 50 km scoping for LA plan, baseline study, project Chainpur acceptance among locals Poverty and social assessment, SM Framework, Khidkijyula-Jumla Road 104 km scoping for LA plan, baseline study, project acceptance among locals Chhinchu-Pokhare 25 km Review and update of previous report Poverty and social assessment, SM Framework, Pokhare - Jajarkot 82 km scoping for LA plan, baseline study, project acceptance among locals Sitalpati-Musikot 86 km Review and update of previous report Narayanghat-Mungling 36 km Review and update of previous report

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As the nature and scope of work differs as per the road structure and design, so the social assessment mostly depends on the work of engineering team. The detailed design of Gokuleswor- Thaktholi and Kalangagadh-Chainpur section has been completed thus census of affected households taking measurement of loss assets, land and number of affected population was enumerated for the preparation of RAP.

Social screening regarding all social issues was conducted in Gokuleshor-Thaktholi and Kalangagadh-Chainpur roads and baseline report is prepared for all candidate roads. The crucial issues like vulnerability, human trafficking, and potentiality of transmission of HIV / AIDS, and resettlement plan will be prepared as per need in all road sections. The social assessment and baseline study of all candidate roads sections are prepared.

1.4 Methodology For carrying out the social assessment, this study has been divided into two broader categories: the first type is zone of influence within two km either side of the existing center line of the road; and the second category is the control zone. The control zone was taken out of two kilometers from the central line where there is no direct influence and impact of the road. The control zone is a representation of economic life without road and the zone of influence is a mirror of benefits from the road. For this study both qualitative and quantitative survey methods were administered. Quantitative data were collected using structured questionnaires for household level enumeration by qualified enumerators. The qualitative information was collected through community consultation using group interview, key informant interview, open interview and focus group discussion technique by Social Development and Resettlement Specialist. Focus Group Discussion within the zone of influence and in the project affected areas were conducted by the field supervisors. Based on the technical and design standard of the roads, study method was applied accordingly. The following research methods were used for this study. 1.4.1 Reconnaissance survey: a short and quick field visit of all roads was conducted to be familiar with the project areas to address the key social issues for social screening. This survey helped to identify the key stakeholders and loss assessment. This survey helped to identify the key stakeholders in different project districts

1.4.2 Sampling Ten percent of total households were sampled from the settlements within two km either side of the road for baseline study. The households were listed down and identified the different economic level and social strata categorizing into three: high, medium and low on the basis of economic status, education, caste and ethnicity, access and deprivation of social services such as drinking water, education, communication, natural resources, health services, income generation opportunities and employment, sanitation, energy and electricity etc. detail of agricultural pattern and livestock farming, food sufficiency, financial institutions, status of women and other related issues identified in the field. Total of 20% households of the sampled households for baseline study were sampled in the control zone to compare socio-economic life with and without project. The total of 1,331 households (7,336 persons) were sampled for baseline study and interviewed administering the same household survey questionnaire.

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1.4.3 Sampling Strategy for the Survey Sampling of respondents was of two types: firstly, certain geographical areas within two kilometers (zone of influence) from the central line were selected as cluster sample and secondly, 10% households from the sampled clusters were taken for household survey.

1.4.4 Selection of Enumeration Areas (Cluster Sampling) Social impact assessment was conducted covering some of the wards of all VDCs from which the road passes through.

1.4.5 Sampling Size and categorization of the respondents Lists of the households residing within the sampled clusters were prepared identifying the high, medium and low socio-economic and cultural status. The total households were categorized into three groups and total of 10 % households from each category were sampled applying random sampled method for household survey.

1.4.6 Sample of control zone: Total of 23 control zones were sampled away from the road heads in 7 road sections. 20% of the total sampled households, not the same persons those who were taken for social survey residing out of reach of the roads were sampled and interviewed to compare the socio-economic condition of the people with and without road.

1.5 Census survey: census survey of the project affected household was carried out in Gokuleshor-Thaktholi and Kalangagdh-Chainpur road sections. Total of 115 PAPs in Gokuleshor-Thaktholi, 3 in Thaktholi-Darchula and 624 in Kalangagadh-Chainpur road were identified. The census survey was focused on enumerating demographic, economic, social and cultural aspects, level of vulnerability, and gender issues.

1.6 Group interview and Focus Group Discussion Open interviews in a relatively large group of people representing different social characters were conducted assessing the general social issues like poverty, out migration, unemployment, human trafficking and transmission of HIV/AIDS and the level of awareness. A small but particular group of people as key stakeholders were gathered for Focus Group Discussion, in which the internalized social and economic loss and benefits from the road project. The Focus Group Discussions (FGD) was of two types: the participation of male and female in a single group and the exclusively of female. Total of 58 general type Focus Groups Discussions and 10 FGD were exclusively of female. The total number of participants in the FGD was 598.

1.6.1 Public Consultation Public consultation was conducted in the district headquarters, compact settlement areas in each road sections, concerned VDC Offices. The local notables, political leaders, businesspersons, women, and women activists, Chief District Officer (CDO), of concerned districts, Cadastral Survey Officers, Division Engineers of Department of Roads and senior citizens were consulted to assess social and development issues and to assure public acceptance of the road projects.

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1.6.2 Observation Observation of all road sections was done during reconnaissance survey and household survey period. The observation concentrated basically on socio-cultural lifestyle of the people, resource use pattern based on the environmental condition of the area. 1.7 The Road Projects The present road project covers ten districts in central, mid-western and far-western development regions connecting hill district from north to the terai at south. The socio- economic importance of this road section is high since there is no presence of other development infrastructures. The general socio-economic characteristics of these hill roads are similar. Socio-economic characteristics of individual road section analyzed as follows:

Table 1.3: Distribution of Project Roads Districts regions Road length (Km) Roads District 1 District 2 District 3 Region Road Length Gokuleshwoer – Darchula ****** **** FW 73 Thaktholi Thaktholi- Darchula ******* ****** FW Darchula Khalangagadh Bajhang *********** ********** FR 50 Chainpur Khidkijyula – Dailekh Kalikot ********* MWR 105 Manma Manma-Jumla Kalikot, Jumla ********* MWR Chhichhu- Surkhet Salyan Jajarkot MWR 95 Jajarkot Sitalpati-Musikot Salyan Rukum ******** MWR 86 Narayanghat- Chitawan ******** ******** CR 36 Mungling

1.8 Socio-demographic characteristics of the project districts The Project is distributed in 10 hill districts show varied demographic characteristics. Thus the population density is relatively low in all road sections. Only Chitawan district lies in terai but the road section covers remote hill areas with a less populated area with low quality of land. So the project area is less populated in comparison to entire other parts. The hill districts are itself a push factors having been limited development infrastructures and social services. On the contrary the terai is rich in development infrastructure and have high life chances. The general socio-demographic characteristics of the project district shows Chitawan is prosperous district in relation to human development index, adult and literacy rate. Surkhet has better life expectancy rate among hill districts and Kalikot falls at the bottom of human development index ( 73). Bajhang, Jumla and Jajarkot are also the lowest ranked in hiumsn development index. Other districts fall in beteeen. Table 1.4a Table 1.4a: Socio-demographic Profile of the Project Districts Sex Life Adult HDI HPI HDI Districts Ratio Expectancy Literacy (rank) (rank) (F to M) at Birth (yrs.) (%) All Nepal 1.00 60.98 46.6 0.471 39.6 Darchula 0.96 56.43 41.5 0.424 45.5 52 Bajhang 0.93 49.69 29.8 0.331 59.9 72 Kalikot 0.98 46.67 33.2 0.332 58.9 73 Road Sector Development Project, (IDA Grant No: H339-NEP) New Project Preparation & Supervision Page 1-6

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Sex Life Adult HDI HPI HDI Districts Ratio Expectancy Literacy (rank) (rank) (F to M) at Birth (yrs.) (%) Dailekh 0.97 55.83 39.9 0.381 52.5 66 Jumla 0.95 50.82 26.6 0.348 56.8 70 Surkhet 0.98 62.69 56.3 0.486 44.6 22 Jajarkot 0.97 51.9 28.1 0.343 57.2 71 Salyan 1.00 56.79 40.5 0.399 48.2 61 Rukum 1.02 58.05 30.0 0.386 53.7 64 Chitawan 0.99 58.78 65.4 0.518 31.9 12 Source; CBS, Census 2001 and Human Development Report 2004

1.8.1 Religious Composition of the population in the Project districts The predominant religious group is Hindu ion all project districts. The concentration of Hindu group is nearly double in the districts as compared to national average (46. 95%). Nearly hundred percent Hindus were reported in Bajhang, Darchula and Jajarkot, being Thakuries and Chhetries predominant population followed by Bhrahmins and Dalits. Kalikot has about 11% Buddhists. Christians and Muslims are in minority. Table 1.4b below.

Table 1.4b: Religious Composition of Population by District Religio Districts us Nepa Darchu Bajha Kalik Juml Surkh Jajark Salya Ruku Chitaw Group l la ng ot a et ot n m an 46.9 80.6 97.9 91.2 99.8 94.4 98.2 Hindu 99.86 99.77 82.75 5 2 0 0 5 3 9 Buddhis 24.7 10.7 0.09 0.20 1.88 7.53 0.02 4.84 0.93 15.48 t 8 4 Muslim 0.01 0.01 0.01 4.20 0.04 0.43 0.06 0.37 0.07 0.77 27.5 Kiarnt 3.60 0.04 5 Jain 0.01 0.01 0.02 0.01 Christia 0.63 0.45 0.16 0.75 0.06 0.33 0.22 0.77 n Sikh 0.01 0.01 0.02 Others 00 0.03 00 0.40 0.02 0.09 0.01 0.02 0.49 0.16 Source: District profile 2006

1.8.2 Poverty Profiles of the Project Districts Though the district level poverty statistics are not available, but some attempts have been made recently by CBS, through Nepal Living Standard Survey (NLSS) conducted in 2003- 04). This survey has categorized the survey areas into different regions; rural urban, hill, mountain and terai, eastern, central, and western, mid western and far western development regions. The poverty incidence widely differs according to ecological regions. Table1.5 represent the poverty incidence in different regions. The poverty incidence is decreasing in one decade including head count rate and distribution of poor. The poverty incidence is directly proportionate to population distribution. The urban population occupies only 15 percent of the national population and rural areas occupy 85 percent. Numerically more people are poor in rural and hill areas. Regional poverty incidence shows that the central development region is highly populated, where about 37% of the national people live, so the distribution of poor is also high i.e. 32

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according to headcount rate, which is above the national average, because of the urban slum dwellers. In all regions the population is increasing higher during the last decade but the number of poor people is decreasing except eastern region. Table 1.4c summarizes the regional poverty incidences between 1995 and 2004. Increasing population is a biological factor but the access to development infrastructure is a key factor to reduce poverty. Table 1.4c: Development Region and Poverty Incidence (1995-96 & 2003-04) Poverty Head Count Distribution of Development Distribution of Poor Rate Population regions 1995-96 2003-04 1995-96 2003-04 1995-96 2003-04 Eastern 38.9 29.3 21.0 23.4 22.5 24.7 Central 32.5 27.1 26.9 32.2 34.6 36.6 Western 38.6 27.1 18.7 16.7 20.3 18.9 Mid western 59.9 44.8 18.5 17.7 12.9 12.2 Far western 63.9 41.0 14.8 9.9 9.7 7.5 Ecological regions Mountain 57.0 32.6 10.7 7.5 7.9 7.1 Hill 40.7 34.5 41.9 47.1 43.0 42.1 Terai 40.3 27.6 47.4 45.4 49.2 50.8 Source: CBS, World Bank World Food Program (2006)

The road projects are connected to hill and terai districts where the number of poor is increased in hills and decreased in terai during the last decade. It is because of the concentration of resources and development infrastructures in the terai and opportunities of employment. Table 1.5: Poverty incidences in different areas in Nepal (1995-96 and 2003-04) Poverty head count Distribution of Population Regions rate poor Distribution 1995-96 2003-04 1995-96 2003-04 1995-96 2003-04 100. 100. 100. Nepal 41.8 30.8 100.0 0 0 0 Urban 21.6 9.6 3.6 4.7 6.9 15.0 Rural 43.3 34.6 96.4 95.3 93.1 85.0 Kathmandu 4.3 3.3 0.3 0.6 2.6 5.4 Other urban areas 31.6 13.0 3.3 4.1 4.4 9.7 Rural (Western hills/mountains) 55.0 37.4 32.7 23.6 24.8 19.4 Rural (Eastern Hills/Mountains) 36.1 42.9 19.4 29.4 22.4 21.1 Rural (western terai) 46.1 38.1 18.4 18.9 16.7 15.3 Rural (eastern terai) 37.2 24.9 25.9 23.5 29.1 29.1 Source: CBS, World Bank World Food Program (2006)

Poverty profile of the project districts indicates that Darchula, Kalikot and Dailekh districts are highly poverty stricken districts. These districts have specific characteristics as low quality of land; less productivity, over utilization of local resources, lack of development infrastructures and no access to social services are the major indicators of poverty. Except Chitawan district other project districts rest on middle range of poverty profile. Table 1.6a

Table 1.6a: Poverty profile in the project districts 2006 Districts Poverty incidence Road Sector Development Project, (IDA Grant No: H339-NEP) New Project Preparation & Supervision Page 1-8

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Districts Poverty incidence Darchula 57.3 Bajhang 47.3 Kalikot 56.8 Dailekh 51.6 Jumla 34.4 Surkhet 47.0 Jajarkot 44.1 Salyan 45.5 Rukum 49.1 Chitawan 11.9 Source: CBS, World Bank World food program (2006)

Chitawan district being a terai has better opportunities of employment, life chances and development infrastructures. This district connects the whole country from east to west and the capital city with other parts of the country, so as a transit point for trade Chitawan is prosperous in all respects.

Assessing poverty situation income distribution is one of the major criteria adopted by the UNDP indicates that income from agriculture and forestry contributes more than other sources in all project districts in comparison to national average. Table 1.6 above.

1.8.3 Income sources of the project districts Major economic source of the project district is agriculture. Majority district earn more than national average from agriculture. Besides agriculture trade hotel, restaurant and small business (local finance) are the major source of income in hill districts like Bajhang, Jajarkot, Ruum and Chitawan. Mining and electricity are equal to non-income sources for project districts. Transport has not been a source of income except Chitawan. Finance is high in Jajarkot and Rukum but construction in Darchula and Jajarkot is higher than national average. Table 1.6b below.

Table 1.6b: Income Distributions (%) of Total Income of Project Districts Economic activities Nepal Darchu Bajha Kaliko Jumla Surkh Jajark Salyan Ruku Chitaw la ng t et ot m an Agriculture/ 38.3 40.8 40.6 67.2 59.0 45.2 46.7 67.1 54.4 38. Fishing/forestry Mining/quarrying 0.5 0.8 0.7 0.2 0.2 0.4 0.8 0.2 0.4 0.3 Manufacturing 9.1 7.3 4.9 0.0 2.9 2.3 3.7 1.1 3.8 10.9 Electricity, gas, water 1.8 0.0 0.0 0.2 0.0 0.6 0.0 0.1 0.0 2.2 Construction 10.1 18.1 17.2 3.8 4.4 10.0 17.8 3.7 9.0 7.1 Trade, restaurant, 11.3 9.6 9.4 14.0 13.6 13.0 9.6 13.4 12.0 13.5 and hotels Transport 8.5 2.7 3.4 0.7 3.0 7.5 0.9 0.7 1.2 11.4 Finance and real 10.6 10.9 13.8 4.9 8.8 10.0 12.5 8.1 11.4 9.8 estate Community and 9.9 9.4 9.6 9.0 8.1 11.0 7.8 5.4 7.8 6.1 social services Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 10.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 Source: Nepal Human development Report 2004, UNDP p. 154-157

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1.8.4 Demographic features of the sampled households The population distribution in the sampled household is reverse of demographic theory, because there are 52 percent male and 48 percent female. This is applicable in all project areas unanimously. The predominant age group is 16 to 45 year. The dependent population (below 15 years occupy about 38%, and above 65 years group is around 3%. The population in between 46 to 65 also contributes only 12 % which is an indication of low life expectancy in the project area. Table 1.7a below.

Table 1.7a: Demographic Features of the Sampled Household Population Population by Age Groups (in %) House- Road HH size Over holds M Fe Total 0-15 16-45 46-65 Total 65 GT 98 389 325 714 7.3 237 357 85 35 714 % 54.48 45.51 100 33.2 50.0 11.9 4.9 100 TD 121 420 344 764 6.3 239 392 101 32 764 % 54.97 45.02 100 31.3 51.3 13.2 4.2 100 KC 136 497 451 948 6.97 330 463 119 36 948 % 52.42 47.57 100 34.81 48.84 12.55 3.80 100 KM 92 349 294 643 7.0 336 245 58 4 643 % 54.27 45.72 100 52.3 38.1 9.0 0.6 100.0 MJ 343 1,210 1,131 2,341 6.8 1,006 994 281 60 2,341 % 51.68 48.31 100 43.0 42.5 12.0 2.6 100, CJ 237 710 697 1,407 5.9 538 660 171 38 1,407 % 50.46 49.53 38.2 46.9 12.2 2.7 100.0 SM 187 557 513 1,070 5.7 333 603 111 23 1,070 % 52.05 47.94 100 31.1 56.4 10.4 2.1 100. NM 118 322 310 632 5.35 193 323 89 27 632 % 51 49 100 30.54 51.11 14.08 4.27 100 Total 1,332 4,454 4,065 8,519 3,212 4,037 1,015 255 8,519 % 52.3 47.7 100 38.0 47.0 12.0 3.0 100 Source: Field Survey 2010

So far as the respondents or households’ age is concerned majority falls under 41 to 60 years of age group. Table 1.7b presents the age group of the respondent or household

1.8.5 Ethnic Composition in the project areas Brahmin, Chhetries and Thakuries are the predominant groups in the western regions where as mixed ethnicity is represented in Narayanghat-Mungling section. Representation of Dalits is significant in all road sections. The importance of Dalit is their services to the upper caste croup of people, so Dalits are invited to settle nearby upper caste occupancy.

Table 1.7b: Percentage of population distribution by Ethnic groups Ethnic Road Sections Groups GT TD KC KM MJ CJ SM NM No. % No. % No. % No. % No. % No. % No. % No. % Brahma 24 25 26 22 18 13 20 22 53 16 8 3 8 4 20 17 n Chhetri/ 65 66 65 54 94 69 34 37 208 61 107 45 107 57 20 17 Thakuri Tamang 00 0.0 1 1 00 0.0 00 0.0 00 0.0 00 0.0 2 1 2 2 Gurung 00 0.0 1 1 00 0.0 00 0.0 00 0.0 00 0.0 00 0.0 34 29 Magar 00 0.0 00 0.0 00 0.0 00 0.0 00 0.0 26 11 14 8 14 12 Rai 00 0.0 00 0.0 00 0.0 00 0.0 00 0.0 00 0.0 1 1 1 1 Newar 00 0.0 00 0.0 1 1 00 0.0 00 0.0 5 2 6 3 4 3 Chepan 00 0.0 00 0.0 00 0.0 00 0.0 00 0.0 00 0.0 00 0.0 7 6 g

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Ethnic Road Sections Groups GT TD KC KM MJ CJ SM NM No. % No. % No. % No. % No. % No. % No. % No. % Dalit 9 9 1 1 23 17 35 38 73 21 78 33 32 17 15 13 Budhath 00 0.0 1 0.8 00 0.0 00 0.0 00 0.0 00 0.0 4 2 00 0.0 oki/Tink ari Mushlim 00 0.0 00 0.0 00 0.0 00 0.0 00 0.0 00 0.0 2 1 00 0.0 Sanyasi 00 0.0 00 0.0 00 0.0 00 0.0 00 0.0 11 4.6 11 6 00 0.0 /Jogi Others 00 0.0 00 0.0 00 0.0 3 3 9 3 2 1 1 1 Total 98 100.0 121 100.0 136 100 92 100.0 343 100.0 237 100.0 187 100.0 118 100.0 Source: Field survey 2010

During the survey it was found that people living in the affected area through all projects are from different ethnic groups. Among people from ethnic groups, the largest number of people in almost all road section is Chhetris followed by Brahmins. In GT almost two thirds of the populations are Chhetris and Brahmins hold one fourth (24.5). In TD largest number of people are Chhetris (53.7%) followed by Brahmins (21.5%).In MJ the number of Chhetris is 60%. In SM and CJ the number of Chetrris are 57 % and 45% respectively. In NM the number of Brahmins and Chhetris are 17% each. In KM the largest number of population are Dalits (38%). This is followed by Chhetris (37%) and Brahmins (22%). In NM the number of Gurungs are highest (29%). The percentage of Chhetris and Brahmins in NM is 17% each. In CJ and NM the number of Magars is significant which around 11% each. 1.8.6 Literacy status of the households Majority of the sampled area have higher literacy rate than the national average. GT road section has highest literacy rate (90%). Only KM road section has lowest (54%), as being remote and interior region. In almost all road sections the literacy rate is higher than the national average (54.1%). Table 1.8 gives the summary of literacy status of all road sections.

Table 1.8: Literacy status of the project area Road Sections Litera GT TD KC KM MJ CJ SM NM cy N N N N N N N N % % % % % % % % o. o. o. o. o. o. o. o. Illiterat 37. 37. 33. 10 10.2 19 15.7 51 42 45.7 94 27.4 89 40 21.4 39 e 5 6 1 Literat 10 62. 24 14 62. 14 66. 88 89.8 84.3 85 50 54.3 72.6 78.6 79 e 2 5 9 8 4 7 9 100. 12 100. 13 10 100. 34 100. 23 10 18 100. 11 10 Total 98 92 0 1 0 6 0 0 3 0 7 0 7 0 8 0 Source: Field Survey 2010 1.8.7 Occupation of the project area people As agriculture is the main occupation of the population in all road sections, subsidized by local business and services. People have multiple occupations, since the family system is joint and even extended. A single household is a composition of persons of more than two generations, so everybody is responsible to contribute for family income. The higher percentage falls under student in all road sectors. It is one of the indications of increased interest of parents to educate descendants. Being less skilled and economically poor, foreign employment is also nominal (less than 4%), but agriculture and non-agriculture laboring is one of the important occupations of the households to compensate household economy. Table 1.9 below gives the occupational status of the people.

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Table 1.9: Occupation of the sampled households in the project area Occupat Road Sections ion GT TD KC KM MJ CJ SM NM N N N N N N % % % % No. % No. % % % o. o. o. o. o. o. Agricultu 19 27. 17 23. 20 22. 13 21. 28. 28. 15 16. 10. 603 373 67 re 6 5 5 0 8 03 8 6 2 0 8 0 60 Service 6.1 10. 57 72 58 22 119 57 63 64 8.0 9.4 4 3.4 5.6 4.3 6.4 13 Business 6.3 13 13. 11. 47 47 60 41 187 119 73 6.6 6.2 6 6.4 8.8 8.9 0 2 55 Agricultu 2.2 1.7 21 2 21 2 3 2 40 11 re labor 2.9 0.3 2 0.3 0.1 0.1 4.1 4 Non- 4.1 agricultur 38 58 39 51 137 73 42 31 4.9 3 e labor 5.3 7.6 8.0 6.4 5.5 4.3 1 Student 31 43. 34 44. 44 46. 36 57. 1,0 47. 43 43. 24 38. 600 0 4 2 9 3 93 9 7 15 5 3 9 4 61 Foreign 2.9 employm 11 3 28 0 2 50 32 24 3.8 7 ent 1.5 0.4 0.0 0.1 3.7 3.2 0 House 4.0 12. 24 32 38 3 5 29 53 81 wife 3.4 4.2 3 0.5 0.2 2.2 5.4 82 Jobless 5.1 5.7 10 14 49 7 50 31 21 36 1.4 1.8 9 1.1 2.3 2.3 2.1 0 Others 0.1 0 17 0 - 7 14 14 1 0.0 2.2 1.1 0.7 1.4 6 Total 71 100 76 100 94 64 100 2,1 100 1,3 100 98 100 63 100 4 .0 2 .0 4 0 .0 35 .0 34 .0 6 .0 2 100 Source : Field Survey 2010

1.8.8 Land holding size in the project area: Though the people have owned paddy fields in the hill area abut the average landholding size is very small due to land fragmentation. Majority of the land owners have owned less than 0.5 hectares in all road sections. In KM, MJ, and CJ have experienced a significant number of landless households, Table 1.10 The land less families are the agriculture and non-agricultural labors.

Table 1.10: Average land holding size in the project areas Landholding Average Land holding Size in all Road Sections Size GT TD KC KM MJ CJ SM NM No. % No. % No. % No. % No. % No. % No. % No. % Land less 23 23.5 36 29.8 326 47.94 54 60.0 230 67.1 26 70.3 101 54.0 84 14.24 Less than 39 28 1 15 81 8 39 11 0.5hac 39.8 23.1 0.15 16.7 23.6 21.6 20.9 1.86 0.5 to 1 hac 22 22.4 8 6.6 1 0.15 7 7.8 11 3.2 1 2.7 11 5.9 3 0.51 1 to 2 hac 3 3.1 4 3.3 0 0 1 1.1 1 0.3 NA NA 5 2.7 0 0 2 to 3 hac 3 3.1 0.0 0 0 0 0.0 0 0.0 NA NA 1 0.5 0 0 3 to 4 hac 1 1.0 0.0 0 0 0 0.0 1 0.3 NA NA 0 00 0 0 4 to 5 hac 1 1.0 2 1.7 0 0 0 0.0 0 0.0 NA NA 1 0.5 0 0 Total 98 100.0 121 100.0 680 100 90 100.0 343 100.0 37 100.0 187 100.0 95 100 Source: Field Survey 2010

1.8.9 Land Use and Agriculture The land found in the project area is characteristically of irrigated and un-irrigated low land. Majority of the households own low land whether it is irrigated or un-irrigated. The un- irrigated land is mostly a dry land but it is low land so people plant rice in it depending on Road Sector Development Project, (IDA Grant No: H339-NEP) New Project Preparation & Supervision Page 1-12

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monsoon. Pakho (fallow land and Kharbari) is commonly owned by all households for fodder, grass and grazing. More than 27% households own irrigated paddy land. The un- irrigated paddy land is available in Darchula, Bajhang and Kalikot. It is characteristically the un-irrigated paddy field is available in relatively low land and Pakho and grazing field is abundantly available in high land where irrigation is not possible sue to distant location of the source of water and rough terrain or rock to construct canal. The same condition is reported in Manma-Jumla, Chhinchhu –Jajarkot, Sitalpati-Musikot and Nanryanghat-Mungling road sections. Table 3.10 above summarizes the land use pattern in the project area. 1.8.10 Landownership Status The land ownership is a crucial issue in the rural areas. Hundred percent people are owner cultivator. Most of the land owners are the farmers. Only the households who have no labor force or do not live in the village rent out their land. There are very few numbers of households who rent out their land in the project area. 1.8.11 Owner Cultivators in all Road Sections Out of total surveyed HHs, in NM, there are about 82.4% of the population cultivating in their own Pakho/Bari. Most of the population (almost 33%) in GT are cultivating in own Kharbari, where as in case of TD its irrigated paddy field 34.4%. Similarly almost one third of cultivators in KC are cultivating in their own land Pakho/Bari. Same is the case in KM. In case of MJ almost half of the total household is cultivating either in their own irrigated paddy field (45.2%) and Pakho/Bari (45%). Similar is in the case of CJ, where more than 50% of the population cultivate in Pakho/ Bari. In CJ, number of people cultivating in own irrigated paddy field is also high which is about 39%. In the case of SM, 44.6% of the total population are cultivating in own Pakho/ Bari. The data reveals that apart from GT & TD high number of people are cultivating in own Pakho/ Bari followed by irrigated paddy field. In case of GT & TD more than 80% are cultivating in own irrigated paddy field, unirrigated paddy field or Khabari.

Table 1.11: Land ownership status (owner-cultivator) in the project areas Land Owner Cultivators in all Road Sections Types GT TD KC KM MJ CJ SM NM No N N No % No % No % No % % % No % % . o. o. Irrigated 29 paddy 61 27.2 62 34.4 97 29.7 50 30.1 45.2 24 38.7 73 27.1 10 11.8 5 field Unirrigat ed 10 64 28.6 53 29.4 32.4 17 10.2 34 5.2 2 3.2 15 5.6 3 3.5 paddy 6 land Pakho/ 10 28 12 25 11.2 15 8.3 33.3 63 38.0 44.0 35 56.5 44.6 70 82.4 Bari 9 7 0 Kharbari 73 32.6 50 27.8 15 4.6 36 21.7 36 5.5 1 1.6 48 17.8 2 2.4 Others 1 0.4 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 13 4.8 0 0.0 Total 22 100. 18 100. 32 100. 16 100. 65 100. 100. 26 100. 100. 62 85 4 0 0 0 7 0 6 0 2 0 0 9 0 0 Source: Field Survey 2010 1.8.12 Tenancy status In terms of tenants in different road sections, the number is highest in SM which is 63. This is followed by road section MJ with 23. In the rest there is negligible, in GT there is non, in CJ only one, in TD & KM two each and in KG and NM the number is 3 and 4 respectively. In the case of SM almost 41% working irrigated while another 50% work either pakho/Bari or kharbari. Number of tenant farmers is very nominal in all road sections. Renting out land to the tenant is not desired due to land reform act as one can claim tenancy right over the cultivated land

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after cultivating on agriculture cycle. Removing tenant is a difficult task as land reform act provisioned to extend 50% of the land to the tenants in case of removal of a tenant from the land. Thus the farmers (Land owners) usually do not allow tenants to cultivate land in a normal situation. Table 1.12 below.

Table 1.12: Tenancy status in the project areas Land Tenants in all Road Sections Types GT TD KC KM MJ CJ SM NM No No No No No No No No % % % % % % % % ...... Irrigated 0 100. 100. paddy 0 1 50.0 1 33.3 2 15 65.2 1 26 41.3 3 75.0 0 0 0 field Unirrigat 0 ed paddy 0 0 1 50.0 2 66.7 0 0.0 2 8.7 0 0.0 1 1.6 0 0.0 land Pakho/ 0 0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 6 26.1 0 0.0 22 34.9 1 25.0 Bari 0 Kharbari 0 0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 14 22.2 0 0.0 0 Others 0 0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 Total 0 100. 100. 100. 100. 100. 100. 100. 0 2 3 2 23 1 63 4 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Source: Field Survey 2010

The tenants are completely absent in GT road and what ever presented in other road sections are in an extreme minority. In number 2 tenants in TD, 3 in KC, 1 in CJ and 4 in NM roads. SM and MJ road section have 63 and 23 tenants due to the absentee land owners and people’s war for last 10-14 years, a landlord could not retain at village, so they rented out their land to the tenants and fled away to secured places. 1.8.13 Cropping pattern in the project areas

A. Cereal crops Majority land is suitable for maize cropping because of the lack of irrigation facilities in the project area. Paddy has a cultural value in the society thus people always attempt to produce more paddy even if the climatic condition is not favorable. Other types of crops wheat, barley, buckwheat and Soya beans are grown in the dry and marginal lands. People do not want to left land fallow. The land is limited in supply and people want to produce more and more crops to feed the family members from the land, so the marginal land is also utilized planting and sowing dry crops like pulses, oil seeds and Soya beans. Table 1.13.

Table 1.13: Total area of land allocated for different types of crops in the project area Road Sections GT TD KC KM MJ CJ SM NM Types of Cultivated Cultivated Cultivated Cultivated Cultivated Cultivated Cultivated Cultivated crops area area area area area area area area (Hac.) (Hac.) (Hac.) (Hac.) (Hac.) (Hac.) (Hac.) (Hac.) Paddy 4.07 1.42 NA 12.16 49.7 35.169 26.400 15.235 Maize 10.10 2.76 NA 18.23 17.7 41.049 25.375 14.338 Wheat 11.50 3.22 NA 18.35 38.2 30.183 30.891 2.161 Barley 0.33 0.00 NA 5.29 30.5 11.382 1.017 0.000 Millet 0.05 0.00 NA 2.08 20.6 8.063 0.006 2.525 Buckwheat 7.63 0.00 NA 0.01 2.3 0.000 0.013 0.118 Soya bean 0.32 0.06 NA 9.73 4.7 4.442 1.997 0.171 Pulse crop 0.53 0.06 NA 5.25 6.7 15.092 0.083 2.927 Oil seeds 0.37 0.00 NA 0.31 0.4 21.636 1.149 0.504

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Road Sections GT TD KC KM MJ CJ SM NM Others 0.00 0.00 NA 0.00 0.8 1.068 0.102 0.533 Total 34.92 7.53 NA 71.4 171.7 168.083 87.033 38.511

B. Vegetables production Vegetables are produced mainly for domestic consumption and local sale wherever there is road or small market centers. The vegetable production is not a priority crop, so the area allocated by the farmers is very small in size. Sometimes vegetable is a commodity for transaction against cash or other commodities what is not produced in the household farm. The transport system gradually opened up market for vegetable also. The farmer has started growing it in the farm, but considered as intercrop and multiple crop. It is highly perishable and can not be preserved for future use in this area because there is no electricity supply and any post harvest facilities. Table 1.14 gives the summary of total areas in which vegetable is grown and the different types vegetables produced.

Table 1.14: Areas and types of vegetable produced by the households in the project areas Road Sections GT TD KC KM MJ CJ SM NM Types of Cultivated Cultivated Cultivated Cultivated Cultivated Cultivated Cultivated Cultivated Vegetables area area area area area area area area (Hac.) (Hac.) (Hac.) (Hac.) (Hac.) (Hac.) (Hac.) (Hac.) Green leaf 0.29 0.06 NA 0.57 1.9 1.22 1.01 2.74 Tomato 0.05 0.02 NA 0.62 1.6 0.74 0.29 0.38 Onion 0.18 0.02 NA 0.25 0.9 0.83 0.62 0.37 Garlic 0.08 0.01 NA 0.16 1.4 0.77 0.42 0.90 Cauliflower 0.06 0.00 NA 0.19 1.0 0.60 0.28 5.76 Cabbage 0.07 0.03 NA 0.20 1.0 0.99 0.13 0.05 Potato 0.14 0.05 NA 1.26 14.5 3.18 1.19 0.53 Radish 0.22 0.04 NA 1.02 1.7 31.15 0.25 0.59 Beans 0.00 0.00 NA 1.28 4.5 0.28 0.32 1.12 Pumpkin 0.19 0.02 NA 2.26 1.8 0.57 0.19 1.80 Bottle NA 0.06 0.00 0.18 0.2 0.41 0.07 34.49 guards Yam 0.06 0.00 NA 0.02 0.1 0.20 0.1 0.07 Others 0.14 0.00 NA 0.00 0.1 0.04 0.15 0.00 Total 1.54 0.25 NA 8.01 30.6 41.02 5.09 48.83 Source: Field Survey 2010

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2. SOCIAL ASSESSMENT OF GOKULESHWOR- THAKTHOLI 2.1 Socio-economic Analysis 2.1.1 Introduction Gokulreshwor-Thaktholi road section covers five VDCs of Darchula district. Total of 2906 households and 18421 people will come under the influence of this road section as direct or indirect beneficiaries. This road section connects Gokuleshwor and Khalanga the district headquarters of Darchula covering few human settlements and goes through passing more public land. The total sampled households were 98. In each VDC the male population is higher than the female, and the average household size is 6.3. Table 1.

Table 2.1: Population Composition of the Affected VDCs VDCs Total HH Male Female Total Ave. HH Size

Gokuleshwor 461 1801 1655 3456 7.4 Gwani 932 2667 2594 5261 5.6

Malikarjun 609 1987 1832 3819 6.2 Hunainath 355 1199 1166 2365 6.6 Shankarpur 549 1797 1723 3520 6.4 Total 2906 9451 8970 18421 6.3 Source: District Profile

2.1.2 Age and sex of the sampled household heads: Male are the economic and cultural heads of the household in this area. There are only 2 % households who are taking care of the family members as a household head out of 98 sampled household. It is rural and traditional characteristics of the area where male are responsible for the household activities including economic, social and cultural.

Table 2.2: Age and sex of the household head Sex Age group Male (%) Female (%) Total (%) 21- 30 years 8 (8.16) 0 (00) 8 (8.16) 31-40 28 (28.57) 1(1.02) 29 (29.59) 41-50 26 (26.53) 0 (00) 26 (26.56) 51-60 21 (21.42) 1 (1.02) 22 (22.44) 60+ 13 (13.26) 0 (00) 13 (13.26) Total 96(97.95) 2 (2.04) 98 (100) Source: Field survey 2010

2.1.3 Ethnic composition Below 30 61 and 31 - 40 yrs 41 - 50 yrs 51 - 60 yrs Total Caste/Ethnic yrs above No. % No. % No. % No. % No. % No. % Brahman 5 17.2 7 26.9 8 36.4 4 30.8 24 24.5

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Below 30 61 and 31 - 40 yrs 41 - 50 yrs 51 - 60 yrs Total Caste/Ethnic yrs above No. % No. % No. % No. % No. % No. % Chhetri/Thakuri 7 87.5 20 69.0 17 65.4 13 59.1 8 61.5 65 66.3 Dalit 1 12.5 4 13.8 2 7.7 1 4.5 1 7.7 9 9.2 Total 8 100.0 29 100.0 26 100.0 22 100.0 13 100.0 98 100.0

Total population of the sampled households in this road section is 714, in which 54. 48 % is of the male and 45. 51% is of the female. The majority population (around 52%) falls under 16-65 years age group. It is an indication of higher presence of economically active population in the area. The dependent population below 15 years are 33 % which is an indication of preserving working population in future. The old aged dependents (65 and above) are only 4.9%. Average household size is 7.3, which is bigger than the national average (5.44). Table 2.3 below.

Table 2.3: Demographic Features of the Sampled Households No. of HH % of Population by Age Groups Population Households size Male Female 0-15 16-45 46-65 65 + Total No. 98 389 325 7.3 237 357 85 35 714 % 54.48 45.51 33.2 50.0 11.9 4.9 100.0 Source: Field survey 2010.

Table 3 above shows that the area represents that the child bearing pattern of women is unplanned because the age group below 15 years contributes 33%. It is because of the agrarian economy of the households. The households require more labor force for agriculture.

2.1.4 Marital status of the respondents Marital status of the respondents shows that there are more than 90% married respondents. The population size of widow and widower is very small (2.04% and 1.02% respectively). Only 5% unmarried male respondents, it is why the modern educated persons desire late marriage. Divorce is not a common practice in the rural areas and an exceptional in this road section, so only 1% male divorcee was reported as a respondent. Table 2.4.

Table 2.4: Marital status of respondents Sex Married % Unmarried % Divorcee % Widow/Widower % Total

Male 89 90.81 5 5.10 1 1.02 2 2.04 97

Female 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 1 1.02 1

Total 89 90.81 5 5.10 1 1.02 3 3.06 98

Source: Field survey 2010.

2.1.5 Literacy status of the Respondents: Since there are 98% households are the literacy rate is also high among the respondents. Nearly 90% respondents are literate in such remote areas. About 10% respondents are

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illiterate is because of the fact that the majority of the respondents are male. Table 2.5 gives the literacy status of the respondents.

Table 2.5: Literacy status of the respondent Level of education No. % Illiterate 10 10.2 Literate 88 89.8 Total 98 100.0 Source: Field survey 2010.

2.1.6 Occupation of the sampled household heads Though main occupation of the majority (48%), households in this area is agriculture but service is one of the attractive occupations as a regular source of income. Agriculture labor and non-agriculture labor is a compulsive occupation for the landless and marginal land holding households 10%. Foreign employment is nominal (2%) in the area. All women also employed in agriculture and domestic work so there are no women without work. The occupation of fsmily members of the sample households Table 2.6

Table 2.6: Occupation of the household heads Types of occupation

Serv Busin Agri. Non –agri Stud Foreign House Agricult Idle Others Total ice ess Labor Labor ent employment wife ure N 47 14 24 1 9 2 1 98 o. 48. % 14.3 24.5 1.0 9.2 0.0 2.0 0.0 1.0 0.0 100. 0 Source: field survey 2010

2.2 Economy 2.2.1 Occupation of the family members The occupation of households heads and the occupation of total population resembles in the area. As the majority households have adopted agriculture as a main occupation, similarly the majority 27.5% of the household population have adopted the same. Since, the large portion (43.4%) of population is student, but partially the students also help to their parents in farm work. The service is the occupation of 8% households and 3.4% women are looking after the domestic affairs as a housewife among the well being families. Only 1.4% population is reported jobless but they also contribute in farm work. Table 2.7 below summarizes the occupation of the population.

Table 2.7: Occupation of the family members Types of occupation adopted Number of people Percentage Agriculture 196 27.5 Service 57 8.0 Business 47 6.6 Agriculture labor 21 2.9 Non-agriculture labor 38 5.3 Student 310 43.4 Foreign employment 11 1.5 House wife 24 3.4 Jobless 10 1.4

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Types of occupation adopted Number of people Percentage Others 0 0.0 Total 714 100.0 Source: field survey 2010

2.2.2 Land use and agriculture As agriculture is the major source of income and livelihood of the people in this project area. The land in the area is irrigated Khet land, unirrigated khet land, unirrigated upland (Pakho/Bari), and grass land at slope (Kharbari). People grow paddy in irrigated land where irrigation system is employed and in unirrigated paddy land where the monsoon is only the source of irrigation, the unirrigated upland is an un terraced outward slope land where dry crops are grown. Majority of the land owners have irrigated as well as unirrigated and Pakho or Bari land. The use of Pakho is for grass, thatch for roofing of houses, firewood and grazing.

So far as land tenure system is concerned, there are no tenants in this road section. Al most all landowners cultivate their land on their own using family labors. It is because of the fact that the supply of land is limited in the hill areas and people demand more land for survival Land Reform Act (1964 amended 1996) provisioned that one can claim 50% part of the land in case of removal from the tenancy right once he/she cultivates the land for on agriculture cycle. So land owners does not desired to lose land and avoided to employ tenants. Some (Only 8 households have contracted out their land to the cultivators not in a form of tenants rather as a share cultivators or as a wage laborer. Table 2.8 below.

Table 2.8: Land ownership status and land use types in the area. No. of No of No. of Owner Tenants Types of land % % Renting % cultivators (Renting out in) Irrigated Khet (paddy land) 61 27.2 0 0 2 25.0 Unirrigated Khet (paddy) land 64 28.6 0 0 2 25.0 Pakho/ Bari 25 11.2 0 0 3 37.5 Kharbari 73 32.6 0 0 1 12.5 Others 1 0.4 0 0 0 0.0 Total 224 100.0 0 0 8 100.0 Source: field survey 2010

2.2.3 Average land holding size in the project areas Majority (40% households) hold 0.5 to 1.0 hectare land including irrigated khet, bari and pakho in the project area, which is less than minimum requirement for survival, because the average household size is 7.3 (Table 3 above). The land less households contribute 6%, the households who hold more than 3 hectare is 5 % including one household holding more than 5 hectare. Table 2.9 below.

Table 2.9: Average land holding size in the project area Land holding size No % Land less 6 6.1 Less than 0.5hac 23 23.5 0.5 to 1 hac 39 39.8 1 to 2 hac 22 22.4 2 to 3 hac 3 3.1 Road Sector Development Project, (IDA Grant No: H339-NEP) New Project Preparation & Supervision Page 2-4

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Land holding size No % 3 to 4 hac 3 3.1 4 to 5 hac 1 1.0 5 hac + 1 1.0 Total 98 100.0 Source: field survey 2010

2.2.4 Income and poverty status of the area It is obvious that the project area is below poverty line. The average income of the majority (52%) households from different sources is between Rs. 30,000 to 100,000/ per annum. 35% households earning Rs. 60,000/ per annum. The average household size is 7.3. The per capita income of the area is Rs. 8,219/, thus these households belong to below poverty line, since those who have less than Rs. 10,000/ per annum falls below poverty line. 23.5% households have income between Rs. 100,00 to 200,000. Similarly 7% households earn more than Rs. 300,000/ annually. Table 2.10 below.

Table 2.10: Annual income of the households Income Range (Rs.) No. % 10,001 – 30,000 9 9.2 30,001 – 60,000 26 26.5 60,001 – 1,00,000 26 26.5 1,00,001 – 2,00,000 23 23.5 2,00,001 – 3,00,000 7 7.1 >3,00,000 7 7.1 Total 98 100.0 Source: field survey 2010

The income range shows that the majority households have been facing economic crisis and surviving in a subsistence level. Till date the households could not be able to get benefit from the transport facilities. The itemized annual income of the household from the various sources of income is presented in Table 2.11 below, which shows people make the highest income from services. The service holders get monthly salary which is permanent source of income. Other sources like cereal crops, animal products, selling herbs, etc is time based income, and not fixed. The second largest amount is gained from business including consumption commodities and real estate followed by pension and remittance. There is very nominal income from selling of food grains and vegetables due to its low productivity. People produce these items for domestic consumption. Only 3 households have income from food grain and vegetable. The average annual income of the sampled household is Rs. 4905, which indicates that the area is poverty stricken. Table 2.11 below.

Table 2.11: Income by different sources No. of Sources of Income Total Income Average Income household Cereal Crops 17,800 3 5,933 Vegetables 7,200 3 2,400 Cash Crops 8,050 4 2,013 Fruits 93,800 10 9,380 Herbs 46,120 14 3,294 Livestock 384,900 36 10,692 Livestock product 296,050 32 9,252

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No. of Sources of Income Total Income Average Income household Service 5,234,400 34 153,953 Wage labor 1,404,000 43 32,651 Business 2,413,250 34 70,978 Foreign employment 580,400 13 44,646 Pension 104,400 3 34,800 Rent,interest 34,000 2 17,000 Seeds 0 0 0 Bee keeping 33,400 4 8,350 Sale of land/house 50,000 1 50,000 Others 76,000 3 25,333 Total 10,783,770 480,675 Average annual income = Total average income divided by total no. of households Source: field survey 2010

The average annual expenditure of the household is Rs. 1027 which shows the poor purchasing poor of the households. The higher amount of the income goes for the education of the children (Rs. 15,626), followed by food items (Rs. 13,439). The least amount goes tea dust and agricultural inputs (Rs. 808 and 931 respectively). Table 2.12 below.

2.2.5 Expenditure Pattern As majority of the household earn less than Rs. 100,000 per year the expenditure pattern is also managed accordingly. More than 26% households afford less than Rs. 100,000 a year. Table 2.12 a below.

Table 2.12a: Expenditure range of the households Income Range (Rs.) No. % 10,001 - 30,000 11 11.2 30,001 - 60,000 50 51.0 60,001 - 1,00,000 26 26.5 1,00,001 - 2,00,000 9 9.2 2,00,001 - 3,00,000 2 2.0 Total 98 100.0 Source: Field Survey 2010

The income and expenditure pattern shows the wisdom of the households to economizing resources. Majority (51%) households are under purchasing capacity as they can spend Rs. 30,000 to Rs. 60,000 a year. Only 2% households spend more than Rs. 300,000 per year. The households have different sources of income as presented in Table 2.12 b below.

Table 2.12 b: Household expenditure in different consumption items No. of Average Items Total Expenditure household expenditure Food 1,142,300 85 13,439 Edible oil,salt,speices 327,800 98 3,345 Fruits and vegetable 82,550 39 2,117

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No. of Average Items Total Expenditure household expenditure Tea dust 67,100 83 808 Sugar 156,600 83 1,887 Fish and flesh 223,650 87 2,571 clothing 899,400 97 9,272 Firewood 19,600 11 1,782 Kerosene 93,710 81 1,157 Electricity 35,135 30 1,171 Agriculture inputs 54,910 59 931 Animal food/fodder 16,500 4 4,125 Education 1,359,500 87 15,626 Health care 599,500 68 8,816 Entertainment 27,100 15 1,807 Festival 169,900 61 2,785 Transportation 193,950 73 2,657 Communication 204,190 83 2,460 Payment of interest 344,200 45 7,649 Donation for social work 85,500 50 1,710 Buy ornaments 12,000 1 12,000 Tobacco and drinks 120,970 47 2,574 Total 6,236,065 100,688 Source: field survey 2010

2.2.6 Food sufficiency status Though the average income expenditure data shows the surplus of capital by 27 % but the food grain supply from the farm product is not sufficient in the project are. Majority (52%) households have less than Rs. 100,000 annual income among 7 persons in the family. The income is not sufficient to cover all types of expenditure for whole family members, such as clothing, education, health and other things. Majority of the households have no surplus. Table 2.13 below shows that only 11% households have enough food grains for the whole year. 89% households are under food deficit ranging less than three months to whole year. Among the food deficit families the majority (30%) can feed for 6 to 9 months and nearly equal percent families can survive only for 3 to 6 months from the farm income.

Table 2.13: Food sufficiency from own agricultural production Food sufficiency months No. of families % 12 month and more 11 11.2 9 to 12 month 11 11.2 6 to 9 month 29 29.6 3 to 6 month 28 28.6 less than 3 month 19 19.4 Total 98 100.0 Source: field survey 2010

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2.2.7 Food management During the food deficit months households manage their food grains using different sources of income. Agriculture labor is the first strategy of 27% households and there are 26 % service holders who manage their food by salary. Household never sale land food items even if they are in a crucial period. Business and Non-agriculture labor are the first strategies for 23% and 14% households in the project area. Table 2.14 below.

Table 2.14: Measures to make deficit Sources of income First Strategy % Second Strategy % Salary 22 25.6 3 4.8 Business 20 23.3 5 7.9 Remittance 4 4.7 5 7.9 Sale of food grain 0 0.0 0 0.0 Sale of vegetable 0 0.0 1 1.6 Sale of fruits 0 0.0 1 1.6 Animal/Animal product 0 0.0 13 20.6 Non-agriculture labor 12 14.0 17 27.0 Agriculture Labor 23 26.7 12 19.0 Loan/Debt 5 5.8 6 9.5 Sale of land 0 0.0 0 0.0 Pension/interest/rent 1 1.2 0 0.0 Source: field survey 2010

2.3 Migration 2.3.1 Internal migration pattern of the households Internal migration in the area is not a common factor but 3, (3.06%) households out of 98 migrate to nearby areas (within in VDC or within the district) in this road section. Migrating from one place to another is primarily due to the poverty and unemployment. Table 2.15 below shows the destination and duration of migration in the area. One household migrated from the same VDC and two households from the same district. The households migrated recently (within three years) and tow household are permanently migrated where as one is a temporary. The permanent migrant time length of migration is not so long because the road access is one of the main causes of migration. It is reported that where there is transport facilities the people migrate to the road heads.

Table 2.15: Migration pattern and duration of migration of the households Migrated Duration of migration Cause of No % Types of migration from (years) Migration Temporar Roa Same VDC 1 33.3 < 1 1 2 3 Total Permanent Others y d Same 2 66.7 1 1 1 0 3 2 1 1 2 district Total 3 100.0 1 1 1 3 3 3 Source: field survey 2010

2.3.2 Reasons for migration Since the area is poverty stricken, thus the households migrate for income generation and self employment. The best and immediate measures of self employment are small grocery business or tea stalls in the transport access areas. Hundred percent migrant household

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have adopted small business in the place of destination. Table 6 below explains the reason of migration in this road section.

Table 2.16: Reason for migration Reasons of migration No % 1. Employment 0 0.0 2. Business 3 100.0 3. Service 0 0.0 4. Education 0 0.0 5. Others 0 0.0 Total 3 100.0 Source: field survey 2010

2.3.3 Out migration Out migration also prevailed in the project area. But the out migration is not an uprooting type. Only few members of the households migrate out of settlement for permanent and temporary employment. About 38% household have reported that the members of the family have migrated out of settlement. Total of 54 persons have migrated from the 37 households in this road section. Table 2.17 below indicates that a few numbers of households migrate for temporarily.

Table 2.17: Number of persons out migrated from the settlements. Out migration No. % Duration of migration (years) Types of migration Yes 37 37.8 < 1 1-2 3+3 Total Permanent Temporary No 9 14 61 62.2 (17) (26) 31 (57) 54 (100) 9 (17) 45 (83) Total 98 100.0 54 (100) Source: field survey 2010 (Figures in parentheses indicate %)

Table 8 below shows the duration of living out side settlement those who have migrated out of the settlements. Majority (57.4%) people have leaved the place of origin before 3 years and this trend is prevailing annually the out migration is continuous. Thus about 26% people have migrated within last two years, and about 17% people out migrated within one year. The percentage of permanently out migrated persons contributes 17% (9 persons). It is therefore out migration is seasonal and recurrent. Table 15 below describes the pattern and duration of migration.

Table 2.18: Duration of living of out migrant persons out of village

Total no. Of % Temporary Permanent Duration Households No. % No. % Less than one year 9 16.7 9 20.0 0.0 One – Two years 14 25.9 13 28.9 1 11.1 Three years and more 31 57.4 23 51.1 8 88.9 100. Total 54 100.0 45 100.0 9 0 Source: field survey 2010

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2.3.4 Reasons and duration of out migration: Majority (39%) of the migrant people leave home for employment of any type. Primarily non- agricultural labor is one of the areas of employment. Table 2.19 below says hat about 43% and 42% people who were migrated one and two years ago are employed. Nearly 30% engaged in services especially in different offices, and 25% people migrate for higher education. Very few (6%) people adopted business while they are out of settlement.

Table 2.19: Reason and duration of out migration Duration Reasons < one % 1-2 years % >3 years % Total % year Employment 2 22.2 6 42.9 13 41.9 21 38.9 Business 1 11.1 1 7.1 1 3.2 3 5.6 Service 2 22.2 4 28.6 10 32.3 16 29.6 Education 4 44.4 3 21.4 7 22.6 14 25.9 Others Total 9 100.0 14 100.0 31 100.0 54 100.0 Source: field survey 2010

2.4 Access to Social Services The basic social services for the human being like education, health facilities, market centres, and administrative security centres are presented in Table 2.20 below

Table 2.20: Access to social services

Social services No. of HH % Primary school 98 100.0 Lower secondary school 94 95.9 Secondary school 92 93.94 College 88 89.8 Aurbedic health centre 80 81.6 Sub-health post 60 61.2 Health post 62 63.3 Primary health care center 34 34.7 Hospital 95 96.9 Local market 90 91.8 Main market 97 99.0 District headquarter 87 88.8 Source: field survey 2010

2.4.1 Education Hundred percent households have access to primary education for their children at the settlement areas. Lower Secondary and Secondary School is available for 95% and 92% households respectively. College and higher education is accessible to 90% households. It is why the literacy rate is above than the national average in the project area. It is because this area has nexus to Indian cities across the border.

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2.4.2 Health So far as the health service ids concerned the there are numerous sub-health posts, health s and primary health care centres. Majority (97%) households have been benefiting from hospital services and 82% households have been getting health services from Aurvedic medicines. It is because of the access to transport from Gokuleshwor to Darchula district headquarters, where district level hospital is situated. Not only have general medical services, people adopted prenatal care and immunization of the children from the health institutions. Table 2.21 below describes the tendency of prenatal care of women.

Table 2.21: Prenatal care by women

Yes % No. % 82 83.7 16 16.3 Source: field survey 2010

Table 2.21 above shows that 84% women has started taking prenatal care in such a remote area. About 16% women are still not aware of prenatal care during pregnancy period. It is because of poverty, illiteracy and socially depressing status among the lower caste groups. Those who have practised medical services have access within one hour walking desistance. The district hospital is distantly located thus the people have to walk more than 2 hours. Table 2.22 below.

Table 2.22: Where do the women go for health services % of persons spend Travel time for health services Health Institutions No. % <30 < 1 hrs 1-2 hrs > 2hrs minutes Hospital 13 11.6 0 5 14% 81% Primary Health Care 22 19.6 36 20 14 00 Center Health/Sub-health post 55 49.1 30 60 71 18 Private clinic 13 11.6 12 10% 12 12 Nursing home 1 0.9 00 5 00 00 Volunteer 5 4.5 15 00 00 00 MATRI SHISHU center 2 1.8 3 00 00 00 Others 1 0.9 3 00 00 00 Total 112 100.0 100 100 100 100 Source: field survey 2010

Table 2.22 shows that majority (71%) of the households have access to sub-health post stations within 30 minutes to 2 hours walking distance. Only 30% households are lucky who have access to health post within 30 minutes walking distance. It is thus the medical services are not access to every body even if there is a transport system in operation. People walk to get medical services of all types. As presented in Table 20 below 94% households and the patients have to walk to get medical services. Table 2.23 below.

Table 2.23: Means of transportation for vaccinating children Road Sector Development Project, (IDA Grant No: H339-NEP) New Project Preparation & Supervision Page 2-11

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Means of transportation No. % Foot 83 94.3 Vehicle 5 5.7 Total 88 100.0

Only 5% households have access to transport because they reside along the road alignment. The interior settlements still have no transport facility for short distance travel because the location of sub-health posts and health posts is beyond the road alignment. There is no link road system in the interior settlements. It is therefore the connection from point to point does not serve for the locales for short distance travel.

2.4.3 Market centers After the opening up of this track, nearly hundred percent households have access to main market at a distant location but 92% households have access to local markets to buy food grain and to sell surplus agriculture production. Table 17 above.

2.4.4 District headquarters The district headquarter has various importance. All types of district level administrative and financial institutions are centered in the district headquarters such as administrative office, police station, hospitals, agriculture and veterinary services, good schools and colleges and other development agencies. People have to visit so many times to the district headquarter for citizenship certificate, passport, land registration and to obtain loan from the bank and to repay loan. So the transport system facilitated to 89% households along the zone of influence of the road. Table 17 above.

2.5 Gender Issues It is widely reported that women are discriminated and exploited by their own family members. Due to seasonal absence of males who out-migrate temporarily to other parts of the county or India in search of job, women carry out both household and outside farm related works. Many women of the area have no property in their name. The educational status of women is lower with comparison to male. Women literacy rate in Darchula district is 32.5 percent where the male literacy rate is 67.4 percent. The society also imposes restrictions on the mobility of women and their participation in the public sphere.

The participation of women is higher in traditional type of works such as fetching water, collection of fodder, preparing food for the family members and taking care of children. The role of women in decision making is non-significant in comparison to male. But inn this road section public participation of women is not so poor as compared to other areas. Table 2.24 below explains the involvement of women in different social activities.

Table 2.24: Involvement of male and female in different activities Activities Male Times % Female times % Social works 489 25.8 292 22.5 Religious works 482 25.4 529 40.7 Community meeting 452 23.9 315 24.2 Political meeting 146 7.7 47 3.6 Source : Field Survey 2010

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Table 2.24 above shows that the involvement of women in religious activities is dominant. Dividing the volume of work more than 40% religious work is undertaken by women. Social works and community meetings are divided nearly equally between male and female. It is obvious that the political activities are the tasks of male so, more male participate in political meetings in local areas (7.7% male and 3.6% female).

2.5.1 Property right Status of Women It is true that female are exploited and made insecure by the male in a traditional societies. But at present the female have also been acknowledged for property rights and a small percentage of households have granted ownership of some part of property to the women as described in Table 2.25 below. The land as a main source of income, power, and prestige normally used to be under the name of male and household heads. 15% of the sampled households have given land rights to the women. Similarly, less than 20% rights on houses, cash and bank account, livestock, and ornaments to the women.

Table 2.25: Property right of women Property types % Land 15.8 House 17.5 Cash 14.2 Livestock/Poultry 18.0 Bank account 15.8 Ornament 18.7 Total 100.0 Source: Field Survey 2010

The lower caste group (Dalits) is the most disadvantaged group in the study area. Dalits are highly marginalized group because of lack of education, job opportunity, and economic condition as compared to other groups. Dalits are marginal landholders or landless people who mostly depend on their traditional occupation and agriculture. Among them, Dalit women become double victims, one by patriarchy and another by untouchability. Both practices are deep rooted and have significantly disadvantaged Dalit women. Most of Dalit parents, in lack of awareness and poverty, do not send their daughters to school. Furthermore, the dropout rate of Dalit

2.6 Child labor Child labor is a common factor in the agrarian economy. The children are a the subordinates of the parents to free them for farm work helping them taking acre of young child, collecting grass and fetching water, helping in kitchen and some time shouldering for non-farm works for the artisan parents.

Table 2.26: Participation of children in various works Participation of Child Total (Average) Types of works Maximum Minimum No. % No. % No. % Fetching water 19 34.5 165 17.6 184 18.6 Collecting 7 12.7 94 10.1 101 10.2 firewood/fodder Food preparation 3 5.5 98 10.5 101 10.2 Washing cloth 5 9.1 154 16.5 159 16.1 Road Sector Development Project, (IDA Grant No: H339-NEP) New Project Preparation & Supervision Page 2-13

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Participation of Child Total (Average) Types of works Maximum Minimum No. % No. % No. % Cooking food 3 5.5 87 9.3 90 9.1 Child carrying 4 7.3 118 12.6 122 12.3 Agri. works 3 5.5 64 6.8 67 6.8 Grazing livestock 7 12.7 73 7.8 80 8.1 Non-agri. labour 32 3.4 32 3.2 Agri. labor 4 7.3 50 5.3 54 5.5 Total 55 100.0 935 100.0 990 100.0 Source: Field Survey 2010

Table 2.26 above presents that 434.5% children support parents fetching drinking water in the rural areas. It is the job of girl children. But on an average the total volume of works comes to be nearly 19%. The second types of child work are caring young children while the parents are on farm work. About 12% part of child caring is taken by the young children before and after school time. Grazing cattle, agricultural labor and helping in kitchen is a middle range task of the child and non-agricultural labor is an exceptional and applicable especially in the occupational caste group families, like tailors, blacksmiths and cobblers. The children are expected to help in small tasks like blowing fire in the blacksmith’s hearth while the father is melting metal, collecting coal. In the house of tailors the child are asked to stitch small cloths. The cobbler family employ child to vigilance the astray dogs and other scavengers to save the raw hide while it is tanned on sunlight. It does not mean that the children should be allowed to employ during road construction. It is recommended that a mandatory clause should be put in the contract document that the contractor should not employ any child in the construction.

2.7 Vulnerable Communities The area is occupied by majority of Thakuri and Chhetri community. The family structure is joint and every member is supposed to take economic responsibility for the family members so, even if there are few women headed households are not economically independent. The old aged people and disabled are supported by other family members. The land losing families also may not be adversely affected by the project because the loss of land is extremely small path since the project requires only two meters of land either side of the central line. The indigenous nationalities are not presented in the area. But only 25 households of Dalit families were presented, which comes to be 20.7% of the total sampled households. Table 2.27 below

Table 2.27: Presence of vulnerable communities Age group

21- 30 yrs 31 - 40 yrs 41 - 50 yrs 51 - 60 yrs 61 + Total Communities No % No % No % No % No % No % Gurung 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Tamang 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Dalit 3 23.1 7 25.9 6 16.7 6 27.3 3 13.0 25 20.7 Source:Field Survey 2010

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It is thus in this road section there is no need of vulnerable people development plan because these sampled dalits also not losing any thing from the project because they are settled at distantly located areas from the road head and are scattered .

2.8 General attitude towards the road project and acceptance of the people The general impact of the road and the people’s view toward road project was assessed through individual consultation during household survey. The households were asked about the need of the road in the area their cooperation and acceptance of the project. Total of 52% households had welcomed with full agreement without putting pre-conditions. 47% households welcomed with some preconditions, such as proper monitoring during and post construction period on child labor, human trafficking, transmission of HIV/AIDS, and local employment, and one percent (one household out of 98 household) does not know about the importance of the road project. Table 2.27 below describes the attitudes of the households.

Table 2.27: Perception and acceptance of the people towards the road project Accepted with Fully accepted Don't know Total conditions No. % No. % No. % No. % 51 52 46 47 1 1 98 100.0 2.8.1 Reasons of acceptance The reasons of accepting road project are different for different people. It was noticed that everybody is conscious and aware of the importance of road as a development infrastructure. Majority (76.5%) households are of the opinion that the road brings a transport facility in the remote areas. The cost of consumer goods in the area is expensive so, 56.1% households are of the opinion that the transport system will help to reduce the cost of consumer commodity. Total of 37% households opined that the road helps faster travel and reduces the travel time. Table 2.28 below summarizes the details of the all reasons to accept the road project.

Table 2.28: Positive aspect of road improvement project* Reasons No. % Decrease Accidents 5 5.1 Transportation facility 75 76.5 Reduces travel time 36 36.7 Reduce the commodity price 55 56.1 Creates Employment 10 10.2 Enhances Local Development 3 3.1 Increase in business 6 6.1 Wide and open road 2 2.0 Extension of local markets 18 18.4 Social security 2 2.0 Access to communication 2 2.0 Do not know 1 1.0 *Multiple response

As mentioned in Table 2.28 above 18% households reported that the road helps to enhance and open new agriculture market in the rural area by which the farmers will benefit selling their surplus production at farm gate. 6% households are of the opinion that the road helps Road Sector Development Project, (IDA Grant No: H339-NEP) New Project Preparation & Supervision Page 2-15

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local business of all types. In addition to all these major impacts the households have assessed that the road may bring social security, providing access to prompt communication with district headquarters.

2.8.2 Assumed Negative Impacts of the road project: Apart from the positive impacts the households have assumed probable negative impacts of the transport system. Majority of the households (53.1%) reported that the road cause more accident due to the narrowness and increasing number of traffic. About 52% reported that road adds environmental pollution (dust and noise). About 36% household opined that as the flow of out group population increases through easy transportation the volume of crime also increases. 27% household reported that the fertile arable land will be lost due to the road and people may lose their means of livelihood. High chance of transmission of HIV/AIDS was assumed by 12% households, due to transport access. The in and out movement of the people can bear different types of communicable diseases. Similarly there is a high chance of smuggling forest resources and destruction of physical infrastructures in the area. Table 2.29 below.

Table 2.29: Negative aspect of road improvement project* Probable negative impacts No. % Increase Accident 52 53.1 Environment pollution 51 52.0 Increase crime 35 35.7 Women trafficking 2 2.0 Loss of agricultural land 27 27.6 Increase diseases 2 2.0 Invites HIV/AIDS 12 12.2 Don't know 6 6.1 Increase inflow of human 6 6.1 Loss of infrastructures (irrigation canal and landslides) 2 2.0 Cultural intervention 7 7.1 Loss of forest resources 3 3.1 Not Reported 4 4.1 *Multiple response

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3. SOCIAL ASSESSMENT OF THAKTHOLI-DARCHULA 3.1 Socio-economic Analysis 3.1.1 Introduction: Thaktholi-Darchula road section covers five VDCs of Darchula district. Total of 2926 households and 21649 people will come under the influence of this road section as direct or indirect beneficiaries. This road part of Gokuleshwor to district headquarter of Darchula covering few human settlements and goes through passing more public land. The total sampled households were 98. In each VDC the male population is higher than the female, and the average household size is 7.4 which is nearly 150% more than the national average (5.44). especially in Khalanga the average household size is just double than the national average (9.4), because Khalanga is a district headquarter where the settlement area is very narrow stretch in the Mahakali river bed with high density of population. Table 3. 1 below.

Table 3.1: Population Composition of the Affected VDCs VDCs Total HH Male Female Total Ave. HH Size Shankarpur 549 1,797 1,723 3520 6.4 Bhagwati 545 2,002 1,891 3,893 7.1 Dattu 409 1,434 1,418 2,852 6.9 Dhap 857 3,012 3,012 6,024 7.0 Khalanga 566 2,838 2,522 5,360 9.4 Total 2,926 11,083 10,566 21,649 7.4 Source: District Profile of Darchula, 2009

3.1.2 Age and sex of the sampled household heads: The interviewed male households contribute 94.21%. There are only 5.78% female headed households. In the traditional rural areas it is obvious that female is the subordinate parts of the male. It is therefore the males are responsible for all household affairs including economic, social and cultural. Table 3.2 below.

Table 3.2: Age and sex of the household head Sex Age group Male (%) Female (%) Total (%) 21- 30 years 13(10.74) 0 (0) 13(10.74) 31-40 25 (20.66) 2 (1.65) 27 (22.31) 41-50 32 (26.44) 4 (3.30) 36 (29.75) 51-60 22 (18.18) 0 (0) 22 (18.18) 60+ 22(18.18) 1 (0.82) 23 (19.00) Total 114 (94.21) 7 (5.78) 121 (99.99) Source: Field survey 2010

3.1.3 Ethnic Composition: Table 3.3: Ethnic composition of the population 31 - 40 41 - 50 51 - 60 21- 30 yrs 61 + Total yrs yrs yrs Ethnic groups No No No No No No % % % % % % ...... Road Sector Development Project, (IDA Grant No: H339-NEP) New Project Preparation & Supervision Page 3-1

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31 - 40 41 - 50 51 - 60 21- 30 yrs 61 + Total yrs yrs yrs Ethnic groups No No No No No No % % % % % % ...... Brahman 5 18.5 10 27.8 4 18.2 7 30.4 26 21.5 Chhetri/Thakuri 10 76.9 13 48.1 18 50.0 12 54.5 12 52.2 65 53.7 Gurung 1 2.8 1 4.3 2 1.7 Tamang 1 3.7 1 0.8 Dalit 3 23.1 7 25.9 6 16.7 6 27.3 3 13.0 25 20.7 Budhathoki/Tink 1 3.7 1 2.8 2 1.7 ari Total 100. 100. 100. 100. 100. 12 100. 13 27 36 22 23 0 0 0 0 0 1 0

Total population of the sampled households in this road section is 764, in which 54. 98 % is of the male and 45. 02% is of the female. The majority population (around 64.5%) falls under 16-65 years age group. It is an indication of higher presence of economically active population in the area. The dependent population below 15 years are 31.3 which is an indication of preserving working population in future. The old aged dependents (65 and above) are only 4.2%. Average household size is 6.3 which is bigger than the national average (5.44). Table 3.4 below.

Table 3.4: Demographic Features of the Sampled Households No. of Households Population HH size % of Population by Age Groups

Male Female 0-15 16-45 46-65 65 + Total No. 121 420 344 6.3 239 392 101 32 764 % 54.98 45.02 31.3 51.3 13.2 4.2 100.0 Source: Field survey 2010.

Table 3 above shows that the area represents that nearly one third (31.3%) of population is of the young child below 15 years age group. It is because of the agrarian social structure, where population growth is welcomed. The households require more labor force for agriculture and do not care about planned population growth.

3.1.4 Marital status of the respondents Marital status of the respondents shows that there are more than 92% married respondents. The population size of widow and widower is very small (3.30% and 1.65% respectively). Only 3% unmarried male respondents, it is why the modern educated persons desire late marriage. Divorce is not a common practice in the rural areas. So it is not reported the presence of divorcee among the sampled respondent. Table 3.5.

Table 3.5: Marital status of respondents Widow/Wi Sex Married % Unmarried % Divorcee % % Total % dower 88.4 0. Male 107 4 3.30 0 2 1.65 113 93.39 9 0 11.5 0. Female 4 0 0.0 0 4 3.30 8 6.61 7 0 91.7 0. Total 111 4 3.30 0 6 4.95 121 100 3 0 Road Sector Development Project, (IDA Grant No: H339-NEP) New Project Preparation & Supervision Page 3-2

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Source: Field survey 2010.

3.1.5 Literacy status of the Respondents: Since there are 84% households are literate among the respondents. Nearly 16% respondents are illiterate in such remote areas, because of the fact that the majority of the respondents are male. Table 3.6 below gives the literacy status of the respondents.

Table 3.6: Literacy status of the respondent Level of education No. % Illiterate 19 15.7 Literate 102 84.3 Total 121 100.0 Source: Field survey 2010.

3.1.6 Occupation of the sampled household heads Though main occupation of the majority (41%), household heads in this area is agriculture but business is one of the attractive occupations as a regular source of income of 24% households followed by service (about 20%). There are no agricultural labors. About 10% nonagricultural labor is found in this area. Non-agriculture labor as an artisan, skilled workers and junior technicians is a compulsive occupation for the landless and marginal land holding households. All women household heads also employed in agriculture and domestic work so there are no women without work. The occupation of family members of the sample households is presented in Table 3.7 below.

Table 3.7: Occupation of the household heads. Types of occupation Agri. Non –agri Foreign House Service Business Student Idle Others Total Agriculture Labor Labor employment wife No. 50 24 29 0 12 2 0 1 0 3 121 % 100. 41.3 19.8 24.0 0.0 9.9 1.7 0.0 0.8 0.0 2.5 0 Source: field survey 2010

3.2 Economy 3.2.1 Occupation of the family members The occupation of households heads and the occupation of total population in the area is same. As agriculture is the main occupation of the majority (41%) households the majority population 23% have adopted the agriculture. Since, the large portion (45%) of population is student which is the partial labor force of the households. The students also help to their parents in farm work. The service is the occupation of 9.4% population and 4.2 % women are looking after the domestic affairs as a housewife among the well being families. Only 1.8% population is reported jobless but they also contribute in farm work. Table 4 below summarizes the occupation of the population.

Table 3.8: Occupation of the family members Types of occupation adopted Number of people Percentage Agriculture 175 23.0 Service 72 9.4 Business 47 6.2 Agriculture labor 2 0.3

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Types of occupation adopted Number of people Percentage Non-agriculture labor 58 7.6 Student 342 44.9 Foreign employment 3 0.4 House wife 32 4.2 Jobless 14 1.8 Others 17 2.2 Total 762 100. Source: field survey 2010

3.2.2 Land use and agriculture As agriculture is the major source of income and livelihood of the people in this project area. The land in the area is irrigated Khet land, unirrigated khet land, unirrigated upland (Pakho/Bari), and grass land at slope (Kharbari). People grow paddy in irrigated land where irrigation system is employed and in unirrigated paddy land where the monsoon is only the source of irrigation, the unirrigated upland is without terraced outward slope land where dry crops are grown. Majority of the households possess irrigated as well as unirrigated and Pakho or Bari land. The use of Pakho is for grass, thatch for roofing of houses, firewood, grazing and sometimes it is used for shifting cultivation.

So far as land tenure system is concerned, only two households are tenants in this road section. Al most all landowners cultivate their land on their own using family labors. It is because of the fact that the supply of land is limited in the hill areas and people demand more land for survival. Not only the land is limited but the Land Reform Act (1964 amended 1996) provisioned that tenant has right to claim 50% of the rented in land in case of removal from the tenancy right once he/she cultivates the land for on agriculture cycle. So land owners do not desired to lose land parting to the tenants at 50 % employing for cultivation. Only one household has contracted out land to the cultivators. Table 3.9 below.

Table 3.9: Land ownership status and land use types in the area. No. of No. of No of Types of land Owner % Tenants % Renting % cultivators (Renting in) out Irrigated Khet (paddy 62 34.4 1 50.0 0 0.0 land) Unirrigated Khet (paddy) 100. 53 29.4 1 50.0 1 land 0 Pakho/ Bari 15 8.3 0 0.0 0 0.0 Kharbari 50 27.8 0 0.0 0 0.0 Others 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 Total 100. 100. 180 100.0 2 1 0 0 Source: field survey 2010

3.2.3 Average land holding size in the project areas: Majority (30% households) hold 0.5 to 1.0 hectare land including irrigated khet, bari and pakho in the project area, which is less than minimum requirement for survival, because the average household size is 6.3 (Table 3.9 above). The land less households contributes 35.5%, which is relatively a bigger number in the area. The households who hold more than 2 hectare are 5 % including the households holding more than 5 hectare. Table 3.10 below. Road Sector Development Project, (IDA Grant No: H339-NEP) New Project Preparation & Supervision Page 3-4

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Table 3.10: Average land holding size in the project area Land holding size No % Land less 43 35.5 Less than 0.5hac 36 29.8 0.5 to 1 hac 28 23.1 1 to 2 hac 8 6.6 2 to 3 hac 4 3.3 3 to 4 hac 00 0.0 4 to 5 hac 00 0.0 5 hac + 2 1.7 Total 121 100.0 Source: field survey 2010

3.2.4 Income and poverty status of the area It is obvious that the project area is below poverty line. The average income of the majority (30%) households from different sources is between Rs. 100,000 to 200,000/ per annum. Households earning Rs. 10,000 to 30,000 contribute 18.2%. But about 9.1% households fall below Rs. 60,000/ per annum earning group. The average household size is 6.3. 9 % earn Rs. 30,000 to 60,000/. Thus these households belong to below poverty line, since those who have less than Rs. 10,000/ per annum fall below poverty line. 11.6% households have income between Rs. 2,00,00 to 3,000,000, and 17.4% households earn more than Rs. 3,00,000 per year. Thus this section has relatively better economic condition as compared to Gokuleshwor-Thaktholi section. Table 3.11 below.

Table 3.11: Annual income of the households Income Range (Rs.) No. % 10,001 - 30,000 22 18.2 30,001 - 60,000 11 9.1 60,001 - 1,00,000 17 14.0 1,00,001 - 2,00,000 36 29.8 2,00,001 - 3,00,000 14 11.6 >3,00,000 21 17.4 Total 121 100.0 Source: field survey 2010

The income range shows that the 33 % households have been facing economic crisis in which 22% households earn below Rs. 30,000 per year and 11% earn less than 60,000 a year, and surviving in a subsistence level. Till date the households could not be able to get benefit from the transport facilities. The itemized annual income of the household is presented in Table 3.12 below. The highest income is from business (30 households), followed by fruit sell, but it is exceptional because only one household sells fruits. Six households earn maximum from remittance. The service holders get monthly salary at a fixed amount, other sources like cereal crops, animal products, selling herbs, etc is time and situation based income, which is not fixed. The average annual expenditure is Rs. 10,639 among 6.2 members of the household, which further shows the lowest purchasing capacity. Table 3.12 and 3.13 below.

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Table 3.12: Income by different sources No. of Average Sources of Income Total Income household Income Cereal Crops 0 0 0 Vegetables 19,650 1 19,650 Cash Crops 106,400 1 1,06,400 Fruits 2,52,000 1 2,52,000 Herbs 6,625 3 2,208 Livestock 35,950 7 5,136 Livestock product 127,100 13 9,777 Service 8,395,500 54 1,55,472 Wage labor 1,703,000 38 44,816 Business 8,149,400 30 2,71,647 Foreign employment 1,403,000 6 2,33,833 Pension 630,656 11 57,332 Rent,interest 456,000 5 91,200 Seeds 0 0 0 Bee keeping 0 0 0 Sale of land/house 113,600 3 37,867 total 1,219,000 9 1,287,338 Source: field survey 2010

Since the income of the household is not enough for average standard of living, the higher amount of the income goes for the education of the children (Rs. 1,965,400), followed by food items (1,271,100). The least amount goes for agriculture inputs. The are is relatively expenditure items are firewood, entertainment, and social works. The is relatively advanced so, people have expenditure items like electricity, transportation, health care, payment of interest Table 3.13 below. 3.2.5 Expenditure Range In this road section majority households (33%) can spend less than Rs. 60,000 and 29% spend less than Rs. 30,000 per year. The middle rang group household is 18% who can spend less than Rs. 100,000 a year and only 3% households have a full capacity to spend more than Rs. 300,000 a year. It is therefore clear that the sampled households fall below poverty line in this road section. Table 3.13 a below.

Table 3.13 a: Average yearly expenditure of the households (in NRs) Expenditure Range (Rs.) No. % 10,001 - 30,000 35 28.9 30,001 - 60,000 40 33.1 60,001 - 1,00,000 22 18.2 1,00,001 - 2,00,000 16 13.2 2,00,001 - 3,00,000 4 3.3 >3,00,000 4 3.3 Total 121 100.0 Road Sector Development Project, (IDA Grant No: H339-NEP) New Project Preparation & Supervision Page 3-6

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Source: Feld Survey 2010

The data presented in Table 3.12a above shows that majority of the sampled households are surviving under economic hardship. The items to be managed for the household are listed in Table 3.13b below. A large amount of income goes for the education of children in this area as it is true in other hill districts also. The second larges amount is spent for food items with some exceptions like animal feed in this road section. There are only 17 households spending a big amount for animal feed.

Table 3.13b: Household expenditure in different consumption items Items Total Expenditure No. of household Average expenditure Food 1,271,100 109 11,661 Edible oil, salt, species 3,97,300 121 3,283 Fruits and vegetable 3,17,400 63 5,038 Tea dust 71,400 107 667 Sugar 1,84,500 108 1,708 Fish and flesh 3,45,150 94 3,672 clothing 9,78,000 119 8,218 Firewood 58,700 26 2,258 Kerosene 1,24,044 106 1,170 Electricity 2,89,300 72 4,018 Agri. inputs 52,750 67 787 Animal food/fodder 2,38,800 17 14,047 Education 1,965,400 106 18,542 Health care 9,48,750 81 11,713 Entertainment 13,000 5 2,600 Festival 3,69,100 74 4,988 Transportation 2,98,400 98 3,045 Communication 4,17,600 104 4,015 Payment of interest 6,74,730 40 16,868 Donation for social work 1,57,150 50 3,143 Buy ornaments 1,22,500 3 40,833 Tobacco and drinks 1,30,600 57 2,291 Total 9,425,674 5 1,64,568 Source: field survey 2010

Kerosene and electricity are also basic sources of energy of the households so they are compelled to meet the expenses for these items. The transport facility and the influence of media has a good impact on health care. Table 3.13b explains that 81 households spending sufficient amount for health.

3.2.6 Food sufficiency status: Though the aggregate income expenditure data shows that there is a little bit surplus but the food grain supply from the farm product is not sufficient. Majority (44%) households can feed their population for less than three months from the farm products. The regular expenditure is far away for those households such as clothing, education, health and other things. Majority of the households have no surplus. Table 3.14 below shows that only 2.5 % households have enough food grains for the whole year. 97.5 % households are under food deficit ranging less than three months to whole year. Among the food deficit families 28 Road Sector Development Project, (IDA Grant No: H339-NEP) New Project Preparation & Supervision Page 3-7

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% can feed for 6 to 9 months and 14% families can survive only for 3 to 6 months from the farm income. It is obvious that the households are surviving economic hardship. Table 3.14 below.

Table 3.14: Food sufficiency from own agricultural production Food sufficiency months No. of families % 12 month and more 3 2.5 9 to 12 month 14 11.6 6 to 9 month 34 28.1 3 to 6 month 17 14.0 less than 3 month 53 43.8 Total 121 100.0 Source: field survey 2010

3.2.7 Food management during deficit months During the food deficit months households manage their food grains using different sources of income. Salary from the employer is the first strategy of 36 % households and there are 27.5 % households survive on business. Household never sale land food items even if they are in a crucial period. Non-agriculture labor and agriculture labor are the first strategies for 19.3 % and 11.9 % households in the project area. Table 3.15 below.

Table 3.15: income sources to manage food during deficit months Sources of income First Strategy % Second Strategy % Salary 39 35.8 7 12.5 Business 30 27.5 1 1.8 Remittance 1 0.9 1 1.8 Sale of food grain 0 0.0 0 0.0 Sales of veg. 0 0.0 0 0.0 Sales of fruits 0 0.0 0 0.0 Animal/Animal product 1 0.9 5 8.9 Non-agri. labour 21 19.3 3 5.4 Agri. Labour 13 11.9 22 39.3 Loan/Debt 3 2.8 13 23.2 Sale of land 0 0.0 1 1.8 Pension/interest/rent 5 4.6 3 5.4 Source: field survey 2010

3.3 Migration 3.3.1 Internal migration pattern of the households Internal migration in the area is not a common factor but 14 households out of 121 households migrated to nearby areas (within in VDC or within the district) in this road section. Migrating from one place to another is primarily due to the economic factors. Table 3.16 below shows the destination and duration of migration in the area. Two household migrated from the same VDC and twelve households from the same district. Out od 14 households 12 households migrated temporarily (within three years) and 2 household permanently. It is reported that where there is transport facilities the people migrate to the road heads for employment and income generation.

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Table 3.16: Migration pattern and duration of migration of the households Migrated Duration of migration Cause of No % Types of migration from (years) Migration

Same VDC 2 14.3 < 1 1 2 >3 Total Permanent Temporary Road Others

Same district 12 78.6 0 1 1 12 14 2 12 6 8

Total 14 100.0 1 1 1 3 14

Source: field survey 2010

3.3.2 Reasons for migration Since the area is poverty stricken, thus the households migrate for income generation and self employment. The best and immediate measures of self employment are small grocery business or tea stalls in the transport access areas. 57% percent migrant household have adopted small business in the place of destination. Table 3.17 below explains the reason of migration in this road section.

Table 3.17: Reason for migration Reasons of migration No % 1. Employment 4 28.6 2. Business 8 57.1 3. Service 0 0.0 4. Education 2 14.3 5. Others 0 0.0 Total 14 100.0 Source: field survey 2010

3.3.3 Out migration Out migration also prevailed in the project area. But the out migration is not an uprooting type. Only few members of the households migrate out of settlement for permanent and temporary employment. About 42 % household have reported that the members of the family have migrated out of settlement. Total of 51 persons have migrated from the 121 households in this road section. Table 3.18 below indicates that 10% numbers of households migrate for temporarily.

Table 3.18: Number of persons out migrated from the settlements. Out migration No. of hhs % Duration of migration (years) Types of migration

Yes 51 42.1 < 1 1-2 3+ Total Permanent Temporary

7 16 47 No 70 57.9 70 (100) 00 7 (9.9) (9.9) (22.5) (66.2)

Total 121 100.0

Source: field survey 2010 (Figures in parentheses indicate %)

Table 2.19 below shows the duration of living out side settlement of the migrant person, Majority (22.5%) people have leaved the place of origin before 3 years. The trend of migration is prevailing annually and continuous. Thus about 11.3 % people have migrated

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within last two years, and about 1.4 % people out migrated within one year. It is therefore out migration is seasonal and recurrent. Table 3.19 below describes the pattern and duration of migration.

Table 3.19: Duration of living of out migrant persons out of village Total no. Of % Temporary Permanent Duration Households No. % No. % Less than one year 1 1.4 1 1.4 00 00 One – Two years 8 11.3 8 11.3 00 00 Three years and more 16 22.5 16 22.5 00 00 Total 47 66.2 47 66.2 00 00 Source: field survey 2010

3.3.4 Reasons and duration of out migration Majority (37.5 %) of the migrant people leave home for employment of any type. Primarily non-agricultural labor is one of the areas of employment. Table 2.19 below says hat 25% and 50 % people who were migrated 1-2 years ago were employed. Nearly 49% engaged in services especially in different offices, and 21% people migrate for higher education. Very few (1.4%) people adopted business while they are out of settlement.

Table 3.20: Reason and time length of out migration Duration Reasons < one % 1-2 years % >3 years % Total % year Employment 3 37.5 4 25.0 12 25.5 19 26.8 Business 0 0 1 6.3 0 0 1 1.4 Service 3 37.5 8 50.0 23 48.9 34 47.9 Education 2 25.0 3 18.8 10 21.3 15 21.1 Others 2 4.3 2 2.8 Total 8 100.0 16 100.0 47 100.0 71 100.0 Source: field survey 2010

3.4 Access to Social Services The basic social services for the human being like education, health facilities, market centres, and administrative security centres are available in the area. Some services are accessible to majority population and some services are access to very few people. More than 80% households have access to education, hospital, and markets. It is understood that he existing road helped the distance of all these service centres. Table 3.21 below.

Table 3.21: Access to social services Social services No. of HH % Primary school 104 86.0 Lower secondary school 103 85.1 Secondary school 96 79.3 College 90 74.4 Aurbedic health centre 13 10.7 Sub-health post 43 35.5 Health post 32 26.4 Road Sector Development Project, (IDA Grant No: H339-NEP) New Project Preparation & Supervision Page 3-10

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Social services No. of HH % Primary health care center 4 3.3 Hospital 101 83.5 Local market 101 83.5 Main market 103 85.1 District headquarter 99 81.8 Source: field survey 2010

3.4.1 Education Hundred percent households have access to primary education for their children at the settlement areas. Lower Secondary and Secondary School is available for 86% and 85% households respectively. College and higher education is accessible to 74% and more households. It is why the literacy rate is above than the national average in the project area. It is because this area has nexus to Indian cities across the border.

3.4.2 Health So far as the health service is concerned there are sub-health posts and health posts in each VDCs. Majority (84%) households have been benefiting from hospital services and 10 % households have been getting health services from Aurvedic medicines, which least choice of the people. It is because of the access to transport from Gokuleshwor to Darchula district headquarters, where district level hospital is situated. Not only had the general medical services, people adopted prenatal care and immunization of the children from the health institutions. Table 3.22 below describes the tendency of prenatal care of women.

Table 3.22: Prenatal care by women Yes % No. % Total (%) 102 84.3 19 15.7 121(100) Source: field survey 2010

Table 2.21 above shows that 84% women has started taking prenatal care in such a remote area. About 16% women are still not aware of prenatal care during pregnancy period. It is because of poverty, illiteracy and socially depressing status among the lower caste groups. Those who have practised medical services have access within one hour walking desistance. The district hospital is distantly located thus the people have to walk more than 2 hours. Table 3.23 below.

Table 3.23: Where do the women go for health services % of persons spend Travel time for health services Health Institutions No. % <30 < 1 hrs 1-2 hrs > 2hrs minutes Hospital 56 54.9 44.7 76.7 22.2 57.1 Primary Health Care 1 1.0 2.6 00 5.6 00 Center Health/Sub-health 44 43.1 50.0 23.3 72.2 42.9 post Private clinic 1 1.0 2.6 00 00 00 Nursing home 0 0.0 00 00 00 00

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% of persons spend Travel time for health services Health Institutions No. % <30 < 1 hrs 1-2 hrs > 2hrs minutes Volunteer 0 0.0 00 00 00 00 MATRI SHISHU 00 00 00 00 0 0.0 center Others 0 0.0 00 00 00 00 Total 102 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 Source: field survey 2010

Only 102 households out of 121 visit to hospitals and other health institutions in this area for medical treatment.

Table 2.22 shows that majority (57%) households have access to hospital since the settlement is near by district headquarter. About 43% of the households have access to sub-health post stations within 30 minutes to 2 hours walking distance. 50% households have access to health post within 30 minutes walking distance. It is thus the by one way or the other medical services is access to every body due to the transport system. People also walk to get medical services as the health posts are not located along the road. As presented in Table 20 below 88% households and the patients have to walk to get medical services. Table 3.24 below.

Table 3.24: Means of transportation for vaccinating children Means of transportation No. % Foot 90 88.00 Vehicle 12 12.00 Total 102 100.00

Only 12 % households have access to transport because they reside along the road alignment. The interior settlements still have no transport facility for short distance travel because the location of sub-health posts and health posts is beyond the road alignment. There is no link road system in the interior settlements. It is therefore the connection from point to point does not serve the locales for short distance travel.

3.4.3 Market centers After the opening up of this track, 85% households have access to main market at a distant location but 83% households have access to local markets to buy food grain and to sell surplus agriculture production. The access to market encouraged people to adopt business apart from agriculture. Table 3.21 above.

3.4.4 District headquarters The district headquarter has various importance. All types of district level administrative and financial institutions are centered in the district headquarters such as administrative office, police station, hospitals, agriculture and veterinary services, good schools and colleges and other development agencies. People have to visit so many times to the district headquarter for citizenship certificate, passport, land registration and to obtain loan from the bank and to

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repay loan. So the transport system facilitated to 89% households along the zone of influence of the road. Table 3.21 above.

3.5 Gender Issues 3.5.1 Introduction It is widely reported that women are discriminated and exploited by their own family members. Due to seasonal absence of males who out-migrate temporarily to other parts of the county or India in search of job, women carry out both household and outside farm related works. Many women of the area have no property in their name. The educational status of women is lower with comparison to male. Women literacy rate in Darchula district is 32.5 percent where the male literacy rate is 67.4 percent. The society also imposes restrictions on the mobility of women and their participation in the public sphere.

The participation of women is higher in traditional type of works such as fetching water, collecting fodder, preparing food for the family members and taking care of children. The role of women in decision making is non-significant in comparison to male. But in this road section public participation of women is not so poor as compared to other areas. Table 3.25 below explains the involvement of women in different social activities.

Table 3.25: Involvement of male and female in different activities Activities Male Times* % Female times* % Social works 409 24.3 263 19.7 Religious works 460 27.3 547 40.9 Community meeting 408 24.2 347 25.9 Political meeting 181 10.8 81 6.1 *multiple response Source : Field Survey 2010

Table 3.25 above shows that the involvement of women in religious activities is dominant. Dividing the volume of work among male and female 41 % religious work is undertaken by women. Social works (20%) and community meetings( 26%) are divided for the female. It is obvious that the political activities are the tasks of male so, more male participate in political meetings in local areas (11 % male and 6% female).

3.5.2 Property right Status of Women It is true that female are exploited and made insecure by the male in a traditional societies. But at present the female have also been acknowledged for property rights and a small percentage of households have granted ownership of some part of property to the women as described in Table 3.26 below. The land as a main source of income, power, and prestige normally used to be controlled by male and household heads. Around 20% of the sampled households have given land rights to the women. Similarly, 37 % rights over houses, cash and bank account, livestock, and ornaments is given to the women.

Table 3.26: Property right of women Property types % Land 19.6 House 21.7 Cash 10.9 Livestock/Poultry 19.6 Road Sector Development Project, (IDA Grant No: H339-NEP) New Project Preparation & Supervision Page 3-13

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Property types % Bank account 10.9 Ornament 17.4 Total 100.0 Source: Field Survey 2010

The lower caste group (Dalits) is the most disadvantaged group in the study area. Dalits are highly marginalized group because of lack of education, job opportunity, and economic condition as compared to other groups. Dalits are marginal landholders or landless people who mostly depend on their traditional occupation and agriculture. Among them, Dalit women become double victims, one by patriarchal social structure and another by untouchability. Both practices are deep rooted in the society and disadvantaged Dalit women have been suffering. Most of Dalit parents, in lack of awareness and poverty, do not send their daughters to school, whereas the dalit and other caste girls are encouraged to be educated providing different incentives like tuition fee exemption, distribution of books and stationeries, day time meal and cooking oil.

3.6 Child labor Child labor is a common factor in the agrarian economy. The children are the subordinates of the parents to free them for farm work helping them taking acre of young child, collecting grass and fetching water, helping in kitchen and some time shouldering for non-farm works for the artisan parents.

Table 3.27: Participation of children in various works* Participation of Child Total (Average) Types of works Maximum Minimum No. % No. % No. % Fetching water 19 34.5 165 17.6 184 18.6 Collecting 7 12.7 94 10.1 101 10.2 firewood/fodder Food preparation 3 5.5 98 10.5 101 10.2 Washing cloth 5 9.1 154 16.5 159 16.1 Cooking food 3 5.5 87 9.3 90 9.1 Child carrying 4 7.3 118 12.6 122 12.3 Agri. works 3 5.5 64 6.8 67 6.8 Grazing livestock 7 12.7 73 7.8 80 8.1 Non-agri. labour 32 3.4 32 3.2 Agri. labor 4 7.3 50 5.3 54 5.5 Total 55 100.0 935 100.0 990 100.0 Source: Field Survey 2010 *Multiple Responses

Table 2.26 above presents that 34.5% children support parents fetching drinking water in the rural areas. It is the job of girl children. But on an average the total volume of works comes to be nearly 19%. The second types of child work are caring young children while the parents are on farm work. About 12% part of child caring is taken by the young children before and after school time. Grazing cattle, agricultural labor and helping in kitchen is a middle range task of the child and non-agricultural labor is an exceptional and applicable especially in the occupational caste group families, like tailors, blacksmiths and cobblers. Road Sector Development Project, (IDA Grant No: H339-NEP) New Project Preparation & Supervision Page 3-14

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The children are expected to help in small tasks like blowing fire in the blacksmith’s hearth while the father is melting metal, collecting coal. In the house of tailors the child are asked to stitch small cloths. The cobbler family employ child to vigilance the astray dogs and other scavengers to save the raw hide while it is tanned on sunlight. It does not mean that the children should be allowed to employ during road construction. It is recommended that a mandatory clause should be put in the contract document that the contractor should not employ any child in the construction.

3.7 Vulnerable Communities So far as the vulnerabilities is concerned there are 1.7% Gurings and 0.8% Tamangs settled in scattered position and none of them will be affected by the project. the area is predominantly occupied by Thakuries and Chhetries and flowed by Dalits. All these people are found in the interior parts of the settlement not in the road alignment. The 21% dalits are traditionally underprivileged people and having been residing in a marginal land at the end of the upper caste settlement and do not lose nay thing from the project. The women headed households contribute 2% are not the independent and helpless household heads, as the family structure is joint and each an individual member shares the family economic responsibilities, therefore in this section VCDP is not recommended.

Table 3.28a: Vulnerable persons inn the road project area. Age groups 21-30 31-40 41-50 51-60 61+ Total Groups No. % No. % No. % No. % No. % No. % Gurung 1 2.8 1 4.3 2 1.7 Tamang 1 3.7 1 0.8 Dalit 3 23.1 7 25.9 6 16.7 6 27.3 3 13.0 25 20.7 Female headed 1 3.4 1 4.5 2 2.0 HHs Source: field survey 2010

3.8 General attitude towards the road project and acceptance of the people The general impact of the road and the people’s view toward road project was assessed through individual consultation during household survey. The households were asked about the need of the road in the area and their cooperation including acceptance of the project. Total of 76% households had welcomed with full agreement without putting pre-conditions. 32% households welcomed with some preconditions, such as proper monitoring during and post construction period on child labor, human trafficking, transmission of HIV/AIDS, and local employment, and one percent (5 household out of 121 household) do not know about the importance of the road project. Table 3.28b below describes the attitudes of the households.

Table 3.28b: Perception and acceptance of the people towards the road project Accepted with Fully accepted Don't know Total conditions No. % No. % No. % No. % 76 63 39 32 6 5 121 100.0

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3.8.1 Reasons of acceptance: The reasons of accepting road project are different for different people. It was noticed that everybody is conscious and aware of the importance of road as a development infrastructure. Majority (92 %) households are of the opinion that the road brings a transport facility in the remote areas. The cost of consumer goods in the area is expensive so, 59 % households are of the opinion that the transport system will help to reduce the cost of consumer commodity. Total of 38% households opined that the road helps faster travel and reduces the travel time. Table 3.29 below summarizes the details of the all reasons to accept the road project.

Table 3.29: Positive aspect of road improvement project* Reasons No. % Decrease Accident 7 5.8 Transportation facility 111 91.7 Work fastly (Saving time) 46 38.0 Easy/cheap access in goods 71 58.7 Employment opportunity 16 13.2 Development opportunity 1 0.8 Increase business 10 8.3 Wide and open road 2 1.7 Increase local market 21 17.3 Reduce air pollution 9 7.4 saves money /Reduces transport fare 4 3.3 Do not know 1 0.8 Total 121 *Multiple response

As mentioned in Table 3.29 above 17 % households reported that the road helps to enhance and open new agriculture market in the rural area by which the farmers will benefit selling their surplus production at farm gate. 6% households are of the opinion that the road helps local business of all types. In addition to all these major impacts the households have assessed that the road may bring social security, providing access to prompt communication with district headquarters.

3.8.2 Assumed Negative Impacts of the road project: Apart from the positive impacts the households have assumed probable negative impacts of the transport system. Majority of the households (69 %) reported that the road cause environmental pollution. About 45 % household opined that road cause accident due to narrowness and increasing volume of traffic. 20% household reported that there may be high chance of transmission of HIV/AIDS, due to in and out of people. Similarly there is a high chance of smuggling forest resources and destruction of physical infrastructures in the area. Table 3.30 below.

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Table 3.30: Negative aspect of road improvement project* Probable negative impacts No. % Increases Accident 55 45.5 Creates Environmental pollution 83 68.6 Increase crime 24 19.8 Human trafficking 2 1.7 Loss of arable land 4 3.3 Increase diseases 2 1.7 Invites HIV/AIDS 11 9.1 Don't know 3 2.5 increase flow of human 1 0.8 Loss of resources (irrigation canal, and foot trails) 5 4.1 Traffic problem 2 1.7 loss of forest resources 1 0.8 increase transport fare 1 0.8 porter may be unemployed 2 1.7 Not Reported 13 10.7 Total Respondents 121 *Multiple response

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4. SOCIAL ASSESSMENT OF KALANGAGAD- CHAINPUR 4.1 Socio-economic Analysis 4.1.1 Introduction Khalangagadh-Chainpur road section covers eight VDCs of Bajhang district. Total of 6248 households and 37609 people will come under the influence of this road section as direct or indirect beneficiaries. This road part of Gokuleshwor to district headquarter of Darchula covering few human settlements and goes through passing more public land. The total sampled households were 98. In each VDC the male population is higher than the female, and the average household size is 7.4 which is nearly 150% more than the national average (6.02) which is higher than the national average (5.44), because the level of the agrarian economic factor population growth is welcomed for farm labor. Table 4.1 below.

Table 4.1: Population Composition of the Affected VDCs VDCs Total HH Male Female Total Ave. HH Size Banjh 8,38 2,279 2,576 4,855 5.79 Rayel 1,138 3,428 3,763 7,191 6.32 Bhairabnath 805 2,461 2,543 5,004 6.22 Chaudhari 696 1,959 2,280 4,239 6.09 Matela 429 1,302 1,450 2,752 6.41 Subeda 824 2,163 2,487 4,650 5.64 Rithapata 477 1,410 1,38 2,848 5.97 Chainpur 1,041 3,063 3,007 6,070 5.83 Total 6,248 18,065 19,544 (48%) (52%) 37,609 6.02 Source: District Development Profile of Nepal

Data mentioned in Table 4.1 above shows that the Rayel and Chainpur VDCs are more populated along the road alignment in comparison to the others. Similarly Ritthapata and Matela are least populated. The population of male contributes 48% and female by 52 % in the project VDCs.

4.1.2 Age and sex of the sampled household heads The interviewed male households contribute 98 %. Only 2 % female are performing as a head of the households. In the traditional rural areas it is obvious that female is the subordinate parts of the male and the female are head of the household because of the absence of male heads from the house for seasonal employment some months. It is therefore the males are responsible for all household affairs including economic, social and cultural. Table 4.2 below.

Table 4.2: Age and sex of the household head Sex Total Age group Male Female 21- 30 years 23 1 24 31-40 31 0 31 41-50 32 1 33 51-60 28 1 29 Road Sector Development Project, (IDA Grant No: H339-NEP) New Project Preparation & Supervision Page 4-1

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Sex Total Age group Male Female 60+ 19 0 19 Total (%) 133 (98%) 3 (2%) 136 (100)

4.1.3 Ethnic Composition The population composition of Nepalese rural as well as urban society is mixed, as all types of groups survive on agriculture. The Bajhang district is predominantly occupied by Chhetries and Thakuries (69%), followed by dalits (17%). Brahmins are the third largest groups (13%). In these road section there is no presence of indigenous nationalities and any ethnic groups except one Newar household. Table 4.3 below.

Table 4.3: Distribution of population by ethnic composition Ethnicity Number % Brahman 18 13 Chhetri/Thakuri 94 69 Tamang 0 0 Magar 0 0 Rai 0 0 Newar 1 1 Dalit 23 17 Budhathoki/Tinkari 0 0 Mushlim 0 0 Sanyasi/Jogi/Kunwar 0 0 Total 136 100 Source:Field Survey 2010

4.1.4 Demographic features of the Sampled Households: Total population of the sampled households in this road section is 948. There is 52% male population and 48% of the female in the sampled households, which is just reverse of the VDC level population in the project areas (compare Table 4.1 above and Table 4.5 below). The majority population (around 61%) falls under 16-65 years of age group. It is an indication of higher presence of economically active population in the area. The dependent population below 15 years are around 35% which is an indication of preserving working population in future. The old aged dependents (65 and above) are only 4.%. Average household size is 7 which is bigger than the national average (5.44). Table 4.5 below.

Table 4.5: Demographic Features of the Sampled Households % of Population by Age Groups No. of Population HH Households size %) Male Female 0-15 16-45 46-65 65 + Total No. 136 497 451 6.97 330 463 119 36 948

% 100 52 48 34.81 48.84 12.55 3.80 100

Source: Field survey 2010.

Table 4.5 above shows that the area represents that nearly one third (35%) of population is of the young child below 15 years age group. It is because of the agrarian social structure,

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where population growth is welcomed. The households require more labor force for agriculture and do not care about planned population growth.

4.1.5 Marital status of the respondents Marital status of the respondents shows that there are nearly 98 % married respondents. The population size of widow and widower is very small (4 %). Majority (47%) unmarried male respondents were interviewed, and less than one percent unmarried female. It indicates that late marriage prevails in this area among the educated persons. Divorce is not a common practice in the rural areas because only one male had divorced. Table 4.6

Table 4.6: Marital status of the population Widow/Wi Sex Married % Unmarried % % Divorced % Total % dower

Male 454 48.0 442 47.0 36 4.0 1 0.0 933 98

Femal 11 0.1 3 0.3 1 0.0 0 0 15 2 e

Total 465 49.0 445 100 37 4.0 1 0.0 948 100

Source: Field survey 2010.

4.1.6 Literacy status of the Respondents: Since there are 62 % households are literate among the respondents. Nearly 38 % respondents are illiterate. It is because of the fact that the agrarian social structure, poverty and ignorance inspire the people to be engaged in the production sector rather than education. Table 4.7 below gives the literacy status of the respondents.

Table 4.7: Literacy status of the respondent Level of education No. % Illiterate 51 37.5 Literate 85 62.5 Total 136 100 Source: Field Survey 2010

4.1.7 Occupation of the sampled household heads: Though main occupation of the majority (37.5 %), household heads in this area is agriculture but business is one of the attractive occupations as a regular source of income of 23 % households followed by service (about 21 %). The presence of agricultural labor is negligible. About 15 % nonagricultural labor is found in this area. Non-agriculture labor as an artisan, skilled workers and junior technicians is a compulsive occupation for the landless and marginal land holding households. All women household heads also employed in agriculture and domestic work so there are no women without work. The occupation of family members of the sample households is presented in Table 4.8 below.

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Table 4.8: Occupation of the household heads Types of occupation Non Foreign Agri. –agri Stud House Service Business employm Idle Others Total Agriculture Labor Labo ent wife ent r No. 51 31 29 1 20 0 2 0 2 0 136 % 37.5 22.79 21.32 0.74 14.71 - 1.47 - 1.47 - 100 Source: field survey 2010

4.2 Economy 4.2.1 Occupation of the family members The occupation of household heads and the occupation of total population in the area is same. As agriculture is the main occupation of the majority (41%) households the majority population 22 % have adopted the agriculture. Since, the large portion (47 %) of population is student which is the partial labor force of the households. The students also help to their parents in farm work. The service is the occupation of 6 % population and 4.3 % women are looking after the domestic affairs as a housewife among the well being families. About 5 % population is reported jobless but they also contribute in farm work. Table 4.9 below summarizes the occupation of the population.

Table 4.9: Occupation of the family members Types of occupation adopted Number of people Percentage Agriculture 208 22.03 Service 58 6.14 Business 60 6.36 Agriculture labor 21 2.22 Non-agriculture labor 39 4.13 Student 443 46.93 Foreign employment 28 2.97 House wife 38 4.03 Jobless 49 5.19 Others 0 - Total 944 100 Source: field survey 2010

4.2.2 Land use and agriculture As agriculture is the major source of income and livelihood of the people in this project area. The land in the area is irrigated Khet land, unirrigated khet land, unirrigated upland (Pakho/Bari), and grass land at slope (Kharbari). People grow paddy in irrigated land where irrigation system is employed and in unirrigated paddy land where the monsoon is only the source of irrigation, the unirrigated upland is without terraced outward slope land where dry crops are grown. Majority of the households possess irrigated as well as unirrigated and Pakho or Bari land. The use of Pakho is for grass, thatch for roofing of houses, firewood, grazing and sometimes it is used for shifting cultivation.

So far as land tenure system is concerned, only three households are tenants in this road section. Al most all landowners cultivate their land on their own mploying family labors. It is because of the fact that the supply of land is limited in the hill areas and people demand more land for survival. Not only the land is limited but the Land Reform Act (1964 amended 1996) provisioned that tenant has right to claim 50% of the rented in land in case of

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removal from the tenancy right once he/she cultivates the land for on agriculture cycle. So land owners do not desired to lose land parting to the tenants at 50 % employing for cultivation. Only one household has contracted out land to the cultivators. Table 4.10 below.

Table 4.10: Land ownership status and land use types in the area No. of Owner No. of Tenants No of Types of land % % % cultivators (Renting in) Renting out Irrigated Khet (paddy land) 97 29.7 1 33.3 2 100.0 Unirrigated Khet (paddy) land 106 32.4 2 66.7 0 0.0 Pakho/ Bari 109 33.3 0 0.0 0 0.0 Kharbari 15 4.6 0 0.0 0 0.0 Others 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 Total 327 100.0 3 100.0 2 100.0 Source: field survey 2010

Renting out land to the cultivator is no a matter of joy. Only those who have either huge plots of land or those who have no labor force at home rent out their land. During these days some of the rich people those who are threatened by the political agitators rent out he land and migrate to urban areas especially to Kathmandu. Only two households have rented out their land, presented in table 4.10 above.

4.2.3 Average land holding size in the project areas: Majority population (52 %) are landless in this section. The second largest population (48%) own 0.5 to 1.0 hectare land including irrigated khet, bari and pakho in the project area, which is less than minimum requirement for survival, because the average household size is 7 (Table 4.5 above). The population who hold more than 1 and 2 hectare are 0.15 %. None of the household own more than 5 hectare of land. Table 4.11 below.

Table 4.11: Average land holding size in the project area Land holding size No % Land less 352 51.76 Less than 0.5hac 326 47.94 0.5 to 1 hac 1 0.15 1 to 2 hac 1 0.15 2 to 3 hac 0 0 3 to 4 hac 0 0 4 to 5 hac 0 0 5 hac + 0 0 Total 680 100 Source: field survey 2010

4.2.4 Income and poverty status of the area: It is obvious that the project area is below poverty line. The average income of the majority (30%) households from different sources is between Rs. 30,000 to 60,000 and equal percentage of the household belong to Rs.100,000 to 200,000/ per annum earning group. The per capita income of the household who belong to less than Rs. 60,000 earning groups would be Rs. 8,571. About 3% households earn more than Rs. 300,000 per annum. The average household size is 7. Thus these households belong to below poverty line, since those who have less than Rs. 10,000/ per annum fall below poverty line. 8.8 % households

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have income between Rs. 2,00,000 to 3,000,000. Thus observing economic factors the people in this section are in economic hardship. Table 4.14 below.

Table 4.12: Annual income of the households Income Range (Rs.) No. % 10,001 - 30,000 5 3.7 30,001 - 60,000 41 30.1 60,001 - 1,00,000 33 24.3 1,00,001 - 2,00,000 41 30.1 2,00,001 - 3,00,000 12 8.8 >3,00,000 4 2.9 Total 136 100 Source: field survey 2010

The income range shows that the 34 % households have been facing economic crisis in which 3.7 % households earn below Rs. 30,000 per year and 30 % earn less than Rs. 60,000 a year, and surviving in a subsistence level. Till date the households could not be able to get benefit from the transport facilities. The itemized annual income of the household is presented in Table 4.13 below. The highest income is from business (45 households), followed by remittance. Service, wage labor and selling surplus food grains are also a major sources of income. Animal products, selling herbs, etc are the occasional sources of income, which is not fixed and permanent. The average annual income is Rs. 3,728/ among 7 members of the household, which further shows the lowest purchasing capacity of the population. Table 4.13 below.

Table 4.13: Income by different sources No. of Average Sources of Income Total Income household Income Cereal Crops 1,53,000 14 10,929 Vegetables 60,800 11 5,527 Cash Crops 65,750 12 5,479 Fruits 252,350 26 9,706 Herbs 89,800 18 4,989 Livestock 521,000 33 15,788 Livestock product 369,000 18 20,500 Service 6,165,000 39 1,58,077 Wage labor 2,112,000 48 44,000 Business 4,523,000 45 1,00,511 Foreign employment 9,95,000 18 55,278 Pension 1,49,000 3 49,667 Rent, interest 5,000 1 5,000 Seeds 0 0 0 Bee keeping 9,000 2 4,500 Sale of land/house 6,000 1 6,000 Others 1,66,000 15 11,067 Total 15,641,700 304 5,07,017 Source: field survey 2010

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4.2.5 Expenditure pattern Majority (41%) households have capacity to spend Rs. 100,000 to 200,000 per annum. But second largest population (27%) rests on Rs. 60,000 to 100,000/ spending group. Even Rs. 60,000 is divided among 7 members of the family will come to be Rs. 8,751 which is less than minimum purchasing capacity. Table 4.14 below.

Table 4.14: Annual Expenditure of the households Expenditure range No. % 10,001 - 30,000 2 1.5 30,001 - 60,000 20 14.7 60,001 - 1,00,000 37 27.2 1,00,001 - 2,00,000 56 41.2 2,00,001 - 3,00,000 16 11.8 >3,00,000 5 3.7 Total 136 100.0 Source:Field Survey 2010

Since the income of the household is not enough for average standard of living, the higher amount of the income goes for buying food grains (Rs. 4,905,000), followed by education (2,878,501). The least amount goes for agriculture inputs and animal feed. Relatively a handsome amount goes for payment of interest, social welfare, energy, transport and communication. Table 4.15 below.

Table 4.15: Household expenditure in different consumption items Average Items Total Expenditure No. of household expenditure Food 4,905,000 136 36,066 Edible oil, salt, 637,200 136 4,685 species Fruits and vegetable 170,000 64 2,656 Tea dust 272,000 131 2,076 Sugar 258,001 134 1,925 Fish and flesh 783,501 131 5,981 clothing 1,438,000 136 10,574 Firewood 1,78,000 81 2,198 Kerosene 83,000 74 1,122 Electricity 1,40,120 56 2,502 Agri. inputs 22,405 19 1,179 Animal food/fodder 6,000 4 1,500 Education 2,878,501 124 23,214 Health care 8,24,000 128 6,438 Entertainment 77,000 10 7,700 Festival 950,000 129 7,364 Transportation 1,190,700 135 8,820 Communication 6,43,200 112 5,743 Payment of interest 1,600,001 86 18,605 Donation for social 2,77,100 79 3,508 work Buy ornaments 43,000 4 10,750

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Average Items Total Expenditure No. of household expenditure Tobacco and drinks 3,52,400 91 3,873 Total 17,729,129 2,000 1,68,478 Source: field survey 2010

4.2.6 Food sufficiency status Though the aggregate income expenditure data shows that there is a little bit surplus but the food grain supply from the farm product is not sufficient. Majority (about 37%) households can feed their population for less than 12 months from the farm products. Majority of the households have no surplus. Table 4.16 below shows that only 7 % households have enough food grains for the whole year. 93 % households are under food deficit ranging from less than three months to whole year. Among the food deficit families 12.5 % can feed for 6 to 9 months and 12 % families can survive only for 3 to 6 months from the farm income.

Table 4.16: Food sufficiency from own agricultural production Food sufficiency months No. of families % 12 month and more 18 6.62 9 to 12 month 37 13.60 6 to 9 month 34 12.50 3 to 6 month 32 11.76 less than 3 month 15 5.51 Total 136 50 Source: field survey 2010

4.2.7 Food management during deficit months During the food deficit months households manage their food grains using different sources of income. Salary from the employer is the first strategy of 19.4 % households and there are 17.36 % households survive on business. 16% household sale land for food items. Non-agriculture labor and agriculture labor are the first strategies for 14 % and 12 % households in the project area. Table 4.17 below.

Table 4.17: Sources of income to manage food during deficit months Sources of income First Strategy % Second Strategy % Salary 28 19.44 1 1.3 Business 25 17.36 7 9.09 Remittance 16 11.11 2 2.6 Sale of food grain Sales of veg. 1 0.69 2 2.6 Sales of fruits 2 1.39 2 2.6 Animal/Animal product 3 2.08 19 24.68 Non-agri. labour 20 13.89 8 10.39 Agri. Labour 16 11.11 3 3.9 Loan/Debt 8 5.56 31 40.26 Sale of land 23 15.97 Pension/interest/rent 2 1.39 2 2.6 Total 144 100 77 100 Source: field survey 2010 Road Sector Development Project, (IDA Grant No: H339-NEP) New Project Preparation & Supervision Page 4-8

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4.3 Migration 4.3.1 Internal migration pattern of the households. Internal migration in the area is not a common factor, only 4 households out of 136 households migrated to nearby areas (within in VDC or within the district) in this road section. Migrating from one place to another is primarily due to the economic factors. Table 4.18 below shows the destination and duration of migration in the area. Two household migrated from the same VDC and two households from the same district. Out of 4 households 2 households migrated temporarily (within one year ) and 2 household permanently. It is reported that where there is transport facilities the people migrate to the road heads for employment and income generation.

Table 4.18: Migration pattern and duration of migration of the households Migrated Duration of migration Cause of No % Types of migration from (years) Migration Same VDC Permanen 2 50 < 1 1 2 >3 Total t Temporary Road Others Same 2 district 50 0 4 0 0 4 2 2 1 3 Total 4 100.0 0 4 0 0 4 4 4 Source: field survey 2010

4.3.2 Reasons for migration Since the area is poverty stricken, thus the households migrate for income generation and self employment. The best and immediate measures of self employment are small grocery business or tea stalls in the transport access areas. 50 % percent migrant household have adopted small business in the place of destination. Table 4.19 below explains the reason of migration in this road section.

Table 4.19: Reason for migration Reasons of migration No % 1. Employment 1 25 2. Business 1 25 3. Service 0 0 4. Education 0 0 5. Others 2 50 Total 4 100.0 Source: field survey 2010

4.3.3 Out migration Out migration also prevailed in the project area. But the out migration is not an uprooting type. Only few members of the households migrate out of settlement for permanent and temporary employment. About 76 % household have reported that the members of the family have migrated out of settlement. Table 4.20 below indicates that hundred percent numbers of households migrate for temporarily.

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Table 4.20: Number of persons out migrated from the settlements Out migration No. of hhs % Duration of migration (years) Types of migration Yes 104 76.5 < 1 1-2 3+ Total Permanent Temporary No 32 23.5 3 21 12 36 0 26 Total 136 100 Source: field survey 2010 `(Figures in parentheses indicate %)

Table 4.21 below shows the duration of living out side settlement of the migrant person, Majority (34 %) people have leaved the place of origin before 3 years. The trend of migration is prevailing annually and continuous. Thus 60% people have migrated within last two years, and about 6 % people out migrated within one year. It is therefore out migration is seasonal and recurrent. Table 4.21 below describes the pattern and duration of migration.

Table 4.21: Duration of living of out migrant persons out of village Total no. Of % Temporary Permanent Duration Households No. % No. % Less than one year 2 3 5.7 One – Two years 1 21 60 Three years and more 6 12 34.3 Total 8 35 100 Source: field survey 2010

4.3.4 Reasons and duration of out migration: Majority (74 %) of the migrant people leave home for employment of any type. Primarily non- agricultural labor is one of the areas of employment, and 26% for business. Business includes all types of commercial activities ranging from small tea stall to big trade centres. Table 4.22 below.

Table 4.22: Reason and time length of out migration Duration Reasons < one % 1-2 years % >3 years % Total % year Employment 0 0 20 95.2 6 50 26 74.3 Business 0 0 0 0 0 50 0 25.7 Service 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Education 2 100 1 4.8 6 0 9 0 Others 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Total 2 100 1 100 12 100 35 100 Source: field survey 2010

4.4 Access to Social Services The basic social services for the human being like education, health facilities, market centres, and administrative security centres are available in the area. Some services are accessible to majority population and some services are access to very few people. More than 90% households have access to education, hospital, and markets. It is understood that he existing road helped the distance of all these service centres. Table 4.23 below.

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Table 4.23: Access to social services Social services No. of HH % Primary school 134 98.53 Lower secondary school 119 87.50 Secondary school 132 97.06 College 128 94.12 Aurbedic health centre 33 24.26 Sub-health post 74 54.41 Health post 110 80.88 Primary health care center 24 17.65 Hospital 124 91.18 Local market 123 90.44 Main market 123 90.44 District headquarter 107 78.68 Source: field survey 2010

4.4.1 Education Hundred percent households have access to primary education for their children at the settlement areas. Lower Secondary and Secondary School is available for 98% and 85% households respectively. College and higher education is accessible to 94 % and more households.

4.4.2 Health So far as the health service is concerned there are sub-health posts and health posts in each VDCs. Majority (77 %) households have been benefiting from health services and 23 % households have no access to health facilities because of poverty and ignorance. Table 4.24 below describes the tendency of prenatal care of women.

Table 4.24: Prenatal care by women Yes % No. % Total (%) 104 76.5 32 23.5 136 (100) Source: field survey 2010

Table 4.24 above shows increasing trend of pre natal care by women in such a remote area. About 23 % women are still not aware of prenatal care during pregnancy period. It is because of poverty, illiteracy and socially depressing status among the lower caste groups. Those who have practised medical services have access within one hour walking desistance. The district hospital is distantly located thus the people have to walk more than 2 hours. Table 4.25 below.

Table 4.25: Where do the women go for health services? % of persons spend Travel time for health services Health Institutions No. % <30 < 1 hrs 1-2 hrs > 2hrs minutes Hospital 22 20.2 30 4.8 21.0 0

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% of persons spend Travel time for health services Health Institutions No. % <30 < 1 hrs 1-2 hrs > 2hrs minutes Primary Health Care 4 3.7 0 14.3 2.0 0 Center Health/Sub-health post 81 74.3 64 81 77.0 0 Private clinic 1 0.9 3 0 0 0 Nursing home 0 0 0 0 0 0 Volunteer 0 0 3 0 0 0 MATRI SHISHU center 0 0 0 0 0 0 Others 0 0 0 0 0 0 Total 109 100 100 100 100 0 Source: field survey 2010

Only 102 households out of 121 visit to hospitals and other health institutions in this area for medical treatment.

Table 4.25 above shows that majority (74 %) households have access to health post and sub-health posts near by settlements. About 20 % of the households have access to hospitals within 30 minutes to 2 hours walking distance. Other types of medical facilities are not available in this section. People also walk to get medical services as the health posts are not located along the road. As presented in Table 4.26 below says 97 % households and the patients have to walk to get medical services.

Table 4.26: Means of transportation for vaccinating children Means of transportation No. % Foot 102 97.1 Vehicle 3 2.9 Total 105 100

Only 3 % households have access to transport because they reside along the road alignment. The interior settlements still have no transport facility for short distance travel because the location of sub-health posts and health posts is beyond the road alignment. There is no link road system in the interior settlements. It is therefore the connection from point to point does not serve the locales for short distance travel.

4.4.3 Market centers: After the opening up of this track, 90% households have access to main market at a distant location and equal percent of households have access to local markets to buy food grain and to sell surplus agriculture production. The access to market encouraged people to adopt business apart from agriculture. Table 4.23 above.

4.4.4 District headquarters The district headquarter has various importance. All types of district level administrative and financial institutions are centered in the district headquarters such as administrative office, police station, hospitals, agriculture and veterinary services, good schools and colleges and other development agencies. People have to visit so many times to the district headquarter Road Sector Development Project, (IDA Grant No: H339-NEP) New Project Preparation & Supervision Page 4-12

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for citizenship certificate, passport, land registration and to obtain loan from the bank and to repay loan. So the transport system facilitated to 89% households along the zone of influence of the road. Table 4.23 above.

4.5 Gender Issues It is widely reported that women are discriminated and exploited by their own family members. Due to seasonal absence of males who out-migrate temporarily to other parts of the county or India in search of job, women carry out both household and outside farm related works. Many women of the area have no property in their name. The educational status of women is lower with comparison to male. The society also imposes restrictions on the mobility of women and their participation in the public sphere.

The participation of women is higher in traditional type of works such as fetching water, collecting fodder, preparing food for the family members and taking care of children. The role of women in decision making is non-significant in comparison to male. But in this road section public participation of women is not so poor as compared to other areas. Table 4.27 below explains the involvement of women in different social activities.

Table 4.27: Involvement of male and female in different activities Activities Male Times* % Female times* % Social works 409 24.3 263 19.7 Religious works 460 27.3 547 40.9 Community meeting 408 24.2 347 25.9 Political meeting 181 10.8 81 6.1 *multiple response Source : Field Survey 2010

Table 4.27 above shows that the involvement of women in religious activities is dominant. Dividing the volume of work among male and female 41 % religious work is undertaken by women. Social works (20%) and community meetings( 26%) are divided for the female. It is obvious that the political activities are the tasks of male so, more male participate in political meetings in local areas (11 % male and 6% female).

4.5.1 Property right Status of Women It is true that female are exploited and made insecure by the male in a traditional societies. But at present the female have also been acknowledged for property rights and a small percentage of households have granted ownership of some part of property to the women as described in Table 4.28 below. The land as a main source of income, power, and prestige normally used to be controlled by male and household heads. Only 5.1 % women have ownership over land, 6% have ownership over houses, 10 % have cash and 54% have ownership over the ornaments.

Table 4.28: Property right of women Property types % Land 5.1 House 5.7 Cash 10.8 Livestock/Poultry 21.0 Bank account 3.2

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Property types % Ornament 54.1 Total 100.0 Source: Field Survey 2010

The lower caste group (Dalits) is the most disadvantaged group in the study area. Dalits are highly marginalized group because of lack of education, job opportunity, and economic condition as compared to other groups. Dalits are marginal landholders or landless people who mostly depend on their traditional occupation and agriculture. Among them, Dalit women become double victims, one by patriarchal social structure and another by untouchability. Both practices are deep rooted in the society and disadvantaged Dalit women have been suffering. Most of Dalit parents, in lack of awareness and poverty, do not send their daughters to school, whereas the dalit and other caste girls are encouraged to be educated providing different incentives like tuition fee exemption, distribution of books and stationeries, day time meal and cooking oil.

4.6 Child labor Child labor is a common factor in the agrarian economy. The children are the subordinates of the parents to free them for farm work helping them taking acre of young child, collecting grass and fetching water, helping in kitchen and some time shouldering for non-farm works for the artisan parents.

Table 4.29: Participation of children in various works* Participation of Child Total (Average) Types of works Maximum Minimum No. % No. % No. % Fetching water 101 65.6 43 4.5 144 13.1 Collecting firewood/fodder 3 1.9 137 14.4 140 12.7 Food preparation 9 5.8 128 13.5 137 12.4 Washing cloth 9 5.8 129 13.6 138 12.5 Cooking food 8 5.2 127 13.4 135 12.2 Child carrying 10 6.5 99 10.4 109 9.9 Agri. works 5 3.2 109 11.5 114 10.3 Grazing livestock 7 4.5 120 12.6 127 11.5 Non-agri. labour 1 0.6 30 3.2 31 2.8 Agri. labor 1 0.6 27 2.8 28 2.5 Total 154 100.0 949 100.0 1,103 100.0 Source: Field Survey 2010 *Multiple Responses

Table 4.29 above presents that 66 % children support parents fetching drinking water in the rural areas. It is the job of girl children. But on an average the total volume of works comes to be nearly 13 %. The other tasks of child work are caring young children while the parents are on farm work. Less than 10% % part of child caring is taken by the young children before and after school time. Grazing cattle, agricultural labor and helping in kitchen is a middle range task of the child and non-agricultural labor is an exceptional and applicable especially in the occupational caste group families, like tailors, blacksmiths and cobblers. The children are expected to help in small tasks like blowing fire in the blacksmith’s hearth while the father is melting metal, collecting coal. In the house of tailors the child are asked to stitch small cloths. The cobbler family employ child to vigilance the astray dogs and other scavengers to save the raw hide while it is tanned on sunlight. It does not mean that the Road Sector Development Project, (IDA Grant No: H339-NEP) New Project Preparation & Supervision Page 4-14

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children should be allowed to employ during road construction. It is recommended that a mandatory clause should be put in the contract document that the contractor should not employ any child in the construction.

4.7 Vulnerable Communities By definition the vulnerable communities are those who belong to indigenous nationalities, ethnic minorities, women headed households, dalits and those who are severely affected by the road project. In this road sections there is no presence of such communities. Total of 23 households of dalits found to be scattered from the starting point to the end. The dalits lose no thing from the road because they have been settled in the distant location from the road head within two kilometers from the central line. No doubt the dalits are suppressed by other caste groups traditionally and occupy the marginal land areas for settlement. They do not have sufficient surplus to buy land at the road head so, they are not affected by the project as such. The area is predominantly occupied by Thakuries and Chhetries so there is even not presence of other indigenous nationalities. So far as women headed households are concerned only 3 households were identified headed by women since the male heads were out of home during survey period. The female headed households are also not found to be severely affected by the project as they were from the interior parts of the settlement. This was also reported that during the census of affected persons, the project is acquiring only two meters of land either side of the road so, there is no great loss of land, which may damage the means of livelihood of the people.

Table 4.30a: Age and ethnicity of vulnerable communities Age groups 61 and Groups 21- 30 yrs 31 - 40 yrs 41 - 50 yrs 51 - 60 yrs Total above No % No % No % No % No % No % Gurung 1 2.8 1 4.3 2 1.7 Tamang 1 3.7 1 0.8 Dalit 3 23.1 7 25.9 6 16.7 6 27.3 3 13.0 25 20.7 Women 2 7.4 4 11.1 1 4.3 7 5.8 headed HHs

4.8 General attitude towards the road project and acceptance of the people The general impact of the road and the people’s view toward road project was assessed through individual consultation during household survey. The households were asked about the need of the road in the area and their cooperation including acceptance of the project. Total of 93 % households had welcomed with full agreement without putting pre-conditions. 6 % households welcomed with some preconditions, such as proper monitoring during and post construction period on child labor, human trafficking, transmission of HIV/AIDS, and local employment, and 1% do not know about the importance of the road project. Table 4.30b below describes the attitudes of the households.

Table 4.30b: Perception and acceptance of the people towards the road project Accepted with Fully accepted Don't know Total conditions No. % No. % No. % No. % 126 93 8 6 2 1 136 100.0

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4.8.1 Reasons of acceptance: The reasons of accepting road project are different for different people. It was noticed that everybody is conscious and aware of the importance of road as a development infrastructure. Majority (93 %) households are of the opinion that the road brings a transport facility in the remote areas. The cost of consumer goods in the area is expensive so, 40 % households are of the opinion that the transport system will help to reduce the cost of consumer commodity. Total of 34 % households opined that the road helps faster travel and reduces the travel time. Table 4.31 below summarizes the details of the all reasons to accept the road project.

Table 4.31: Positive aspect of road improvement project* Assumed Impacts No. % Decrease Accident 3 2.2 Access to travel 126 92.6 Saves travel time 47 34.6 Easy/cheap access in goods 54 39.7 Employment opportunity 57 41.9 Development opportunity 24 17.6 Increase business 40 29.4 Protection flood/landslide 2 1.5 Wide and open road 1 0.7 Overall 136 *Multiple response

As mentioned in Table 4.31 above 29 % households reported that the road helps to enhance and open new agriculture market in the rural area by which the farmers will benefit selling their surplus production at farm gate. 17% households are of the opinion that the road helps local development. In addition to all these major impacts the households have assessed that the road may bring social security, providing access to prompt communication with district headquarters.

4.8.2 Assumed Negative Impacts of the road project: Apart from the positive impacts the households have assumed probable negative impacts of the transport system. Majority of the households (65 %) reported that the road cause environmental pollution. Total of 63 % household opined that road cause accident due to narrowness and increasing volume of traffic. 52 % people have opined that the road may damage the arable land, 27 % household reported that there may be high chance of transmission of HIV/AIDS, due to in and out of people. Similarly there is a high chance of smuggling forest resources and destruction of physical infrastructures in the area. Table 4.32 below.

Table 4.32: Negative aspect of road improvement project* Assumed impacts % Increase Accident 63.2 Environment pollution 64.7 Increase crime 36.0 Human Trafficking 3.7 Destroy land 52.2 Increase diseases 27.2

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Assumed impacts % Don't know 0.7 increase flow of human 0.7 Loss of infrastructures like irrigation canal and foot trails 8.1 Overall 136 *Multiple response

It is concluded that the level of awareness of the people and accepted importance of transport system to change the socio-economic life style in a remote areas. People are of the opinion that they need and welcome transport system but with a careful implementation as they argued during public consultation, that the road may bring not only good things but it can bring also bad things like HIV /AIDS and human trafficking. But hoping that the road brings new economic opportunities also.

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5. GENDER ANALYSIS 5.1 Introduction Gender issue in fact is one of the social evils and sign of underdevelopment and evolved through the structure of traditional society. The gender discrimination in every sphere of life exists in pre-literate and pre-industrial societies. Nepal is also one of the pre-industrial and partially pre-literate societies. It is in present time just passing a transition of traditionalism and modernity. The urban areas, educated families and communities exposed with advance world even if it is in rural or remote areas have observed gender equity in education, economic authority and social status. But in traditional and less educated communities it is slightly changing. The study attempted to explore the gender differences and gender empowerment and child labor situation through road projects. The social structure of the project area is governed by traditional social norms. No doubt except few educated households and families in the entire regions are male dominated, but so far as the domestic work is concerned, both male and female perform equally, but the possession of household level property, major animals like cattle and buffalos are owned by male and goats, pigs and poultries fall under the ownership of female. The important and crucial decisions at household level are made in family consensus and consultation and the minor decisions like planting and harvesting are decided by male especially by the household head. The participation of female in Focus Group Discussion is encouraging. The female participants of the focus group discussion were from different occupation. Majority of them (45%) have agriculture as a main occupation. The detail of the occupation of female participant is presented in Table 5.1 following. Table 5.1: Occupation of FGD participant female Types of occupation % Agriculture 45 Housewife 23 Labor 11 Business 10 Student 10 Service holders 2 Total 100

Table 9.1 suggests that 23 % women are housewives and work in the house. The majority of such housewives were reported in all road section, actively participate in farm work as well as in social activities also. Primarily women are looking after the domestic and agricultural activities. Very few about 11 percent women are working outside home as construction labor, agriculture labor and businesspersons. Only 2% has employed in service and in some of the organized institutions like school teacher and government offices. Those women who are engaged in non-agriculture sector like services and construction labor are also responsible to look after domestic affairs like taking care of cattle, children, and kitchen. The women are also shouldering their male counterparts in business covering all household jobs.

The overwhelmingly found economic discrimination among men and women is the discriminating wage rate of labor. The wage of man is higher than the woman in all private sectors of employment. It is due to the lack of training and education to the women to make their independent employment and sources of income. Mostly the educated women also do not want to work out side home because of security reason and traditionalism. In the hill

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areas the women of different ethnic groups work out side home including taking care of farm and cattle herds. Women’s participation in economic activities as explored during consultation meeting is significant in all road sections. About 75% and more household and domestic activities are conducted by women and only 15% to 25% contribution in extra household and formal economic sectors. It is also important to understand women who live in the poor family suffer most from the poverty. The cultural and traditional patterns might be affecting the different sections of the society in different way. For this male and female categorization becomes important. Given the patriarchal nature of society in most settlements, poverty seems to have disproportionate impact on male and female. Moreover, the other aspects of empowerment like decision- making authority, participation in family and community life, equality and equity and inclusion are other important aspects of development which enables or hinders different segments of society to get benefits from the development projects. Women and girls suffer most because they occupy lower positions in these aspects of social development. For sustainable development and greater use of resources for household livelihood, which will reduce poverty, it is important that women have access to household assets to women is important. Without these, they have experienced many seen and unseen non-physical barriers to access facilities and services. Therefore, development projects should aim at reducing or avoiding all together these non-physical barriers imposed on gender basis. Given the fact that women do not have access to resource and social capacity (like skills) and face various social-economic barriers to get new opportunities for income and employment. It is important that an environment which enables women to participate in development projects is only after they have social recognition of women’s strength providing opportunities through training and education. The observed participation of women in development in the project areas was their involvement as wage labor and small enterprises supported by the men, such as hotels, restaurant and even in a small scale a mobile and temporary shop opened up nearby road heads and selling fruits, vegetable and cold drinks to the passersby. Such enterprises are not run by women independently, and thus supported and controlled by male counterparts and assisted by children. 5.2 Gender Status Two project districts have lower Gender Development Index (GDI) than the national average. The national average is calculated as 0.452. GDI is calculated based on life expectancy, educational attainment and income in accordance with the disparity in achievement between women and men, and gives an indication of status of women in the society. The overall GDI of the country is at lower scale indicating various gender related discriminations in development achievements. 5.2.1 Female Literacy Rates Literacy status can also be considered as another indicator that can reveal the status of women in the society. Table 5.2 shows the literacy status of male and female population in the country and project districts. For example, in the country as a whole, 37 percent of males are illiterate and 65 percent of females. The illiteracy rate among women is as high as 70% to 85%, but amongst males it is below 50%. Table 5.2: Male and Female Literacy Rates* by Districts Districts Total (%) Female (%) Male (%) Nepal 60.98 34.9 62.7 Darchula 43.26 29.47 57.17 Bajhang 35.5 15.2 57.6 Kalikot 38.5 38.5 54.2

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Districts Total (%) Female (%) Male (%) Salyan 48.5 36.2 60.2 Chitawan 71.10 63.31 79.31 Jumla 32.5 16.8 47.00 Rukum 40.5 29.0 51.0 Surkhet 62.7 51.7 73.9 Jajarkot NA NA NA *% able to read

The female literacy rate is high in Chitawan (63%), and in all districts the female literacy rate is below national average. This is obvious that in these poverty stricken district people have less priority for education rather than solving hand to mouth problem. 5.2.2 Ownership of Property Ownership of household property by male and female also give an indication of the position of women in society. Ownership of property helps women to make independent decisions and obtain various services and facilities existing within their reach. With property owned, they can also escape various exploitations and discriminations within the family. In Nepali society, household property is owned mainly by the male head because of which female always have to remain subservient to the male. It is also one of the reasons for their nominal participation in decision making processes. These are some of the features of the patriarchal society existing in Nepal. However, there are some variations within the country, which is mainly because of the cultural reasons. For example, the empowerment of women within the family is considered high among the indigenous people, but with the influence of the dominant society, this empowerment is also losing the ground. 5.2.3 Work Participation of Women Women in the study area were mainly involved in household chores and in subsistence farming. Outside world was largely reserved for the men. Except for a few women engaged as wage labor and lowly government and NGO employees, their participation in formal job market was almost negligible. In small trade, however, women's participation was high. Women acted as both mobile traders (within their territory for selling fruits and vegetables) and permanent business. In various tea houses along the road, it was the women who were engaged in preparing the tea and other snacks for the customers. The probable reason for seeing more women involved in small trade, and in farming is because there is selective migration of male population to work in other parts of the country and abroad. With the local development practices like community forestry and formation of women's groups for various community works, women participation in community level activity has grown in recent times. They have also formed associations in most of the villages along the road. This seemed to have strengthened women's position in the society. But at the same time such participation has increased the workload on women. These associations could be fruitfully utilized for some of the project activities. 5.2.4 Mobility Pattern A wide variation was found in the mobility pattern of women within the study villages, which is related to caste and wealth status. Among the higher caste households, it is not seen well if a woman lives alone away from the household of an unknown persons. Therefore mobility of higher caste women seems restricted at least for spending overnight. Their mobility is not much restricted if it involved coming to house the same day. However wealthier households among the higher caste also send their women to study and get job, if possible, even to distant places. Most NGOs in the district headquarters seemed to employ women for various works including fieldwork. Even the poor higher caste women seemed to more

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around, visit district headquarters and nearby market to sell (fruits, vegetables, etc) and buy things required in the household. The mobility of Dalit and Janajati (indigenous group) women is not much restricted. The position of women in these groups seems high. Even in financial matters, Janajati households have given enough power to make decisions. They are also comparatively freer for mobility. Dalit women being poor need to move frequently from one village to another for the work. In that sense also they are comparatively freer. 5.2.5 Decision-making Status Given that women's do not have ownership of property, their position in the household is low. They do not become independent for any free choice and decision making. But as mentioned earlier, there is also cultural tradition that make women in some groups empowered. This tendency is seen among the Janajatis (indigenous group). Even in Dalits, where a woman also earns income from daily wages and other works, some independence is seen. In case of caste society, women role is restricted within the household, even though wealthier caste households send their women for work and education away from the home. Usually women are given responsibility to take some decisions in farming, trade and household affairs. But agreement has to be taken from the household head, which is usually the male. Therefore, women are not able to make independent decisions. Some changes are also seen in recent times as to the social organizations of women. With women groups formed, they are slowly gaining a say in community level decision making also. They were found to have saving and credit groups and self-help groups, which has given at least a collective feeling and strength for women. The subservient position of women is still there given that women need to seek consent from male household head when they go away from the home. They are not generally liked if they stay overnight in an unknown house. But they generally visit the families of their kin- folks and relatives, but require consent of the male head of the family. 5.2.6 Probable Project Impact on Women Focus group discussions among the women revealed that they will greatly benefit with the improved transport facility. Firstly, they expressed that their mobility will be greatly enhanced. With efficient transport facility, they can reach the district headquarters, hospitals and other government offices and come back home easily the same day. In this type of mobility, there is not much barrier from the home. In that sense they could improve accessibility to services and education also. The thematic classification of the responses of the female participants in the consultation has presented in Table 5.3 Table 5.3: Envisaged Project Impact as Expressed by Women Envisaged Impacts* % Envisaged Impacts* % Loss of land 100 Enhance local economy 100 Invites Social evils 10 Creates social awareness 30 Brings HIV/AIDS 30 Enhance education 30 *Multiple responses

Information presented in Table 3.5 is multiple responses of the participants during community consultation through focus group discussions. There were other issues also expressed by women group about the impacts of road but the similar types were categorized thematically, as loss of trees, properties, boundary walls, and high chances of accident due to frequent movement of vehicles. Such types of incidences directly affect the women, since they remain at home at maximum time. Hundred percent women agreed that definitely the road may take their land away and 10% have ideas about the danger of unprecedented social evils like adultery and robbery. Though there has not been found the infection of HIV/AIDS in the project areas but 30% women are aware of HIV/AIDS. Road Sector Development Project, (IDA Grant No: H339-NEP) New Project Preparation & Supervision Page 5-4

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Women were also concerned with the fact that speeding vehicles might lead road safety of the children, older people and women as they are not that aware of the safety regulations. Various precautions need to be taken to avoid that. It is essential that for local people to be educated on road safety aspects. In addition, road safety measures such as proper traffic signs, if possible in pictorial form and in local language, proper speed breaks at risky places like schools, densely settled areas need to be integrated as part of the Project. The positive impacts are commonly envisaged that the women are of the opinion that the road enhances the local economy through trade. Road also brings the social awareness by encountering outside people in course of tourism, trade and transportation from one place to another. Other beneficial impacts were that road helps to increase the cost of residential and agricultural land, provides access to education and health services and regional integration through domestic tourism. As discussed above women also sell small things like home grown vegetables and fruits in junctions along the road. With improved transport facility, they can also reach a distant market for selling their products at higher prices. Poor women were also found as middlepersons in the trade of fruits and vegetables. They visit from house to house to purchase farm produce and sell that in the market. These women will also be benefited from cheaper transport cost and quicker travel resulting from the improvement in road condition. Efficient transport and good road condition is also said to provide life chances to women suffering from maternity (labor) problems. Maternity death would reduce from the efficient transport system. The participants said that it is extremely risky for pregnant women to travel on vehicle because the bumping and jerking is not good for them. The improved road will reduce this risk. Women were also of the opinion that if employment opportunities are provided to them they can save money for their use in future. This would help empower women. The equal rate that is paid for women would be another attraction because women know that they get the same rate in government projects. This again was viewed in positive light by the women. Women's work in the project will also help in changing the gender role in the household. As women bring income from outside work, the males will need to take the work generally done by women. The possible negative impacts that were considered by women are that more traffic and people that the project would bring might lead to social disruption. There are the possibilities of unwanted pregnancies with the husband not known. There are also the possibilities of local women fleeing with outsiders. Chances of diseases are also high, they said. As women often work as vendors for selling home produced or locally gathered vegetables, fruits, local drinks, milk and the like, they had requested that vendor shops that can protect them from rain and sun would help them immensely. Similarly, proper location of bus stops with a place to sit and get protection from rain and sun was also considered useful. 5.3 Gender Sensitivity and Mitigation Measures It was reported during community consultation through Focus Group Discussion the gender issue is associated with empowerment, property rights, child labor human trafficking and HIV/AIDS. The project area may be at risks of these sensitive issues, so it requires the awareness program to the local people as well as the construction team. The efforts were made to control the human trafficking, and discouraging the child labor in other parts of the country taking assistantship of district administration, but the effort seemed to be a temporary type. The administration keep alert when they were informed likely incidences in the area and just keep passive when the situation is normal. The local stakeholders opine that if there are permanent types of institution to monitor such issues and to aware communities about women empowerment, child labor, and human trafficking would have a

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good achievement of development efforts in the remote areas. The women should be empowered through literacy class, and social and public awareness with collective efforts of local stakeholders, administrative heads and construction supervision consultants. 5.3.1 Supervision Consultants The supervision consultant should be full time employee at the construction site and should act as social monitor addressing the gender issues, HIV/AIDS and child labor. The role of supervision consultant is must because in the remote rural areas people have heard about the incurable HIV/AIDS but do not dare to speak to the public to take precaution against this disease. The community reported that they feel shy to explain about HIV/AIDS. It is therefore the supervision consultant organizes the awareness program giving sufficient time to educate the local people, primarily focusing human trafficking. In the later phase he monitors the progress on gender empowerment, discouraging the contractors to employ child labor, human trafficking and vigilance on HIV/AIDS. The tasks of supervision consultant are defined in Table 5.4 as follows:

Table 5.4: Tasks of Supervision Consultant Issues Tasks Tools Gender issues Gender awareness/training Orientation and education  Gender empowerment  Gender in development  Economic Sustainability  Skill development and IG programs under RAP for the project affected women Child labor Awareness program Education and awareness  Child rights program HIV/AIDS and Human Awareness Educating people trafficking IP Educating people about IP Training and Education  Cultural preserving and ILO 169 and other  Traditional skill development contemporary issues. and income generation for the project affected IPs under RAP.  Help to share benefits from road projects

A gender specialist should conduct the tasks presented in preceding Table 3.6, keeping in view that the impact of the project should be mitigated through providing effective measures identifying their area specific needs and capabilities.

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6. VULNERABILITY 6.1 Introduction By definition vulnerability denotes to the specific group of people those who belong to certain classification such as women headed households, indigenous nationalities, ethnic minorities, marginally poor, disables, old aged household head without supporting persons and persons losing more than 75% of property due to the project. The study area is a poverty stricken area where a large number of families face problems of food deficit for 3-9 months in each road sections (see road profiles). But there is no problem of ageing and disability of household head. It is because the rural area characterizes the joint family system. Table 11.1 Table 11.1: Vulnerability Status of all road projects No. of household considered to be vulnerable in different Road Vulnerable sections groups GT TD KC KM MJ CJ SM NM Total Tamang 1 1 0 0 0 NA 2 2 6 Gurung 2 2 0 0 0 NA 0 34 38 Chepang 0 0 0 0 0 NA 0 7 7 Magar 0 0 0 0 0 NA 14 14 28 Rai 0 0 0 0 0 NA 1 1 2 Newar 0 0 1 0 0 NA 6 4 11 Dalit 25 25 23 34 9 NA 32 15 163 Women headed 2 7 3 2 10 NA 16 13 53 households Total 30 35 27 36 19 NA 71 90 308 Sampled hhs 98 121 136 91 343 237 187 118 1,331

In the study areas there is overwhelming majority (more than 70%) of high caste Thakuries, Chhetries, Brahmins and low caste Dalits. The indigenous nationalities are in negligible numbers. The women headed households are counted 53 but not in a severe condition as the family structure is joint and extended the women are jut temporary head while the male head is out of home for few months. The dalits and presented few households of Janajati are also not directly affected by the project, since they have been residing at the out stretch of road alignment (within 2 km). Dalits are traditionally a marginalized and socially deprived group, so they have been occupied in a marginal land and have no saving due to poverty and can not buy land along the road side thus, these groups are not affected directly by the project. The indigenous nationalities as presented in above Table are highly scattered and their presence is marginally nominal.

So far the land loss is concerned, the project is going to acquire only 2 meters of land beyond existing track, so a small amount of land loser may needed to be acquired, by which there would be no severe impact on the livelihood of the land losing families(see RAP report).

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Table 11.2: Vulnerability Status of all road projects No. of household considered to be vulnerable in different Road Vulnerable sections groups GT TD KC KM MJ CJ SM NM Total Tamang 1 1 0 0 0 NA 2 2 6 Gurung 2 2 0 0 0 NA 0 34 38 Chepang 0 0 0 0 0 NA 0 7 7 Magar 0 0 0 0 0 NA 14 14 28 Rai 0 0 0 0 0 NA 1 1 2 Newar 0 0 1 0 0 NA 6 4 11 Dalit 25 25 23 34 9 NA 32 15 163 Women 2 7 3 2 10 NA 16 13 53 headed households Total 30 35 27 36 19 NA 71 90 308 Sampled hhs 98 121 136 91 343 237 187 118 1,331

It was reported that the majority of vulnerable households belong to the marginal income group, laborers, and mobile shopkeepers. Similarly the agricultural labor, occupational caste groups and artisans those who have been residing on marginal land, have large family size and illiterate belong to vulnerable group in hills. These types of vulnerable groups are in minority in the project areas.

Presence of Dalit households in the project areas One of the depressed social groups in the project area is Dalit. the presence of Dalit within in two km width of the central line of the road seems to be significant but they are not a real affected populations. The settlement of dalit is dispersed and most of them lose nothing from road improvement. Majority (38%) dalits are presented in Khidkijyula-Manma section flowed by Chhinchhu –Jajarkot (31%) is because of the dominance of Thakuri and Chhetries, who mostly require service of dalits as farm labor, porter and skilled workers. Following Table summarizes the number and percentage of \sampled dalit households for social assessment. 11.3 Presence of Dalits in each road sections

Road sections Length No of sampled households % of total sampled hhs (km) GT 38 9 9.2

TD 35 25 21.0

KC 47 23 17

SM 86 3 11

CJ 84 63 31

KM 28 35 38

MJ 76 73 21

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NM 36 15 13

Income range of Dalit households

Majority (50%) of dalit households earn Rs. 10,000 to 30,000 per year in TD road section and 40% in KC. Earning more than one hundred thousand per year is very hard tasks for these groups. The percentage of the households earning Rs. 1000,000 to 2000,000/ per year is 14 and 17%, but the total number of households is very small i.e. 5 and 7 respectively. Only 2 households are rich among Dalits in these three road sections, who have more than Rs. 300,000/ per year. Table 11.4 is self explanatory that Dalits have no access or very limited access of economic resources.

11.4 Income range of Dalits

Road Income range section 10,001 - 30,001 - 60,001 - 1,00,001 - 2,00,001 >3,000, Total s 30,000 60,000 1,00,000 2,00,0001 - 000 3,00,000

No % No % No % No % No % No. % No. % . . . . . GT 6 23.1 3 11.5 9 9.2

50.0 27.2 23.5 13.8 TD 11 3 4 5 2 9.52 25 2.66 0 7 3 9

KC 2 40.0 8 19.5 5 15.2 7 17.1 1 8.3 23 16.9

Source: Field survey 2010

Table 11.4 explains that dalits contribute about 17% of the total sampled households in the social survey, are mostly poor and living in economic vulnerability. The main source of income of all groups of people is agriculture but dalits are assigned as agriculture and non-agriculture labor since generations ago. It is because dalits are the artisans (tailors, musicians, leather and metal workers) in a traditional society. Now in this modern age the concept of caste system is getting liberal there is no caste barrier to adopt any occupation, other caste people interrupt dalits work through imported industrial production of garments, ornaments, agricultural tools, and shoes. Majority of Dalits possess a small marginal plot of land which is always insufficient to survive so, they can not compete with other groups of people.

.

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7. STAKEHOLDER PARTICIPATION AND PUBLIC ACCEPTANCE 7.1 Background Thaktholi-Darchula (TD) road section has been already completed the land acquisition and compensation processes. The PAPs were satisfied with the compensation and most of them have adjustedin the new social situation utilizing the compensated money in business and agriculture. The local impact was observed that the land price has gone up and commercial transaction of land has begun due to new urbanization, improvement in trade and commerce. There are 53 women headed households and 163 dalits. Though there are a large number of landless households in Kalangagadh-Chainpur (KC) road section, but these households could be rescued employing in the project. Gokuleshwor-Thaktholi road is in operation since more than a decade where the track was opened with due consent of land owners without paying compensation, but there is a small problem in 2 km ahead from Gokuleshwor. The land loser demanding incentives from the project for their lost land which is out of practice of the government. Based on the various consultation with the communities the following impacts were assessed by the participants The public opined during consultation meeting that everybody is willing to have a road in the area. People are of the hope that the project will bring prosperity in the remote rural areas. Majority of the people have idea that this project enhances transport facility, faster movement and reduces travel time. Brings economic opportunities opening up of market centers and improves local economy.

People welcome the transport facility even if they had lost their land and other property and are happy getting compensation at their market level cost. It is envisaged by the people that the road will be an instrument to reduce poverty opening up new economic opportunities, since it happened to be helpful and supportive to add the local employment by opening up of local as well as distant market for agricultural products, otherwise they had to spoil the non- food grain products like vegetables and fruits. After the opening up of motor able road the businessman started collecting fruits, vegetable and food grain from the villages. Thus the local small farmers started to grow off season vegetables and protect the naturally grown up fruit trees for commercial transaction.

Table 12.1: Public acceptance and Assumed Impacts of the road project Reasons % Decrease Accident 5.8 Transportation facility 91.7 Saves travel time 38.0 Easy/cheap access in goods 58.7 Employment opportunity 13.2 Creates Development opportunity 0.8 Increase business 8.3 Wide and open road 1.7 10 Increase local market 17.3 13 Reduce air pollution 7.4 14 saves money /Reduces transport fare 3.3 12 Do not know 0.8

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7.2 Project Impact 7.2.1 Adverse Impacts There are some adverse impacts assumed by the communities such as the road does not bring only good things but it invites some bad things also. About 69 % people are of the opinion that the road creates environmental pollution and 45 % people opined it increases accident. Rest of the opinions are common and general type

Table 12.2: envisaged adverse impacts of road improvement project* Probable negative impacts % Increases Accident 45.5 Creates Environmental pollution 68.6 Increase crime 19.8 Human trafficking 1.7 Loss of arable land 3.3 Increase diseases 1.7 HIV/AIDS 9.1 Don't know 2.5 increase flow of human 0.8 Loss of resources (irrigation canal, and foot trails) 4.1 Traffic problem 1.7 loss of forest resources 0.8 increase transport fare 0.8 porter may be unemployed 1.7 Not Reported 10.7 *Multiple response

What so ever the adverse impacts were envisaged by the people can be mitigated during project implementation. 7.2.2 Demographic and General Socio-economic Condition of the Affected Villages The road project districts have occupied by mixed groups of hill originated people. The participants contributing percentage was Newars 1%, Brahmin 13% Chhetries /Thakuries 69%, and Dalit 17% . in Darchula and Bajhang. 7.2.3 Major Occupation and Sources of Income of the Population The major occupation of the population is agriculture (about 70%), and business about 40%, but it is a multiple response, one have agriculture and carry out business also at the same time. About 10% are laborer, and 13 % service holders employed in government and private sectors. Majority of the rural population is fully depended on agriculture but in urban areas agriculture is substituted by business and services. The terai section is partially depended on agriculture, business and services. 7.2.4 Access to Forest Land and Use of Forest Land More than 60% households have access to forest resources due to community forestry. Everywhere firewood and timber are supplied from the community forest and from the government forest. Due to the low purchasing capacity and the problem in supply of Liquid Petrolium Gas (LPG) people depend more on forest and fodder residue for cooking energy. 7.2.5 Increase in the Price of Agricultural Land It was reported in all road sections that the cost of agriculture land has gone up due to the transport facility in the rural areas. It brought a change in land use pattern. The agriculture Road Sector Development Project, (IDA Grant No: H339-NEP) New Project Preparation & Supervision Page 7-2

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land has been converted to commercial land and it induced the new urban centers and shanty towns. A case of BBY road is that as the road alignment has fixed from a farm land people started buying the land in a small plot to use for residential and business purposes in future. 7.2.6 Developed Market Centers: The agriculture market centers have evolved due to road connection and farmers benefiting from selling their farm products to the outside businessman. The adverse impact of out village business is that the local area is suffering from inflation in domestic products like dairy products and vegetables. 7.2.7 Schools There is at least one primary school in each settlement. There are secondary, higher secondary and one graduate level college in every road sections within manageable distance in each road sections. The case of Bajhang road is that the students coming to Chainpur for higher education 7.2.8 Health and Environment Transport system improved the access to health and it also makes people aware of visit hospitals and health centers for treatment in all road sections. As reported by the Focus Group Discussion participants; the common diseases are common cold and some of the communicable diseases, which are cured in the local hospital and health posts. The rural area is free of industrial pollution but the household level sanitary condition looks poor, but people are aware of using toilet. Dust and food residue, animal dung and fodder residue are not considered as polluting in the rural areas, because people perform all types of work in the farm with bare hand 7.3 Perceived Benefits from the Project These roads connect the hill districts to other hill district. The transport system enhanced the food supply system in hill and deficit areas at the cheaper rate than the local food grains. Roads helped to bridge local people and people from outside of the settlement, by which a cultural interaction induced social change and enhanced awareness in many negative and positive issues created by development projects. 7.3.1 Perceived Losses from the Project Till present the people have not experienced the negative impact of the project. Total of 5% women perceived that after completion or during construction period there will be a chance of human trafficking and local inflation. The experiences from other road projects like Kodari high way and terai roads it was read that there was an incidence of women trafficking and transmission of HIV/AIDS. It is an awareness of the rural women about the negative impacts in future.

7.3.2 Local employment: People are of the opinion that the project should employ local labors according to their ability. There are 163 dalit families having with average 6 family members who possess very marginal land and surviving on physical labor for agriculture. Similarly the landless households in Bajhang were counted 352 which is 52% of the sampled households, require local employment. Thus the priority concern of the community is employment. 7.4 HIV/AIDS and human trafficking Nearly 10% participants opined that the road project may affect women and some times men also due to a large influx of work force in the rural area and heavy flow of travelers from out side. The assumed adverse impact may be human trafficking and transmission of HIV/AIDS local community. This was learned from the past in other projects like Kodari highway, Prithvi Road Sector Development Project, (IDA Grant No: H339-NEP) New Project Preparation & Supervision Page 7-3

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high way and East-West way high. It is a percussion of probable adverse impact of the road project.

The new roads lead to increase mobility of people, formation of city centers and concentration of population along the road side. The expansion in economic activities, trade, involvement of large number of laborers in the construction phase, travel of many people and staying over nights in centers along the road will increase vulnerability to HIV. Possibilities of increase in migrant commercial sex workers (CSWs), increased access to IV drugs, ease of international migration for commercial travelers (e.g. truck drivers) and migratory construction workers brought about by opening of roads will increase the risks of HIV/AIDS and human trafficking, especially of young and poor women. Therefore, it is important that safeguard measures for both HIV/AIDS and trafficking are implemented as the roads are opened up. A situational analysis of both the HIV/AIDS and human trafficking problems in the project area and the road corridor studied is covered here. Nepal, as a whole, is considered highly vulnerable to the risks of HIV/AIDS. Poverty, general unawareness about the disease, gender inequality, cultural practices among some groups helping to flourish the disease, low levels of education and literacy, denial, stigma and discrimination against women are some of the factors contributing to HIV vulnerability in the country. Young people, mobile population (migrants, transportation workers, laborers staying away from the families, and the like), female sex workers, homosexuality among men, injecting drug users and children are considered as most vulnerable groups of people to HIV. As these factors are not distributed equally across the country, some regions and groups of people seem more vulnerable than others. As of March 31, 2005 there are 4861 (3545 male, 1316 female) HIV (including AIDS cases) in the country of which 871 (624 male, 247 female) cases are of AIDS. Those mostly infected with HIV include clients of sex-workers (2609), housewives (622), sex workers (575), injecting drug users (945) and children (101). People of age group 20-39 seem more infected (source: National Center for AIDS and STD Control)1. Most risk areas include city centers, transport nodal points or junctions, corridor along the highways, and the areas from where people regularly migrate for work. In city areas, the problems of drug users (intravenous) and commercial sex workers and users of their services are common. While in the rural areas, migrant population gets infected who then spread this disease in the villages, the problem in city areas of contracting HIV among intravenous drug users. Areas supplying more migrants like the mid-west and far-west regions are more vulnerable. It has been estimated that there are 62,000 people living with HIV/AIDS in Nepal at the end of 2003 and 871 reported AIDS cases by the end of March, 2005. Current estimated HIV infection rate is 0.5% of the adult population between the ages of 15-49. There is evidence of an explosive increase in the number of infections since 1996. Increase in transportation facilities brings risks to HIV/AIDS. A study conducted with 407 FSWs (Female Sex Workers) in western and far western sectors of East-West Highway in 2003 revealed that three of the most frequent clients were transport workers (53.8%), wage workers (47.2%), and police/military (43.7%)2. A survey of Family Health International in 1999 among the FSWs and truckers along the highway in Terai showed that 70% of the truckers had had sex with FSWs3. Use of condoms during intercourse is important in such

1 Source: Ministry of Health, National Center for AIDS and STD Control, Teku, Kathmandu.

2 New Era, 2003. Behavioral Surveillance Survey in Western to Far Western Sector of Mahendra Highway of Nepal. FHI Kathmandu. 3 FHI, 1999. STD and HIV prevalence survey among female sex workers and truckers on highway routes in the Terai, Nepal. FHI. Kathmandu. Road Sector Development Project, (IDA Grant No: H339-NEP) New Project Preparation & Supervision Page 7-4

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risky environment. Even though condom use has been increasing, but there are problems in its consistent use. Behavioral surveys in the terai, Nepal indicate an association of HIV with sex work and the trafficking of women to India and even abroad especially the Arabian countries. However, HIV prevalence amongst Nepali CSW’s, located in the terai, was found to be related to whether CSW’s had worked previously in India or not. Women who worked in commercial sex in Mumbai registered the highest HIV prevalence (50%), followed by those who worked in other areas of India (7.4%). Women who never worked in India had far lower prevalence (1.2%) than those who had worked in India.4 Migration is another factor resulting into vulnerability to HIV/AIDS. Nepalese have been migrating to India since a long time ago for employment and income. Nowadays, the trend of going to Gulf countries has also grown. A study5 conducted in 2001 in Doti district in far western region found that 10% of the male migrants returning from Mumbai, India had been infected with HIV. Apart from HIV/AIDS, human trafficking has been identified as major national issues affecting women. Some of the supply side factors for increased girl trafficking in Nepal are believed to be low social status accorded to women, lack of education, lack of awareness, gender discrimination, and social and cultural norms. Similarly, the other factors are urbanization (i.e. attraction to city life), increasing consumerism, lack of job opportunities in rural areas, unemployment and underemployment in cities, migration, increased access to physical infrastructure and exposure to traffickers, open and uncontrolled border with India, and lack of adequate cross-border and regional interventions. The present conflict has also been responsible for increase in trafficking although no objective information available. It is estimated that 200,000 Nepalese girls are currently working in Indian brothels, where they were forced to work. Of them, 30% are said to be under the age of 18 years and over 20% under 16. But there have been controversies in quantification of trafficked persons from Nepal. One report made by ILO says that 12,000 women and girls who trafficked per year.

4 Source: AusAID, HIV/AIDS and STD Prevention and Awareness Project, www.ausaid.com.au 5 Poudal , K.C. et al 2001. HIV/STIs risk behaviors among migrants in Doti district. JICA, Kathmandu. Road Sector Development Project, (IDA Grant No: H339-NEP) New Project Preparation & Supervision Page 7-5

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8. CHILD LABOR 8.1 Background There are numerous theories that account for the high rate of child labor in Nepal. First, one must consider the nation’s financial situation. Labeled as one of the poorest and most underdeveloped nations in the world, Nepal’s poor economic status contributes to the high rate of child labor and poverty. When families are faced with monetary hardships, they are often forced to send their children to work, sometimes in extremely hazardous conditions, merely to attain basic subsistence. Nepal’s rigid social structure also contributes to child labor. Inequalities between groups in society often augment poverty, which in turn forces parents to send their children to become part of the workforce. Social inequalities causing child labor can most vividly be seen with bonded child labor. With such disparity of wealth in Nepal, poor families are often in great debt, and in turn, must become bonded laborers. Often, their debts are passed on to their children, who then become bonded laborers themselves6. Discrimination against minority groups also contributes to Nepalese children entering the workforce. A prime example of this can be seen in the number of Tibetan and Bhutanese refugee children involved in labor7. The bonded labor system has been abolished after the restoration of democracy in Nepal which was directly associated with agriculture in western terai. Now all children of such bonded laborer are forced to go to the school. Land ownership and rural migration have further contributed to child labor in Nepal8. With over 80% of the population living in rural areas, much of the child labor occurs away from centers of power and law enforcement. Moreover, 6% of the population owns 46% of the land9. With the power and money in the hands of a privileged few, the bulk of the Nepali population remains in poverty. With such immense rural poverty, families are often caught in the common cycle of rural-to-urban migration in hopes to find employment. Factory owners and other employers in urban areas receive a steady flow of rural labor. Children constitute a huge part of this workforce10. Nepalese law says a child is a person who has not completed 16 years of age. To work in Nepal as a child, you must11 be at least 14 years old, and that you can work for no more than six hours, and you must not work during 6 p.m. to 6.a.m. hours, you must get a break of 30 minutes after 3 hours of work, and nobody should pressure you to work. The above law is one of the efforts to check child labor but still not enforced properly. Millions of Nepali kids are employed by their moms and dads for household works to help them all day long instead of attending a school and getting education. Nepal does not punish parents if they fail to send their kids to school starting from a certain age.

6 Denis Wright, “Child Labor in Nepal.” http://www.une.edu.au/~arts/SouthAsiaNet/childlabour/child%20labour%20Nepal.pdf 7 http://www.cwin-nepal.org/press_room/factsheet/child_labour_in_nepal.htm 8 Denis Wright, “Child Labor in Nepal.” http://www.une.edu.au/~arts/SouthAsiaNet/childlabour/child%20labour%20Nepal.pdf 9 Ibid 10 Ibid 1 Denis Wright, “Child Labor in Nepal.” http://www.une.edu.au/~arts/SouthAsiaNet/childlabour/child%20labour%20Nepal.pdf 2 http://www.cwin-nepal.org/press_room/factsheet/child_labour_in_nepal.htm 3 Denis Wright, “Child Labor in Nepal.” http://www.une.edu.au/~arts/SouthAsiaNet/childlabour/child%20labour%20Nepal.pdf 4 Ibid 5  Ibid Road Sector Development Project, (IDA Grant No: H339-NEP) New Project Preparation & Supervision Page 8-1

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The government of Nepal had promulgated a policy to educate all school going age children with a slogan “Education for All” (EFA). The EFA is an attempt to educate all children providing an environment for education and the government has declared there is free of cost up to high school education in the government schools. In remote and rural areas there is free distribution of text books and day meal to the primary level students. By all these means it is attempted to control child labor in the country. It is therefore child labor is one of the economic issues in the underdeveloped countries. As the development index is low and the absolute poverty in Nepal is 31% in 2001 and 24% in 2004, definitely supports that the parents are unable to feed all the dependents from their earnings, since the average family size is 6 and above which is always higher than the national average (5.44). It was found out that 65% households in the study area have food deficit for 3 months to 9 months each year, Table 2.8. Thus the children are expected to support parents in a domestic works like taking care of infant child, grazing cattle and fetching water, weeding kitchen gardens etc. to release their parents for works. This type of assistant are not considered crime in Nepalese societies and expected the support of children in all households whether the household is rich or poor. It was not observed child employed as servant or full-fledged work force in the project area. But there is a chance to employ children at work in the project district during construction so; the Department of Roads should put a mandatory provision not to employ children in construction. The supervision consultant and gender specialist should monitor the child labor situation during construction. The construction contractor would be a key instrument to control child labor. It was observed in each road section nearly 30% domestic works are performed by the children.

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9. SUMMARY 9.1 Socio-Economic Profile 9.1.1 Study area The project covers mainly ten districts of central, mid-western and far-western regions: Darchula, Bajhang, Kalikot, Jumla, Surkhet, Jajarkot, Salyan, Rukum, and Chitawan and a small portion (6km) of Dailekh district. The entire road passes through rural settlements connecting district headquarters to the other districts and further providing access to outside markets in terai and India. The present study covers parts of 71 VDC of all ten districts as the road alignment passes through. Primarily, this study is concentrated in the settlements lying within two kilometers either side of the road, and identification of project affected persons along the ROW and loss assets. 9.1.2 Methodology: A short and quick reconnaissance survey was conducted by a team of social experts. Total of 10% households from the all social groups and strata were sampled for interview to obtain socio-economic information. A structured questionnaire was administered to collect personal information of the sampled households and standard checklist was administered to conduct public consultation through focus group discussion. A list of Project Affected Population (PAPs) was prepared and the hundred percent PAPs were interviewed, and all lost assets were enumerated. The land is required for road improvement was measured through cadastral survey. The sampled VDCs number of households and population is summarized in Table 14.1 below.

Table 14.1 VDCs and population covered during the study Road Sections

GT TD KC KM MJ CJ SM NM Total No. of VDC 5 5 8 5 14 14 15 5 71 Studied No. of 2,906 2,926 6248 3,238 10,707 12,408 13,001 24,027 74,465 households Population 18,421 21,649 37,609 18,637 56,653 75,189 73,448 1,12,069 4,13,675

9.1.3 Socio-economic Condition Majority of the population in the project districts below poverty line except Chitawan district. The national average of poverty is 31. According to UNDP (2004) the rural and hill areas have high poverty incidence in comparison to urban areas and terai. Darchula has high poverty incidence (57.3) followed by Kalikot (56.8) and Dailekh (51.6). Chitawan has lowest poverty incidence (11.9).

9.1.4 Population structure: The population distribution among the sampled household is reverse of demographic theory, because there are 52 percent male and 48 percent female. This is applicable in all project areas unanimously. The predominant age group is 16 to 45 year. The dependent population (below 15 years occupy about 38%, and above 65 years group is around 3%. The population in between 46 to 65 also contributes only 12 % which is an indication of low life expectancy in the project area.

The population distribution by sex is slightly reversed than the demographic theory in these road sections. There are more males than the females (52% male and 48% female).

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9.1.5 Caste/ ethnicity The entire area is occupied by Thakuri and Chhetries followed by Dalit and Brahmins, whose population comes to be one fourth (24.5). In TD largest number of people are Chhetris (53.7%) followed by Brahmins (21.5%). Chhetris are 60% in MJ 57 %, 45% in SM and CJ respectively. In NM the number of Brahmins and Chhetris are 17% each. In KM the largest number of population are Dalits (38%), followed by Chhetris (37%) and Brahmins (22%). In NM the number of Gurungs are highest (29%). The percentage of Chhetris and Brahmins in NM is 17% each. In CJ and NM the number of Magars is significant in Kalikot,

9.1.6 Religious Composition: Jajarkot and Bajhang district almost all people are Hindu. Similarly, in Rukum, Jumla and Surkhet there are more than 97% Hindus. In Salayan the percentage of Hindu is 94%. The percentage of Hindus is lower in Chitwan in comparison to other project districts. However, more than 82% of the total population of the districts is Hindu. In Chitwan and Salayan, the percentage of Buddhist is higher than in other districts. 9.1.7 Literacy status Majority of the sampled area have higher literacy rate than the national average. GT road section has highest literacy rate (90%). Only KM road section has lowest (54%), as being remote and interior region. Table 14.2 gives the summary of literacy status of all road sections. The increased literacy is because of the opening up of private schools and encouragement to the school going age children under compulsory education in primary level. The incentive like day meal and cooking oil is also one of the major factors to go children to schools.

Table 14.2: Literacy status of the project area. Road Sections Litera GT TD KC KM MJ CJ SM NM cy N N N N N N N N % % % % % % % % o. o. o. o. o. o. o. o. Illiterat 37. 37. 33. 10 19 51 42 94 e 10.2 15.7 5 45.7 27.4 89 6 40 21.4 39 1 Literat 10 62. 24 14 62. 14 66. 85 e 88 89.8 2 84.3 5 50 54.3 9 72.6 8 4 7 78.6 79 9 Total 100. 12 100. 13 10 100. 34 100. 23 10 18 100. 11 10 98 0 1 0 6 0 92 0 3 0 7 0 7 0 8 0 Source: Field Survey 2010 9.2 Economy Major economic source of the project district is agriculture. Majority district earn more than national average from the agriculture. Besides agriculture trade hotel, restaurant and small business (local finance) are the major source of income in hill districts like Bajhang, Jajarkot, Rukum and Chitawan. The alternate and substitute economic source is menial labor, remittance, business and service. Hence area is below poverty line but people have been making their livelihood applying different means but they do not sell farm land for survival. 9.3 Occupation of the people As agriculture is the main occupation of the population in all road sections, subsidized by local business and services. People have multiple occupations, since the family system is joint and even extended. A single household is a composition of persons of more than two generations, so everybody is responsible to contribute for family income. The higher Road Sector Development Project, (IDA Grant No: H339-NEP) New Project Preparation & Supervision Page 9-2

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percentage falls under student in all road sectors. It is one of the indications of increased interest of parents to educate descendants. Being less skilled and economically poor, foreign employment is also nominal (less than 4%), but agriculture and non-agriculture laboring is one of the important occupations of the households to compensate household economy. Table 3.10 below gives the occupational status of the people. 9.3.1 Land holding size in the project area: Though the people have owned paddy fields in the hill area abut the average landholding size is very small due to land fragmentation. Majority of the land owners have owned less than 0.5 hectares in all road sections. In KM (60%), MJ(67%), and CJ(70%) households are landless. Table 3. 11. The land less families are the agriculture and non-agricultural labors.

Table 14.3: Average land holding size in the project areas Landholding Average Land holding Size in all Road Sections Size GT TD KC KM MJ CJ SM NM No. % No. % No. % No. % No. % No. % No. % No. % Land less 23 23.5 36 29.8 326 47.94 54 60.0 230 67.1 26 70.3 101 54.0 84 14.24 Less than 39 28 1 15 81 8 39 11 0.5hac 39.8 23.1 0.15 16.7 23.6 21.6 20.9 1.86 0.5 to 1 hac 22 22.4 8 6.6 1 0.15 7 7.8 11 3.2 1 2.7 11 5.9 3 0.51 1 to 2 hac 3 3.1 4 3.3 0 0 1 1.1 1 0.3 NA NA 5 2.7 0 0 2 to 3 hac 3 3.1 0.0 0 0 0 0.0 0 0.0 NA NA 1 0.5 0 0 3 to 4 hac 1 1.0 0.0 0 0 0 0.0 1 0.3 NA NA 0 00 0 0 4 to 5 hac 1 1.0 2 1.7 0 0 0 0.0 0 0.0 NA NA 1 0.5 0 0 Total 98 100.0 121 100.0 680 100 90 100.0 343 100.0 37 100.0 187 100.0 95 100 Source: Field Survey 2010

9.3.2 Land Use and Agriculture The land found in the project area is characteristically of irrigated and un-irrigated low land. Majority of the households own low land whether it is irrigated or un-irrigated. The un- irrigated land is mostly a dry land but it is low land so people plant rice in it depending on monsoon. Pakho (fallow land and Kharbari) is commonly owned by all households for fodder, grass and grazing. More than 27% households own irrigated paddy land. 9.3.3 Landownership Status The land ownership is a crucial issue in the rural areas. Hundred percent people are owner cultivator. Most of the land owners are the farmers. Only the households who have no labor force or do not live in the village rent out their land. There are very few numbers of households who rent out their land in the project area.

Number of tenant farmers is very nominal in all road sections. Renting out land to the tenant is not desired due to land reform act as one can claim tenancy right over the cultivated land after cultivating on agriculture cycle. Removing tenant is a difficult task as land reform act provisioned to extend 50% of the land to the tenants in case of removal of a tenant from the land. Thus the farmers (Land owners) usually do not allow tenants to cultivate land in a normal situation. 9.3.4 Tenancy status The tenants are completely absent in GT road and what ever presented in other road sections are in an extreme minority. In number 2 tenants in TD, 3 in KC, 1 in CJ and 4 in NM roads. SM and MJ road section have 63 and 23 tenants due to the absentee land owners and people’s war for last 10-14 years, a landlord could not retain at village, so they rented out their land to the tenants and fled away to secured places. 9.3.5 Cropping patterns A. Cereal crops Road Sector Development Project, (IDA Grant No: H339-NEP) New Project Preparation & Supervision Page 9-3

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Majority land is suitable for maize cropping because of the lack of irrigation facilities in the project area. Other types of crops wheat, barley, buckwheat and Soya beans are grown in the dry and marginal lands. Even the marginal land is also utilized planting and sowing dry crops like pulses, oil seeds and Soya beans. 9.4 Vegetables production Vegetables are produced mainly for domestic consumption for ocal sale wherever there is road or small market centers. The vegetable production is not a priority crop. Sometimes vegetable is a commodity for transaction against cash or other commodities what is not produced in the household farm. The transport system gradually opened up market for vegetable and now farmer has started growing it. The status of women in the area is not so different from the other parts of the country. The women contribute more than 70% part of household economy. Children are also a working force for family farm. Nearly 30% domestic works are contributed by the children.

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10. CONCLUSION Department of Roads has carried out Priority Investment Plan (PIP) for the period 2007- 2016. As per recommendation of the PIP, sections of the roads Satbanj- Gokuleshwore- Darchula, Khodpe- Kalingagad- Bajhang and Surkhet- Kalikot- Jumla are being upgraded to bituminous sealed standards using low cost technology under the Road Sector Development Project (RSDP) through grant assistance from the International Development Association (IDA), towards the cost of Road Sector Development Project (IDA Grant No. 339-NEP).

The project covers the assessment of direct impact of the road to the people, loss of properties and structures, loss of land and trees and loss of any other means of livelihood and cultural properties within the ROW two meters either side of the central line. The project envisaged helping poverty reduction in the rural areas.

The present study was concentrated to prepare Social Assessment Report and Resettlement Action Plan on the basis of social assessment baseline information. The social survey was conducted administering household survey of the 10% sampled households within the zone of influence and a census of the affected households was done. To prepare Resettlement Action Plan (RAP) following methodology was administered identifying Project Affected People (PAP), loss of private and common property resources, private property and other social and cultural resources. Basically the quantitative and qualitative data were from the field. This study was primarily a social impact assessment.

The methodology applied for Social Impact Assessment was: census and asset verification, Land Acquisition Survey, Asset Inventory Survey, and Socio-economic Survey applying different research tolls like: Reconnaissance survey, Sampling of study are (cluster sample), Observation, Public consultation and Focus Group Discussion.

Based on the findings of the study, land acquisition is unavoidable in the are for road improvement as the detailed design requires additional land area, thus for the natural justice and to meet the thrust of the interim constitution of Nepal (2005) and the World Bank Operational Directive 4.30 and the domestic legislation, primarily Land Acquisition Act and the Public Road Act is required to be followed to complete land acquisition.

The socio-economic situation of the project districts in central, mid-western and far-western region is quite similar. The economic resources, development infrastructures, social services and market facilities and the social structures are also resemblance. In all section the sampled people are living in an economic hardship as they belong to below poverty line. Altogether 71 VDCs come under project influenced zone from where the local people have started benefiting from the fare weather roads. Now people have access to travel to district headquarters and outside market. It was reported that the road helped people to inspire educating children. The literacy rate of all project district is higher then the national average. Production of vegetable and cash crops has found encouraging but not in a commercial scale. The local employment opportunities are very limited thus seasonal migration prevails in al most all sections. Chitawan is better off in all development indicators so there is no out migration for employment. In all road section the people welcome and accept the road project with a hope of poverty reduction through trade and business.

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ANNEXES Annex I: Social Tables Annex II: Questionnaires

Annex I: Social Tables

Annex II: Questionnaires