The Great African War Congo and Regional Geopolitics, 1996–2006 This book examines a decade-long period of instability, violence and state decay in Central Africa from 1996, when the war started, to 2006, when elections formally ended the political transition in the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC). A unique combination of circumstances explain the unravelling of the conflicts: the collapsed Zairian/Congolese state; the continuation of the Rwandan civil war across borders; the shifting alliances in the region; the politics of identity in Rwanda, Burundi and eastern DRC; the ineptitude of the international commu- nity; and the emergence of privatised and criminalised public spaces and economies, linked to the global economy, but largely disconnected from the state on whose territory the ‘entrepreneurs of insecurity’ function. As a complement to the existing literature, this book seeks to provide an in-depth analysis of concurrent developments in Zaire/DRC, Rwanda, Burundi and Uganda in African and international contexts. By adopting a non-chronological approach, it attempts to show the dynamics of the inter-relationships between these realms and offers a toolkit for under- standing the past and future of Central Africa. Filip Reyntjens is Professor of Law and Politics at the Institute of Development Policy and Management, University of Antwerp. He has worked in and on the Great Lakes Region of Africa for more than thirty years. Professor Reyntjens’s main research interests are contem- porary history, legal anthropology, political transitions and human rights, and he has published several books and numerous articles on these subjects. He co-edits a yearbook on current affairs in Central Africa, L’Afrique des grands lacs, which is a major reference work on the region. In addition to his academic work, Reyntjens serves as a consultant for governments, international organizations and NGOs, and as an expert witness before courts in several countries, including the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda and the International Criminal Court. The Great African War Congo and Regional Geopolitics, 1996–2006 FILIP REYNTJENS University of Antwerp cambridge university press Cambridge, New York, Melbourne, Madrid, Cape Town, Singapore, São Paulo, Delhi Cambridge University Press 32 Avenue of the Americas, New York, ny 10013–2473, usa www.cambridge.org Information on this title: www.cambridge.org/9780521111287 © Filip Reyntjens 2009 This publication is in copyright. Subject to statutory exception and to the provisions of relevant collective licensing agreements, no reproduction of any part may take place without the written permission of Cambridge University Press. First published 2009 Printed in the United States of America A catalog record for this publication is available from the British Library. Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication data Reyntjens, Filip. The great African war : Congo and regional geopolitics, 1996–2006 / Filip Reyntjens. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. isbn 978-0-521-11128-7 (hardback) 1. Congo (Democratic Republic) – Politics and government – 1997– 2. Congo (Democratic Republic) – Foreign relations – 1997– 3. Civil war – Great Lakes Region (Africa) I. Title. dt658.26.r489 2009 967.5103∙4–dc22 2009004017 isbn 978-0-521-11128-7 hardback Cambridge University Press has no responsibility for the persistence or accuracy of urls for external or third-party Internet Web sites referred to in this publication and does not guarantee that any content on such Web sites is, or will remain, accurate or appropriate. Information regarding prices, travel timetables and other factual information given in this work are correct at the time of first printing, but Cambridge University Press does not guarantee the accuracy of such information thereafter. Contents Acknowledgements page ix List of Maps xi Introduction 1 1 A Region in Turmoil 10 1.1 Kivu: Land of confrontation 10 National context 10 Crises of identity, of land and of politics 13 The new given: Influx of Hutu refugees 16 South Kivu: The Banyamulenge 21 1.2 Rwanda: From genocide to dictatorship 23 The power base 24 The drift 25 ‘Burundisation’ of Rwanda 29 Militarisation of the political landscape 31 Continuity in managing the state 32 1.3 Burundi: From putsch to civil war 34 Creeping coup 34 Extension of the civil war 39 Coup of 25 July 1996 and its aftermath 41 1.4 Regional junctions 42 2 The ‘War of Liberation’ 45 2.1 The ‘Banyamulenge Rebellion’ and the Rwandan operation 45 2.2 The other eastern neighbours: Uganda and Burundi 58 2.3 Angola enters the fray: Kinshasa in 100 days 61 2.4 Other regional allies 65 2.5 U.S. involvement 66 v vi Contents Logistical and political support 66 Supply of material and personnel 70 Incoherence 74 Degree of involvement 77 3 Massacre of the Rwandan Refugees 80 3.1 Aborted international intervention 80 3.2 Crimes against humanity: Genocide? 87 Attacks against refugee camps and concentrations 93 Humanitarian assistance withheld or used as bait 96 Separation of men from women and children 97 Involvement of the RPA 98 Massacres of other groups 99 3.3 The force of manipulation 99 4 The Fall of the Mobutist State 102 4.1 The players 102 Laurent-Désiré Kabila and the Alliance des Forces Démocratiques pour la Libération du Congo-Zaïre (AFDL) 102 The Forces Armées Zaïroises (FAZ) and their allies 108 4.2 The diplomatic ballet 118 4.3 Meanwhile, in Kinshasa, the orchestra on the TITANIC 131 4.4 The new geopolitical situation 140 5 Congo: Waiting for Another War 144 5.1 The ‘liberated territories’ in the East 144 Two problems worse than before 144 Massive human rights violations 152 Practices of governance 153 5.2 The end of an alliance and the prelude to a new war 155 The regime adrift 155 The art of making enemies 164 Towards a new war 166 6 Impasse in Rwanda and Burundi 170 6.1 The civil wars 170 6.2 Political or military outcomes? 179 6.3 Justice in deadlock 181 6.4 Institutional developments and practice of governance 184 7 ‘The First African World War’ 194 7.1 From Goma to Kitona, and to military stalemate 194 7.2 Shifting alliances 201 7.3 Wars within the war 207 The Kivus 207 Ituri 215 7.4 Privatisation and criminalisation 221 State collapse and the privatisation of public space 221 Criminalisation of states and economies 224 Contents vii 8 Negotiating the Transition 232 8.1 The political landscape 232 The regime in Kinshasa 232 The rebel movements 238 8.2 The false start of negotiations: From Victoria Falls to the death of Laurent Kabila 244 Many cooks in the same kitchen 244 The Lusaka process 247 From Lusaka to the assassination of Laurent Kabila 250 8.3 Towards an imposed settlement: From the accession of Joseph Kabila to Sun City 252 A dynastic succession 252 From Sun City to Pretoria, and back to Sun City 256 8.4 Political transition in conflict 261 The bumpy road towards elections 261 The 2006 elections 271 Conclusion 279 Appendix 1: Sources on the killings of Rwandan refugees in early 1997 287 Appendix 2: Chronology 291 Appendix 3: List of abbreviations 297 References 303 Index 319 Acknowledgements Writing a book like this is essentially a lonely business that can, however, be conducted only with the support and assistance of many people. After I served for seven years as Chair of the Institute of Development Policy and Management, the University of Antwerp offered me a sabbatical year. Without my employer’s generosity, it would have been impossible to con- duct the research that has led to this book and to another, smaller, one. During this period, my colleagues at the Institute have taken over some of my tasks, in addition to their already busy schedules. I thank them sincerely for their support. After having worked for more than thirty years on the Great Lakes region, I have developed extensive networks of friends, colleagues and political and social actors. They have been a rich source of information, a sounding board for ideas and a platform for sharing analysis. I cannot thank them individually. However, it is my pleasure to express the debt I owe to those who have generously given their precious time to com- ment on draft chapters, including an earlier version in French: Alison Des Forges, Gauthier de Villers, Erik Kennes, René Lemarchand, Emmanuel Lubala and three readers who will remain anonymous, either because that is their wish or because they reviewed the manuscript for Cambridge University Press. I wish to specially mention the help of René Lemarchand, who has gone well beyond what colleagues routinely do for each other in terms of help and advice. Without his careful reading of successive drafts and his insightful and detailed suggestions, this book would probably not have been published. Of course, the usual disclaimer applies. The maps have been drawn by the University of Antwerp media service. Craig Rollo and Stephanie Hughes, colleagues from the University of Antwerp, have revised the language and style. Frank Smith, Jeanie Lee and Cathy Felgar of Cambridge University Press and Kavitha Lawrence ix x Acknowledgements of Newgen Imaging Systems have turned this manuscript into a book. I sincerely thank them all. For many years now, my companion Greet has suffered considerably due to my passion for Africa, and I am sorry to say that she will probably suffer more in the future. I thank her for her patience; unfortunately, I cannot promise that I will find more time for her. This book is dedicated to the memory of Alison Des Forges (1942– 2009), for her friendship and her unremitting struggle for the cause of human rights in Central Africa. Filip Reyntjens List of Maps 1. The Great Lakes region page 12 2.