Sample Chapter

1 Mapping Desires Historically, human wants have stimulated movement. Desires have fueled travel to near and distant seas and lands in the form of exploration, trade, and conquest. e Mediterranean provides an example of such travels across space and time. e sea- faring peoples, including the Greeks and Phoenicians, ventured over land and water to establish trade routes for procuring valued objects such as tin and amber, which were rare in the Mediterranean basin. Once traversed, those highways and their destina- tions required description to enable continued access. ose markings were, for Eu- ropeans, the birth of geography or the naming and locating of space and its natures. In addition to commerce, the fourth-century b.c. military expedition and con- quests of Alexander the Great extended the knowledge and boundaries of the Medi- terranean world from the Greek homeland to the Indian extremity. “Not only were the foundations of the science [geography] laid by the Greeks,” a noted geographer observed, “but it was mainly through them that the observations made in the course of military campaigns, and the knowledge gained through the spread of trade, were recorded.”1 airs, waters, sites Alexander’s engagements with novel lands and peoples contrasts sharply with the theoretical and philosophical knowledge favored by some ancient Greeks. About 600 b.c., philosophers in Ionia sought release from the bonds of superstition and reli- gion through formal and systematic explanation. Assuming that kosmos, or order, pre- 5 Copyrighted Material 6 MAPPING DESIRES vailedintheuniverseandthattherewasanultimate“nature”orsubstance,theyre- lied upon theoryand inquiryto make sense of the world. Ionianobservationsof the movement of the sun and planets, eclipses of the sun and moon, and the fixed and changing locations of stars led to such ideas as the zodiac and the influence of heavenly bodies over earthly affairs, the disk (flat) shape of the earth, and time (sundial and seasons). Anaximander drew the first map of the earth on the basis of that learning, and Hecataeus later revised that “world island,”thereby establishing the science of mapmaking.2 —making. Map 1. about Centered on a disk girdled by an ocean stream, the island was inhabited by Scythi- here. ans to the north and Ethiopians to the south, Indians in the east, and Celts to the west. Beyond the habitable lands was the uninhabitable north, where extreme cold made life impossible, and the uninhabitable south, where inordinate heat prevailed. Greece, situated between the excesses of hot and cold, was ideally tempered and thus favored. Pythagoras, an Ionian who migrated to Italy in about 530 b.c., deduced through abstract reasoning that the earth was a globe and not a flat disk, and applying the Greek division of the heavens into zones he delineated an equatorial or summer zone that was uninhabitable due to the heat, a polar or winter zone that was also uninhabitable because of the cold, and an inhabitable temperate zone between those extremities.3 Expanding upon that notion of climatic zones and life’s possibilities, Hippocrates, in his On Airs, Waters, and Sites (c. 410 b.c.), discussed the effects of climate on human health and character (nature). A blend of theory with observation, Hippocrates’ remarkable treatise and explanation held that climate shaped the physical and biologi- cal world, including the physiques and natures of people. Toillustrate that determining power of climate, Hippocrates contrasted Europe with Asia. e mild and uniform climate of Asia, he noted, with its hot and stagnant air and water, nurtured lush veg- etation but laziness among the people who appeared yellow as if suffering from jaun- dice. “With regard to the lack of spirit and courage among the inhabitants, the chief reason why Asiatics are less warlike and more gentle in character than Europeans is the uniformity of the seasons,”the “father of medicine” explained. “For [climatic] uniformity engenders slackness, while variation fosters endurance in both body and soul; rest and slackness are food for cowardice, endurance and exertion for bravery.” Fur- Copyrighted Material MAPPING DESIRES 7 Map 1. e Ionian “world island” with its possibilities and limits as conceived by Anaximander, c. 580 b.c. From J. Oliver omson, History of Ancient Geography (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1948), 97. thermore, their form of government, which is despotism, mirrors and reinforces that “slackness.”“Courage, endurance, industry and high spirit could not arise in such con- ditions,” Hippocrates concluded, “but pleasure must be supreme.”4 Europeans, by contrast, experience frequent and sharp seasonal changes, which in turn favor “the greatest diversity in physique, in character, and in constitution.” In Asia, where the land is “rich, so, and well-watered,” the people are “fleshy, ill- articulated, moist, lazy, generally cowardly in character.”But in Europe, where the land is “bare, waterless, rough, oppressed by winter’s storms and burnt by the sun,” there you will find “men who are hard, lean, well-articulated, well-braced, and hairy; such natures will be found energetic, vigilant, stubborn and independent in character and in temper, wild rather than tame, of more than average sharpness and intelligence in the arts, and in war of more than average courage.” “Take these observations as a stan- dard when drawing all other conclusions,”Hippocrates advised and promised his read- ers, “and you will make no mistake.”5 Copyrighted Material 8 MAPPING DESIRES By the time of Aristotle, those ideas of the island world were a commonplace, and although he devoted little attention to geography Aristotle considered the earth in relation to other heavenly bodies in “Meterologica” and “On the Heavens.” Like Pythagoras he believed in a spherical earth located at the center of the universe, and like Parmenides he held that there were a torrid and two frigid zones where life was impossible, and between them temperate zones north and south of the equator.6 Aristotle concurred with and enlarged upon Hippocrates’ contention that climate molded human nature and institutions in his disquisition on politics. e cold climate to the north of Greece, the philosopher taught, bred Europeans who are “full of spirit, but wanting in intelligence and skill; and therefore they retain comparative freedom, but have no political organization, and are incapable of ruling over others.” Whereas to the east, the uniform climate gave birth to Asians who are “intelligent and inventive, but they are wanting in spirit, and therefore they are always in a state of subjection and slavery.” In fact, Aristotle maintained, Asians are “by nature slaves,” and they “do not rebel against a despotic government.” e Greek “race,”on the other hand, situated between Europeans and Asians, “is likewise intermediate in character, being high-spirited and also intelligent. Hence it continues free, and is the best- governed of any nation, and, if it could be formed into one state, would be able to rule the world.”7 imperial science e empire envisioned by Aristotle was being created during his lifetime by one of his students. Alexander the Great crossed the Hellespont in 334 b.c. with an army of 40,000 men and, for the next eleven years, advanced across Asia. A voyage of exploration and conquest, that expedition included soldiers but also scholars and scien- tists who recorded the conqueror’s exploits and the geography of the vanquished lands and peoples. Although a Macedonian, not a Greek, Alexander and the kings of Macedon claimed Greek lineage, and his war against Persia was ostensibly waged to avenge the sufferings inflicted upon the Greeks during the Persian wars about a centuryandahalfearlier.8 Turned back from reaching the Ganges only by the threat Copyrighted Material MAPPING DESIRES 9 of mutiny among his own ranks, Alexander fell ill and died in Babylon in 323, leaving behind a divided empire of o-warring factions and kingdoms because of dissension among his generals. e accumulated observations of plants, animals, lands, and peoples from Alexan- der’s march enabled a larger and more detailed apprehension of the world. Uncer- tainties of distances and latitudes from Alexander’s expedition, however, resulted in erroneous mappings such as the one drawn by Eratosthenes (c. 276–196 b.c.), the “father of systematic geography” and head of Alexandria’s immense library. Relying on the centuries-old causal connection between climate and character, Eratosthenes applied the descriptions of Alexander’s chroniclers to his mapmaking and placed Ethiopia and India on the same latitude because, according to the archive of accumulated knowledge, they shared a climate, plants and animals, and black people.9 e result reveals the Greek reliance on theory to help organize and make systematic observation and the persistence and power of certain ideas such as climatic and geo- graphic determinism. Despite its empire’sspread, Roman understanding of the world remained largely derivative of Greek learning, including ideas of climatic zones and their life forms. e ancient Romans conducted a flourishing trade with India, and reports like the remarkable Periplus of the Erythrean Sea (Circuit of the Indian Ocean, c. a.d. 50), written by an anonymous Roman subject from Egypt, gave detailed descriptions of the Indian Ocean trade, its ports, products, and peoples.10 Still, wrote one historian, “factual knowledge was limited, and it was frequently impossible for the most sin- cere and critical commentators to separate myth from fact, or to distinguish clearly one Eastern area or people from another. India, as distinguished from China, was the scene of marvels and the habitat of monstrous animals and peoples.” And, as if to prod the imagination further into the realm of the fantastic, Romans imported parrots, monkeys, elephants, rhinoceroses, furs, skins, rugs, ivory, pearls, pepper, cin- namon, and possibly banana, which may have been grown in Rome.

Load more