Journal of Siberian Federal University. Humanities & Social Sciences 2020 13(7): 1056-1064

DOI: 10.17516/1997-1370-0625 УДК 294.321+261.8

Religious Policy in Late Imperial Russia: State and Orthodox Church in the Buryat Spiritual Space

Darima D. Amogolonova* Institute for Mongolian Buddhist and Tibetan Studies SB RAS Ulan-Ude, Russian Federation

Received 17.06.2019, received in revised form 04.06.2020, accepted 04.07.2020

Abstract. The paper analyses the situation that took the most expressed forms since the late 19th century and reflected strengthening criticism from the Orthodox Church against both the Buddhist and the Russian state. The contradictions between the state and the Orthodox policies were caused by differences in principles, since when giving some legitimacy the government was guided by the interests of Russia in the east of the Empire, while the Orthodox Church saw its task in suppressing the influence of the Buddhist clergy through the soonest religious and ideological homogenisation of Buryats with the ethnic Russian population.

Keywords: Buddhism, , Buryats, Russian Empire, Christianisation, Russification, identity.

The research was carried out within the state assignment ‘Comprehensive study on the religious, philosophical, historical, cultural, and sociopolitical aspects of Buddhism in the traditional and modern contexts of Russia, Central Asian and East Asian countries’, State Registration No. АААА-А17-117021310263-7.

Research area: history, culturology.

Citation: Amogolonova, D.D. (2020). Religious policy in late imperial Russia: state and Orthodox Church in the Buryat spiritual space. J. Sib. Fed. Univ. Humanit. Soc. Sci., 13(7), 1056-1064. DOI: 10.17516/1997-1370-0625.

© Siberian Federal University. All rights reserved * Corresponding author E-mail address: [email protected] ORCID: 0000-0002-1176-4095 – 1056 – Darima D. Amogolonova. Religious Policy in Late Imperial Russia: State and Orthodox Church in the Buryat…

Introduction ‘Within the state, one dominant Orthodox Buddhist studies in the context of social Church has the right to persuade followers of and political developments in the Russian other Christian confessions and other believers Empire prove that the relationship between to accept its teachings about . ... The spiri- Buddhists and the Russian state has always tual and secular persons of other Christian con- remained complicated due to the desire of the fessions and non-Christians are strictly obliged authorities to keep Buddhists, and especially to leave alone the conviction of those who do their clergy, under constant control (Gerasimo- not belong to their . Otherwise, they va, 1957; Tsyrempilov, 2013, 2014; Amogolon- are subjected to penalties defined in Criminal ova, 2015, 2017; Sanzheeva, 2015). Laws’ (Svod Zakonov, 1857: 5). Although the This paper focuses on the analysis of a same law stated that ‘In the Russian state, the separate aspect of the issue of the existence of freedom of faith is granted not only to Chris- Buddhism in the Orthodox state with a special tians of foreign confessions, but also to Jews, accent on the policy of the Orthodox clergy Muslims and heathens’ (ibid.), nevertheless re- aimed both at fighting the non-Orthodox re- ligious policy aimed in the long run at the cul- ligion and at changing the state’s attitude to- tural russification of non-Russian subjects at wards Buddhists through tougher repressions that moment meant strict control over non-Or- and rejection of compromises. It is noteworthy thodox subjects and their clergymen. Despite that the current head of the Orthodox Church this clearly articulated principle, the Orthodox in Buryatia Metropolitan Savvaty, contradict- Church headed by The Most Holy Governing ing historical data states that ‘the Russian Or- Synod, one of the supreme state bodies in Rus- thodox Church and the Buddhist traditional sia, was of opinion that the state did not restrict Sangha have always coexisted peacefully (em- Buddhists sufficiently, and local officials even phasis added – D.A.). We have never competed contributed to the growth of Buddhist influ- and never had contradictions. There has been ence among Buryats. a certain neutrality” (Tsyrenov, 2017: 3). In re- ality, it was the state policy towards Buddhism Methods and materials that underwent significant changes throughout The relationship between state and reli- imperial history including the search for com- gion in Russia, as well as interaction between promises. And the Orthodox Church focused religious communities, should be considered in on baptising as many Buryats as possible and, a multidisciplinary and multidimensional key. accordingly, on limiting the influence of the Aernout J. Nieuwenhuis notes that for centu- Buddhist clergy. In this endeavor, the state, of ries religion has determined the position of the course, supported the Orthodoxy – the only state. From the juridical point of view, it was , the dominant status of which was not about religion itself, but about religious confirmed even after the Highest Decree on institutions that endowed secular power with strengthening the principles of religious toler- necessary legitimacy. At the same time, a fairly ance (1905). The Code of Laws of the Russian strong state, acting as a defender of the faith, Empire published in 1906 read: ‘The primary sought to regulate the activities of the church and predominant faith in the Russian Empire and religious communities. This situation is the Christian Orthodox Catholic Faith’ (Ar- persists today, and the nationalisation of the ticle 62), ‘The Emperor, as a Christian Sover- church led to its, often complete, dependence eign, is the Supreme Defender and Guardian of on state power (Nieuwenhuis, 2012: 153–174). the dogmas of the predominant Faith and is the However, in imperial Russia, a certain conflict Keeper of the purity of the Faith and all good between the secular and religious authorities order within the Holy Church” (Article 64) existed, in particular, in relation to differenc- (Svod Zakonov, 1906: 5). According to these es in understanding Russia’s interests in the articles, which had invariably existed from the policy towards non-Orthodox communities. 18th century, the Orthodox Church had spe- Sociologist Joachim Wach proposed to consid- cial rights namely on (up to 1905): er religion from the standpoint of comparative

– 1057 – Darima D. Amogolonova. Religious Policy in Late Imperial Russia: State and Orthodox Church in the Buryat… studies, phenomenology and psychology; for concerning the research topic written by Or- him, the most productive approach, along with thodox and Buddhist clergy. theoretical and practical ones, is based on the These materials fully reflect two trends institutional or social aspect. From the point in the religious policy of the Russian empire. of view of this old, but not outdated approach, On the one hand, the state and Orthodoxy interactions between religious institutions and were unanimous in their efforts to create the the state depend on religious values, which, in religious homogeneity of non-Russian subjects fact, form the institutions that expressed them with the Russian majority. However, on the (Wach, 1944). Continuing this thought, one other hand, the state and the Orthodox lead- can say that upholding religious ideology is a ership often came into serious contradictions way of preserving and strengthening the reli- concerning Buddhism, since in that period the gious institution and clergy. The ideas about suppression of this religion did not meet the in- full legitimacy of only one official religion and, terests of Russia in the east of the Empire and correspondingly, hostility to the state and its in the international arena. interests of all other create insoluble contradictions in a multicultural community: Results division into principal and minor religions in- Strengthened efforts of the Orthodox lead- evitably leads to the ideas about the best and ership on Christianisation of Buryats, both sha- worst religious communities or ethnocultural manists and Buddhists, and demands to restrict groups. In this respect, a special responsibility the activities of the Buddhist clergy even more falls on researchers. are apparently connected with Alexander II’s Among the theoretical principles, the prin- ascension to the throne in 1855. As he declared ciple of objectivity in Peter Berger’s wording the dominant role of Orthodoxy, the steps were deserves special mention: “Every inquiry into expected from him to tighten regulations con- religious matters that limits itself to the empir- cerning foreign religions. In particular, the Or- ically available must necessarily be based on a thodox authorities were much opposed to The ‘methodological ’” (Berger, 1969: 100). Regulations on the Lamaist Сlergy in Eastern Alongside with objectivity, this principle im- Siberia (1853) regarding them not limiting, but plies avoidance of valence in considering the rather increasing the influence of Buddhist la- relationship between religions and religious mas on Buryat Buddhists. communities, regardless of the religious pref- From a formal point of view, Buryats fol- erences of scholars. lowed the Regulations and were ready to com- Materials for research and arguments are promises on institutional issues. In this respect, archival documents of the Russian State His- there was a very indicative (and absurd from torical Archive (RGIA), St. Petersburg, which the modern point of view) situation in 1859 according to their content and purpose are when Khambo Shoibon Yoshizhamsuev subdivided into: 1. Laws, decrees and regula- passed away. According to the Regulations, tions of the state authorities on religious issues three candidates could apply for a vacancy. in the Russian Empire; 2. Official correspon- Nevertheless, none of them met the demands dence between Orthodox religious organisa- because they did not know Russian. When pre- tions in Eastern Siberia and The Most Holy senting the problem to the Council of the Gen- Governing Synod that was the highest gov- eral Administration of Eastern Siberia, Mikhail erning body of the Russian Orthodox Church; Korsakov, future Governor-General, made a 3. Publications in newspapers and magazines proposal to appoint a person ‘not hesitating re- concerning the problems of relations between garding his religious creed’. This person would the state, Orthodoxy and Buddhism in the pe- fulfill all the duties of the Buddhist leader and riod from the middle of the 19th century till for this purpose should know the Mongolian the first decade of the 20th century, as well and even Tibetan languages and enjoy con- as books written and published by Orthodox fidence and special rights from the High Au- leaders at the same time; 4. Personal letters thorities (Lamaity Vostochnoi Sibiri). Mikhail

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Korsakov was speaking about Archimandrite laws and meet the requirements. The Minis- Avvakum who was perfectly advanced in Ori- ter, in turn, sent his own letter to the Gover- ental studies and the Orthodox hierarch at the nor-General of Eastern Siberia, which repeat- same time, he would be very successful in pro- ed the report of the Orthodox mission and the moting morality among Buryats and in bring- letter from Dmitry Tolstoy. On February 12, ing them to through convincing 1867, the Governor-General Mikhail Korsakov them in the advantages of the true religion. gave detailed response to the Minister on all It is noteworthy that such a solution took the points of specific complaints. He showed place with the support of Buryats: at the meet- high-quality knowledge of the subject matter. ing on election of the the Khambo Lama, clan According to the , one of the big- chiefs of the Transbaikalia region and the Ir- gest mistakes of the authorities consisted in the kutsk Province, as well as deputies from 33 appointment of Khambo Lama by the Emperor datsans (Tsyrempilov, 2013: 171) agreed to ac- and this sealed letter gave Khambo Lama such cept any person, including a non-Buddhist as a moral power in the eyes of Buryats that mis- an acting Khambo Lama, at the discretion of sionaries had nothing to compare it to (Pravo- the authorities (Pravoslavnaia Missiia). On the slavnaia Missiia). initiative of the Governor-General Nikolay Mu- Mikhail Korsakov explains that since ravyov-Amursky, this unprecedented decision there was no such order of appointment to this did not come into effect due to political expedi- position, Buddhists considered it necessary to ency that took into consideration the situation receive approval from the Dalai Lama, since with neighboring Qing China and particularly the position of Khambo Lama required the the Mongols: it was necessary to be especially highest approval. And after the highest asser- careful about Buryat Buddhists. tion was introduced by the Russian emperor, no As advocates of Orthodoxy, the Gover- Khambo appealed to the Dalai Lama; nor-Generals of Eastern Siberia in their activ- thus, the prohibition of relations with foreign ities towards Buddhism were guided by state clergy was fulfilled. Besides, Korsakov retort- interests that implied the need not to aggravate ed the missionaries’ demand that shiretuis and relations with non-Russians and look for possi- ordinary lamas were appointed and dismissed ble mechanisms to maintain peaceful and even by the governor with the argument that since trust based relationships with them. However, 1853, according to the Regulations, this had the Orthodox Church interpreted state interests been fulfilled exactly, thus accusing mission- in a completely different way, believing that aries of not knowing the situation. The most they consisted in the soonest total Christianisa- disadvantaged financial situation of the mis- tion of non-Christians and, thus, destruction of sionaries compared to the Buddhist clergy the social basis of Buddhism and more radical prompted the former to demand ‘establishing a restriction of the Buddhist clergy activities. In tax on various fees charged by Lamaist clergy their numerous reports and letters, mission- from laymen for performing pagan and aries lodged complaints about the malicious for selling various Buddhist spiritual accesso- obstacles that Buddhist clergy made in Chris- ries of their superstitions like burkhans (stat- tianisation of Buryats. In 1866, on the basis of ues), spiritual images, , belts, etc.’ To a similar report of The Transbaikalia-Irkutsk this, the Governor-General replied that ‘on the Orthodox Mission (for more details, see Amo- basis of the Regulations, for the fulfillment of golonova, 2015: 5-41), the Chief Prosecutor of spiritual demands, the Lamas receive ‘volun- the Most Holy Synod Dmitry Tolstoy wrote tary, by no means a forced payment’ (§ 47); the an official letter to the Minister of Internal sale of burkhans, images, prayers, belts, and Affairs Piotr Valuev with a request to imme- other church items is based on the tax, which diately solve the problems of the missionaries, is annually compiled by the Bandido Kham- which consisted both in the poverty of Ortho- ba and approved by the Military Governor of dox preachers and in the activities of the Bud- the Transbaikalia region (§ 55). If Lamas force dhist clergy, who allegedly did not fulfill the people to pay for church items, this compulsion

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can only be moral, therefore the establishment missionaries over the lamas and the truths of a tax can hardly avert it (§ 55). they preach can be the best guarantee of Representing Buddhists as internal en- success in the spiritual business than any emies of the state, the missionaries proposed police measures (§ 55). to impose a ban on Buddhist clergy coming to Russia from Mongolia and traveling to Mongo- Reasonable arguments of the secular au- lia from Russia on pain of recruiting them to thorities were based on a fairly good knowl- military service or penal battalions. Regarding edge of the situation on the ground. Thus, an this, Korsakov explained that the violators of official of the Department for the Spiritual Af- this ban are legally turned into a secular state fairs of Foreign Confessions of the Ministry of and according to Art. 1589 on the Penalties for the Interior prince Esper Ukhtomsky, a diplo- criminals are subject to monetary penalty with mat, politician and orientalist, on the basis of relocation to remote places in Eastern Siberia. his own observations and research, came to the However, such violations, namely, pilgrimage conclusion that any compulsion in Christiani- to Tibet, cannot be completely eradicated, be- sation of heathens was inadmissible. Although cause ‘the of the Dalai Lama, the since the early 19th century there were strict who took human flesh and descended to earth rules on that point, they were violated by the to observe the people living on it, is one of the Orthodox clergy, which believed that forcible fundamental tenets of Buddha’s teaching’ (§ Christianisation was completely acceptable. 55). On this occasion, at the Irkutsk Congress of Si- As for the accusations that lamas hinder berian Eparchs (1885), there was a discussion Christianisation among Buryat Buddhists, between the Bishop of Irkutsk and Nerchinsk Korsakov, in my opinion, rather mockingly re- Veniamin and representatives of the adminis- plies that ‘to be honest, one cannot accuse the tration. At the same time, the congress raised Lamaist clergy of obstructing the conversion questions about the unsatisfactory composition of followers of their faith to Orthodoxy.’ At the of the missionaries, about the facts of the ‘ir- same time, he believed that if any illegal ac- relevance and harmfulness of their behaviour.’ tions of the Buddhist clergy took place (nega- In addition, based on the documents of the tive suggestions about Orthodoxy, conversion Synod Archive, Ukhtomsky argues that ‘the of non-Christians including shamanists to Bud- local archbishop exaggerates the number of the dhism), they should be punished in accordance converted, and missionaries are rude, drunk with the law, and local officials must control and ignorant, they burn and insult Buryat cult this. To fulfill the regulations, he proposes to objects’ (Ukhtomsky, 1892: 7). Ukhtomsky, in bring these laws to the attention of the Buryats particular, condemns the behaviour of the lead- by translating them into the Buryat language ers of East Siberian Orthodoxy towards unbap- and widely spreading them among the clergy tised Buryats, who expressed a desire to study and laity. at their own expense in a teachers’ seminary, At the end of his extensive response, the but received a refusal: Governor-General wrote a very remarkable comment: If you do not accept but deny Buryats in their natural and in every way desirable Without resorting to any restrictive readiness to implement government goals measures regarding Lamaist teaching, independently, which leads to gradual and which are incompatible with the spirit of painless Russification (emphasised by E. our legislation and can hardly contribute Ukhtomsky. – D.A.) – the latter, of course, to spreading Christianity among non-Rus- will not happen soon, and similarly a - sian heathens, it would be useful to put our mentous day when East Siberian lamaits, missionaries in Siberia in more materially by conviction, will at least transit to the bo- favorable conditions, and then it is to be som of the Church will be far (Ukhtomsky, hoped that the personal superiority of the 1892: 7).

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Prince Ukhtomsky occupied a promi- merous examples from their practice. In full nent position in the public service and, at the accordance with stereotypes of public con- same time, was a recognised liberalist. His science, Buryats baptised voluntary because convictions, thus, were so to say dualistic: on of naive hopes to recover from diseases: it the one hand, he supported educating patriot- was a very effective tool in the argumenta- ic feelings and loyalty to the empire among tion. At the same time, late 19th and early 20th non-Russians. But on the other hand, he op- century was the time of Buryat social thought posed to the methods used by the Orthodoxy and ideology establishment. Buryat national when Christian clergy openly discriminated leaders paid attention to Buddhism as one of the unbaptised, thus violating Russian legisla- the channels of national awakening aimed at tion and contributing to the growth of discon- all-Buryat integration. The Buddhist propa- tent with power and anti-Russian sentiment ganda among the pre-Baikal baptised Bury- among them. ats and the recent shamanists was successful. Of course, the Orthodox clergy of Eastern There were numerous reasons for this which Siberia, alongside with numerous claims to the included superficial ideas of baptised Bury- central authorities, made great efforts to pre- ats about Christianity, the lack of real work vent the growing influence of Buddhism among of missionaries among the flock, ignorance of Buryats, especially in Prebaikalia. Although, Buryat culture by preachers, disrespect for the as it turned out later, in most cases the achieved newly baptised co-religionists (to say nothing successes in baptising activities were formal, about the unbaptised Buryats), who were con- the leaders of Irkutsk Diocese tried their best in sidered indigenous uncivilised people and, converting Buryats and to Orthodoxy. therefore, deserved treating them not as equal Highest Siberian clergy not only made inspec- co-religionists, but as unreasonable children tion trips to the territories entrusted to them, (Pravoslavnaia Missiia). but also personally participated in the agitation The desire to oppose the growing influ- and baptism of the indigenous groups. In his ence of Buddhism made the Orthodox clergy report for 1867, Irkutsk Archbishop Parfeni to resort to measures that directly contradicted gave detailed information about the number of the laws of the Empire. We are talking about newly baptised and ways to persuade them to cases of forced baptism (for more details, see convert to Orthodoxy. Among the methods, he Amogolonova, Sodnompilova, 2017: 241-263) named financial assistance in the form of items that took place even in the late 19th century for baptism (linen, crosses, and icons) and cash causing serious protests of Buryats. It is fair allowances for the poor. Explaining the need to to say that the situation changed significantly bribe non-Russians, the archbishop says: in 1905 when the Supreme Decree to the Sen- ate “On Strengthening the Principles of Re- Non-Russians often resort to such ex- ligious Tolerance” was published. From that cuses as: I will be baptised after others will moment, no one had the right to obstruct the do this; ... therefore it is not surprising that procedure of changing the Orthodox religion sometimes external attraction – friendship, to any other. The new legislation was clear gifts or honours – helps those who stand on in all articles and had to be fulfilled within a degree of sensual life to strengthen them- one month. However, Methodius, the Bishop selves in the determination of their good- of Transbaikalia and Nerchinsk, found a loop- will. It would be strange to condemn those hole in the new law that allowed rejecting pe- who are children in their age of spiritual titions on changing Orthodoxy to Buddhism. life for the fact that their thoughts are not He found the reason for this in the failure to lofty because sensual wishes of children’s comply with the condition that applicants had age still guide them (Parfeni, 1868: 69-70). a right to get back to the confessed by themselves or their ancestors. As the newly In addition, missioners vividly described baptised shamanists asked to cross them out the undoubted benefits of baptism giving nu- of Orthodoxy since they intended to become

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Buddhists, while they had never confessed employees like constables or bailiffs who per- Buddhism before, the bishop considered this sonified the state. to be a strong reason for refusal in the applica- Expecting support from the state in any tions. In addition, he blamed Buryats for poor way to suppress Buddhism, the Orthodox or lack of knowledge of the Buddhist doctrine, Church faced the fact that state interests de- thus seeing another sufficient reason to keep manded – and these were tactical measures – them in Christianity (Po adhivu). The Ortho- a certain tolerance towards non-Russians and dox leaders were forced to stop lawlessness their religion. In such cases, Orthodox lead- in this field only after the official explanation ers saw nothing but connivance and even an- that transition from Orthodoxy to Buddhism ti-state plans in the state structures activities. did not need the approval or permission of the So, the objects of criticism became well-known Orthodox authorities and simple notification and even prominent Siberian leaders (Gover- to the secular authorities was enough. nor-Generals Mikhail Korsakov and Nikolay Muravyov-Amursky), who were accused of Conclusion protecting Buddhists and, accordingly, be- The fight for the supremacy in the Bury- traying the cause of Christianisation. It is also at spiritual space lasted for centuries. In this important to note that in addition to political confrontation between Orthodoxy and Bud- senses, the inter-religious competition had a dhism, the Christian religion and the church pronounced economic connotation. The accu- were supported by the Russian state laws that sations against the leadership of Eastern Sibe- gave the right to proselytism to the Orthodox ria included dissatisfaction with the fact that Church only. Public opinion was also on its the state did not interfere with the incomes of side, and the Russian imperial enlightenment, the Buddhist clergy and did not set any goals to in particular, by the mass media, contributed control, that is, to take money from them some- this a lot. The strategic task of Christianisation how. So, in the eyes of the Orthodox clergy Si- of non-Russians was conceived in terms of the berian officials became almost enemies of the education of imperial patriotism. As a foreign state and the only state religion. religion, Buddhism, thus, was understood as a Fortunately, in modern Russia, the equali- potential threat to the Empire. ty of religions and beliefs has become a reality Buddhist clergy carried out its activities in and is a real achievement of social transforma- the framework of prohibitive legislation. Under tions. The struggle for the flock is still topical, strict restrictions, the Buddhist lamahood could but it does not lead to any conflicts and does only seek support from their flock. Loyalty to not have a political connotation. For Buddhism, the tsar and the state became a survival tool institutionalisation and inclusion in the Russian for Buddhists, moreover, a profound respect socio-political structure turned out to be the accompanied by presents and reverences was most acceptable form for preservation and fur- shown to both high officials and low-ranking ther development.

References

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Религиозная политика в позднеимперской России: государство и православная церковь в бурятском духовном пространстве

Д.Д. Амоголонова Институт монголоведения буддологии и тибетологии СО РАН Российская Федерация, Улан-Удэ

Аннотация. В статье анализируются процессы, характерные для межрелигиозных отношений в России во второй половине XIX и начале XX века, когда усилилась критика со стороны православной церкви по отношению к буддийскому духовенству и руководству Восточной Сибири. Противоречия между государством и православной церковью были вызваны тем, что светская власть руководствовалась интересами России на востоке Империи и потому из тактических соображений наделяла буддизм легитимностью, хотя и строго ограниченной. А православная церковь видела свою задачу в подавлении влияния буддийского духовенства посредством как можно более скорого крещения бурят в православие, что подразумевало мировоззренческое единение бурят с русским этническим большинством и обеспечение полной религиозно-идеологической гомогенности населения Восточной Сибири.

Ключевые слова: буддизм, православие, буряты, Российская империя, христианизация, русификация, идентичность.

Работа выполнена в рамках государственного задания XII.191.1.3. Комплексное исследование религиозно-философских, историко-культурных, социально- политических аспектов буддизма в традиционных и современных контекстах России и стран Центральной и Восточной Азии, номер госрегистрации № АААА-А17-117021310263-7.

Научные специальности: 07.00.00 – исторические науки, 24.00.00 – культурология.