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Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology Volume 63 | Issue 3 Article 10 1973 Psychotoxic or Psychedelic G. R. Nakamura N. Adler Follow this and additional works at: https://scholarlycommons.law.northwestern.edu/jclc Part of the Criminal Law Commons, Criminology Commons, and the Criminology and Criminal Justice Commons Recommended Citation G. R. Nakamura, N. Adler, Psychotoxic or Psychedelic, 63 J. Crim. L. Criminology & Police Sci. 416 (1972) This Criminology is brought to you for free and open access by Northwestern University School of Law Scholarly Commons. It has been accepted for inclusion in Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology by an authorized editor of Northwestern University School of Law Scholarly Commons. THE JOURNAL or CRIMINAL LAW, CRIMINOLOGY AND POLICE SCIENCE Vol. 63, No. 3 Copyright C 1972 by Northwestern University School of Law Printedin U.S.A. PSYCHOTOXIC OR PSYCHEDELIC? G. R. NAKAMUJRA AN N. ADLER* George R. Nakamura Ph.D. is head toxicologist of the Los Angeles County Department of Chief Medical Examiner-Ceroner, Los Angeles, California. He was formerly employed as a forensic chemist with the U. S. Department of Justice, Bureau of Narcotics & Dangerous Drugs and with the U. S. Treasury Department, Internal Revenue Service in the Alcohol, Tobacco & Firearms Laboratory, San Francisco. Dr. Nakamura is the author of a number of papers dealing with forensic drug analyses and has previously contributed to this Journal. Nathan Adler Ph.D. is a lecturer at the School of Criminology and in the Department of Psychology, University of California, Berkeley. He is also a private consultant and author of a number of papers in the psycho-sociological aspects of drug abuse. The current epidemic of drug abuse in the replace "psychotomimetic" with one which would search for means to alter consciousness is only one be "euphonious" and not connote a sick mind but of the many ways of altering or transcending expand and open the mind to man's own nature to states of awareness (1, 2).1 Many other spiritual increase his understanding and awareness. He exercises in religion, hypnosis, parachute jumping, indicated that specific beneficial goals could be or rock climbing are a few of the possible examples reached by "unhabitual perception" through of the ways known to alter mood and thought and psychedelic drugs. The word "psychedelic" was to orientation. In the search for the effects of the imply good and beneficial effects ... from the use psychedelic drug "trips," many substances have of compounds like LSD. been explored-nutmeg, furniture polish,, aerosol LSD was an accidental discovery of an extraor- freezers, airplane glue, and other bizarre agents. dinary sort. Its profound and specific hallucino- The word, "psychedelic," coined by Osmond (5) genic action led to eager research in many labora- reifies the "mind-manifesting" process known for tories in hope that such studies with psychotomi- millenia and grants a new prestige and a scientific metics would elucidate the psychotic processes. It aura for what is a psychotoxic process. Man has led also to a popular mechanics and popular inhaled carbonated air emitted from the earth, medicine by those not qualified. Too many young rotated thongs in the pectoral muscles until they people have played with the physical and psycho- wore out. Yoga, with its transcendental meditation logical effects with no capacity to control or techniques, was an attempt to achieve the psy- evaluate the experience and its consequence. chedelic state. Zen Buddhism is construed as a path While LSD has not been found to be lethal, its for "turning-out" without drugs (3). DeRopp (4) uncontrolled use has subverted many individuals, devised a parlor game which describes a "pathway and has created an abusiveness in which meaning- to Higher Consciousness Beyond the Drug Experi- ful research into its potentials as a psychotherapeu- ence." Schizophrenics may experience biochemical tic agent is not possible. changes which many of the psychotomimetic drugs The popular cult of psychedelia has been ex- are presumed to model. Respiratory failure ploited by the mass media to embrace an antimo- (anoxia) due to lack of oxygen in body circulation nian ideology and hair styles, jewelry, and argot. may cause hallucination and so will electric stimu- The ingestion of the drug is only one aspect of lation (6). the transvaluation of values and a reorientation Osmond (5) originally sought a word in 1957 to of the individual who seeks to vitalize his life * The authors are indebted to Milton H. Joffee, anew. Ph.D., National Institute of Mental Health, Division Tolan and Linge (6) have compared the syn- of Narcotic Addiction and Drug Abuse, and E. Leong Way, Ph.D., University of California San Francisco, drome of toxic psychosis due to gasoline inhalation Department of Pharmacology, for reading the manu- with the so-called "model psychosis" evoked by script and suggesting improvements. mescaline, LSD, and psilocybin. These "psy- I Numbers in parentheses refer to references following this article. chotomimetic effects" have also been observed by 19721 PSYCHOTOXIC OR PSYCHEDELIC? Press and Done (7) in deliberate toluene inhalation. Osmond (14) defined psychedelic as a compound Visual hallucination and euphoria are among the "like LSD or mescaline which enriches the mind desired effects sought by glue-sniffers, and these and enlarges the vision. It is this kind of experience subjective responses have been noted in a large which provides the greatest possibility for examin- number of medical case reports. ing those areas to psychiatry and which has pro- What criteria must a substance fulfill psycho- vided men down the ages with experiences they have pharmacologically to be called a psychedelic? Is considered valuable above all others." While psy- "psychedelic" a valid differentiation scientifically chotomimetic refers to psychological changes re- merited or is it merely a public relation labelling sembling, more or less, experiences like those found operation? It appears worthwhile to examine some in psychotic illnesses, psychedelic implies a benefi- of the terms used interchangeably. While hallucino- cial change and the description of a positive value; 2 gens include only those drugs which produce however, the word tells more about attitudes hallucinations, a more general term describing a towards drugs than about the effect of the sub- whole range of toxic effects on the cerebrum are stance. called psychotoxic or psychotogenic. These may The net effect from LSD trips, after all the not only include "trips" accommodated by the confusional experiences have been swept away, exogenous drugs such as mescaline, LSD, Can- has not elicited any profound revelation. The nabis, and barbiturates, but also by a wide range overt behavioral change produced by LSD trips of anesthetics and commercial organic solvents. A appears to be minimal or non-existent in most lack of air and water in toxic amounts may also be cases. A variety of bizarre, subjective experiences considered psychotoxic. has been described, but there appears to be no new In comparison to the terms psychotoxic and insight or true revelations. psychotogenic, the terms psychotropic and psycho- active have also been used to cover the spectrum PHARMACOLOGICAL BASIS OF COMPAuSON of drugs and chemicals having an affinity for Since its discovery by Hofmann in 1943, LSD cerebral processes without invidious inferences. (lysergic acid iethylamide) has remained the "Psychotomimetics" was introduced by Gerard chemical vehicle (9) and applied to those agents reproducing for "model psychosis." Its effects have been used as a basis for comparison with other characteristics of functional psychosis. To be substances producing potentials for causing "con- classed as a psychotomimetic, the drug must only scious alteration." mimic the syndromes of a psychiatric illness and LSD belongs to a group of substituted indole "its action must be both readily reversible and of alkylamines. Others in the group include such limited duration" (10). psychotomimetics as dimethyltryptamine (DMT), Psychotomimetic agents have been described as diethyltryptamine (DET), bufotenine, psilocin, being capable of effecting changes in perception, psilocybin, harmine, and ibogaine. Current reviews emotion, thought, and ego function (11). These by Hofmann (12) Hoffer and Osmond (14), Down- changes are differentiated from the deliriant effects ing (15, 16), Crossland (17), Jacobson (18), and elicited by alcohol, morphine, cocaine, and Cohen (11) more than adequately cover the atropines since these latter compounds tend to chemistry and pharmacology of LSD and other cloud consciousness and exhibits other serious indole hallucinogens. disability of the autonomic nervous system (12); A cursory examination of the basic structure the definition of psychotomimetics therefore also of these compounds would reveal excludes anesthetics, analgesics, and hypnotics. their amazing similarity to serotonin, or 5-hydroxytryptamine Ilett and Parfitt (13) categorized the psychoto- (Fig. 1), an endogenous chemical putatively mimetics into four groups: phenylethylamines, called an "inhibitory transmitter" acting between (e.g., mescaline), indoles (e.g., LSD, bufotenine), nerve cells. The presence of serotonin has been theorized piperidines (e.g., phenycyclidine), and cannabinols to suppress the brain cells from becoming (for marihuana). over- excited and resulting in hallucination and other 2See Comprehensive Drug Abuse Prevention and behavioral
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