Polyakova I. Collecting Amber Naturalia in Sixteenth-Century

MINISTRY OF CULTURE AND TOURISM OF THE KALININGRAD REGION KALININGRAD REGIONAL AMBER MUSEUM

COLLECTION IN THE SPACE OF CULTURE

PROCEEDINGS OF THE INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE

Kaliningrad 2019 UDC 379.45 (045) LBC 77.552 я43 Coll 70

Reviewers:

A. A. Hitrov, Doctor of Sciences (History), Professor, Head of the Department of the History of the Humanities Faculty (Kaliningrad State Technical University)

P. E. Fokin, Candidate of Sciences (Philology), Head of the Department “Apartment Museum of Fyodor Dostoevsky” (Vladimir Dahl State Museum of the History of Russian Literature, Moscow)

Editorial board

T. J. Suvorova, I. A. Polyakova (Editor in Chief), Ch. J. Duffin

Coll 70 Collection in the space of culture : Proceedings of the International Conference / eds. I. A. Polyakova, Ch. J. Duffin, T. J. Suvorova ; Kaliningrad Regional Amber Museum. — Kaliningrad, 2019. — 340 p., [395] ill. ISBN 978-5-903920-52-5

This book contains proceedings prepared by the participants of the international conference “Collection in the space of culture” which was held from 18 to 21 September 2017 at the Kalinin- grad Regional Amber Museum. The articles published here are devoted to topical questions in the history of collections and collecting. The established approaches to organisation and interpretation of the collections are considered; the resources of Russian and foreign museums which are generally unknown to the public are presented here. This edition is intended for museum professionals, historians, cultural studies scholars, collectors, and educators.

UDC 379.45 (045) LBC 77.552 я43

Editorial Note ...... 5 Markov Boris V. Museum in the Space of the City ...... 7 Cinquegrani Maurizio. Of Other Cinematic Spaces: the Holocaust Documentary as a Collection ..... 16 Dmitriev Igor S. From Studioli to Kunst- and Wunderkammern ...... 24 Laue Georg. Renaissance and Baroque Amber Treasures: Collectors and the Art Market from the Sixteenth to the Twenty First Centuries ...... 29 King Rachel. Telling Times — Knowing North: Clocks, Sundials and Compasses in Amber ...... 53 Polyakova Irina A. Collecting Amber Naturalia in Sixteenth Century Prussia ...... 63 Trusted Marjorie. Baroque Ambers in Britain ...... 82 Novgorodova Daria D. History of Space of the Mineral Cabinet in the Eighteenth Century ...... 92 Duffin Christopher J. British Eighteenth Century Materia Medica Collections ...... 105 Lemoine-Bouchard Nathalie. Collecting Miniatures in Eighteenth Century France ...... 126 Syrovatko Lada V. Francesco Bartholozzi — Pierre-Nоёl Violet: Destinies of the Artists, Destinies of the Collections ...... 139 Boeckh Hans. Personalities of Russian History on Enamel Painted Miniatures in Geneva’s Public and Private Collections ...... 158 Borovkova Natalia V. The Destiny of the Personal Natural Science Collection of Empress Catherine the Great ...... 171 Mikitina Violetta V. Glass in the Collection of Alexei Vikulovich Morozov ...... 185 Sivkova Svetlana G. Museum Collection within City Landscape ...... 197 Suvorova Tatiana J. Role of the Museum Collection in Shaping Cultural Situation in the Kaliningrad Oblast and Russia ...... 205 Kostyashova Zoya V. Modern Original Artworks in the Collection of the Kaliningrad Amber Museum 212 Toropova Irina A. Copies of the Eighteenth Century Silhouette Cameo Portraits of Amber in the Collection of the Kaliningrad Regional Amber Museum ...... 219 Salaks Juris. Revival of the Collection. Centenary History of Ilya Mechnikov Legacy ...... 223 Syrovatko Lada V. When the Ships Were Wooden, and People Were Iron: Some Materials for the Iconography of the Important Figures of the Fleet ...... 235 Akimova Galina A. An Elegy for Prussia: the Works of Pictorial Art of the Late Nineteenth — Early Twentieth Century from the Collection of the Museum of the World Ocean ...... 251 Barroso Maria Do Sameiro. Portuguese Materia Medica in the Tavora Sequeira Pinto Collection (Porto) ...... 267 Bagužaitė-Talačkienė Sigita. Memory and Identity. The Preserved Heritage of the Western Balts in the Palanga Amber Museum ...... 285 Manukyan Andranik R. Private Collecting of Baltic Amber with Inclusions in the Kaliningrad Oblast of the Russian Federation ...... 292 Bogdasarov Maksim A., Bogdasarova Yulia V., Kozhanov Yury D., Solop Irina V. The Role of Collections of Minerals, Rocks and Fossils in Professional Training of Geographers (Case Study of Geology Learning Centre at the Brest State A. S. Pushkin University) ...... 306 Manukyan Andranik R., Boikina Irina N. The Experience of Conservation of Amber with Inclusions from the Collection of the Museum of the World Ocean ...... 313 Ratuszna Jolanta. Past and Present Conservation of Amber Collectables an Attempt to Evaluate Selected Conservation Concepts ...... 321 On the authors ...... 339 Irina A. Polyakova Kaliningrad Regional Amber Museum (Kaliningrad, Russia) Email: [email protected]

COLLECTING AMBER NATURALIA IN SIXTEENTH-CENTURY PRUSSIA

Abstract Natural samples of Baltic amber and amber artworks made in Prussia both assumed their rightful places among the collectables in the Kunstkammern and cabinets of curiosities of sixteenth-century Europe. The items in Italian and German collections are noted by professionals and have been well documented in catalogues and inventories. However, the history of amber collecting in Prussia itself remains a blank spot in the overall picture of contemporary Europe- an culture. This article explores the trends of cultural life in sixteenth-century Prussia which promoted interest in amber as a collectable and laid the groundwork for the appearance of the important collections which announced themselves in the succeeding century. Approaches to the development and demonstration of the collections of amber naturalia in their cultural and natural philosophy contexts are defined. The didactic and methodological roles of amber collectables are revealed. In addition, attention is given to the personalities who were important in amber collecting in contemporary Prussia. Key words: amber, collecting, collection, collectors, Prussia, Albrecht of Prussia, sixteenth century, naturalia, inclusions.

Introduction Jacob Hartmann (1648—1707), a Professor for Medicine and History at the University of Königs- The appearance of individual amber collections berg, and a member of the Academy of Sciences or specialised sections of the large collections in Leopoldina (Hartmann, 1699, pp. 47—48; Pisanski, Prussia accounts for the mid to late seventeenth 1853, p. 100). Hartmann distinguishes several types century or more recently. The earliest known col- of museum according to how they collect and dis- lection to have been documented in the surviving play amber: both natural specimens (by their shape, catalogue belonged to Christoph Gottwaldt (1636— colour-grade, place of origin, inclusions, and medi- 1700), a physician from Gdansk, and following his cinal properties) and amber artworks (chandeliers, death, it passed to his son, Johann Christoph Got- lenses, table-boards etc.). Unfortunately, the names twaldt (1670—1713), also a physician. In 1714, the of the owners of the collections are not indicated. collection was purchased at the direction of Peter However, this brief account confirms the popularity the Great for the Kunstkammer in St Petersburg to- of amber as a collectable. gether with other samples from Gottwaldt’s legacy Catalogues of the Königsberg amber collec- (Gottwaldt, 1714; Novgorodova, 2016). tions (Bernsteinkabinett) appeared in the eigh- The fact that by the end of the seventeenth teenth century. Their compilers were Albertina Pro- century amber collections not only had been built fessors Daniel Heinrich Paschke (?—1745) (1744) but were also being displayed is confirmed in a re- and Friedrich Samuel Bock (1716—1785) (1767, view by an owner of a similar collection Philipp pp. 124—146). The cabinet of naturalia which

63 Irina A. Polyakova belonged to the Saturgus1 merchant family and resulted in development of Kunstkammern, cabi- included materials worked on by Bock, was es- nets of curiosities, as well as individual and specia- tablished by amalgamating some seventeenth and lised amber collections (medical, mineralogical, etc.). eighteenth century collections. It brought together specimens from the cabinets of several Professors of the University of Königsberg: Johann Loselius Treasure of Prussia: (1607—1655), Georg Wosegin (1624—1705) and the background to amber collecting practices Andreas Hedio (1640—1703). Along with an ad- mirable collection of books and coins, the latter “Here amber is found” owned a rich amber collection. The Bernsteinka- The dawn of Prussian cartography binett, systematised by Bock, contained more than 400 items (not all of the records indicate the num- Albrecht von Brandenburg-Ansbach (1490— ber of included articles). 1568), the Duke of Prussia (Fig. 1), not only imple- In order to investigate the foundations for the mented reforms (1530s) aimed at effective produc- development of the earliest significant collecting tion of amber and its promotion to the European practices in Prussia, it is necessary to address the market, but also introduced initiatives which con- cultural realities of the sixteenth century. Because duced the cultural development of the theme of of the fragility and vulnerability of the material, amber at large. Albrecht gathered around himself only a few amber artworks have survived. Am- ber specimens, which were historically included in medical collections and the Naturalia sections in cabinets of curiosities, are even more exceptional. Separate references disseminated throughout the pages of books, mostly belonging to the natural history genre, in correspondence and manuscripts of the time — providing evidence of the attention paid to amber — represent collectors rather more than collections, and highlight the principles un- derlying their choice of exemplars as well as the motivation for their interest. It should be noted that we are much more aware of the owners of the amber samples mentioned in various sources, than we are of the skilled craftsmen of amber artworks from the sixteenth and even seventeenth centuries in Königsberg and Gdansk, and whose artworks can still be seen in major European museums. Thus, descriptions of amber specimens and related commentaries, which have been recorded in published sources and manuscripts, serve, in this instance, Fig. 1. Portrait of Margrave Albrecht as entry points for the reconstruction of particula- of Brandenburg-Ansbach, Duke of Prussia rities of the collecting practices. This paper re- Lucas Cranach the Elder (1472—1553) veals the extent to which it should be possible to Germany, 1528 infer the involvement of Prussian amber amateurs Oil on beech wood; 50.6 × 37.3 сm and experts in the process which took place in six- Braunschweig, the Herzog Anton Ulrich Museum; teenth century Italy, Germany, the Netherlands and public domain

64 COLLECTING AMBER NATURALIA IN SIXTEENTH-CENTURY PRUSSIA young intellectuals, well educated humanistic phy- a map of Prussia, the result of joint creative efforts sicians and Lutheran theologians. The guests atten- by Rheticus, Heinrich Zell (?—1560), cartographer ding the Königsberg Castle were leading European and librarian to Albrecht, and the well-known Polish scientists, medical professionals and renowned ar- astronomer, Nicolaus Copernicus (1473—1543), tists. Among them were persons who were interes- with whom Rheticus and Zell then worked (Fig. 2). ted in amber and admitted by the Duke to the main The inscription “In these parts they fish for am- wealth of the country within his power. ber” (An diesen enden fangt man den Birnstein) A critical moment in shaping the image of the became a future marker of the amber coast in native land of amber was the appearance of the first a number of maps of the region. “The Large Map map of Prussia. In August 1541, German mathema- of Prussia” (Grosse Landtafel von Preussen) was tician and astronomer Georg Joachim Rheticus von charted by Caspar (Kaspar) Hennenberger (1529— Lauchen (1514—1574), in his letter to Albrecht, 1600), a pastor from Mühlhausen,2 and printed in lamented the dead-alive state of geography and Königsberg in 1576. The coastal part of the Duchy’s expressed the hope that different rulers might con- area was indicated by the name Glessaria, derived tribute to the publication of maps of their coun- from the proto-germanic word for amber — gless tries exploiting the recent new data provided by (glass). This name reflected a common trend of the mathematics and astronomy (Burmeister, 1969). time — the ambition of Prussian authors to cele- Albrecht reacted swiftly: as early as 1542 he pro- brate Prussia as Amber Land. White amber was vided financial support for printing in üN rnberg called “Prussian” or marine (“scooping”), as distinct

Fig. 2. Map of Prussia by H. Zell, [G. J. Rheticus, N. Copernicus] Germany, Nürnberg, 1542. Copperplate engraving Venice, the National Library of St Mark; 138. c. 4

65 Irina A. Polyakova from black, fossilised and mined, gagate (Wigand, a wide circle of readers. Although Rheticus in 1590, f. 2). White amber was more highly esteemed “In Praise of Prussia” glorified the enlightenment of than other sorts, as it was less common, had a sweet the country’s inhabitants, noting that the geomet- smell, and, around the sixteenth century, was ac- rical patterns on their houses expressed a love for corded the status of particularly important crude mathematics and astronomy, the average citizen medicine. According to Andreas Aurifaber, it was had no idea of the scientific achievements of the on a par with gold and considered to be of the same time. Their awareness of amber, the main wealth value (1551, Cap. 5). of the country, was far from great, as indicated by The Duke kept for himself white amber as well the “father of mineralogy” Georg Agricola (Bauer) as large amber pieces (Hauptstein); three types (1494—1555). Agricola believed that amber origi- represented by smaller samples (Bastard, Dreh- nated from liquid bitumen produced in the interior stein, gemeiner Stein) were sold to the merchants of the earth and, seeping to the surface at the bot- with whom Albrecht entered into a contract in tom of the sea, congealed in a process driven by 1533.3 White amber was regarded as the cleanest, the force of cold (1912, p. 34). Aurifaber follows and thus therapeutically the most efficient type his view defining amber as a kind of montane wax, (Aurifaber, 1551, Cap. 5, Göbel, 1565, ff. 5—7). springing from sea earth (Aurifaber, 1551, Cap. 6). The black variety was rarely, if ever, washed up on The appeal to own practices advances him to the Prussian shores; when it did, it was perceived as argumentation of natural scientists-experimenta- a symbol of heresy, unrest, and a sign of dark times lists from the succeeding century. His contempo- to come (Göbel, 1565, f. 7; Wigand, 1590, f. 27). raries, however, paid special attention to the second part of his book, which was devoted to the medical Books on amber use of amber. One further work on amber (1558) by the Prus- Albrecht initiated the publishing of special sian scientist and physician Severin Göbel Senior works on amber and supported their authors. On (1530—1612),5 with a slightly unusual title “A hea- his instructions, in the early 1530s, the physician venly-minded notion of the Passion, Resurrection, Gregor Duncker, who oversaw the amber mining, and Benefaction of Christ, which reflect themselves collected materials for a book. His commentaries, in the history of amber” (1558),6 continues the line entitled “An outlook of Gregor Duncker, a physician traced by Aurifaber. Göbel demonstrates that an from Königsberg, on the origins, names and power authentic understanding of nature is nothing but of amber,” were never completed or published, but the doctrine of God. Also basing his ideas on the survive in manuscript form (Duncker, 1538). Amber theory of Agricola, he places all of the questions was the focus of a dedicated volume for the first dealing with natural species of amber in a religious time in 1551: “History of amber” (Succini historia) context, and sees them as traces guiding a person was written by Andreas Aurifaber / Goldschmidt towards the Lord. (1513—1559), a Professor of Medicine at Alber- One of Göbel’s sons, Severin (Junior) (1569— tina, and an adviser and physician in ordinary to 1627), became, like his father, a doctor of medicine, Albrecht.4 a professor at Albertina, and a physician in ordinary The aim of this book — to draw attention to to the Duke of Prussia, Albrecht Friedrich. Göbel Prussian amber — related to an idea, popular in Junior took an active interest in amber early in his the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, of compi- life. His first work “Account of Indian amber” was ling a complete inventory of the lands and wealth published in Königsberg in 1586, when the author of the state both in the past and at the time; this was very young (Göbel, 1586). This book compares was strongly supported by the Duke of Prussia. two varieties of amber: Prussian and Indian, which The work written in German became accessible for was called also ambra.

66 COLLECTING AMBER NATURALIA IN SIXTEENTH-CENTURY PRUSSIA

In 1584, the Bishop of Pomesania Johann The emergence of these books in Prussia pro- Wigand (1523—1587),7 wrote a book, entitled moted the dissemination of knowledge about origins “True History of Prussian Amber,”8 which was and properties (particularly, medical value)9 of amber. published as early as 1590, following the author’s The authors of the works mentioned above obtained death (Wigand, 1590). As an adherent of the genre information on the subject of their writings not only of “didactic and theological contemplations,” from ancient and mediaeval sources (the generally Wigand exposes known questions of the origins used form of presentation of the material in contem- of amber in the form of a sermon, which, accord- porary Europe), but relied on their own experiences, ing to his words, was intended for “the benefit of having the opportunity to observe and research am- the youth.” In this work, Agricola’s same theory is ber personally. These texts serve as the main sources easily identified, embedded into the Biblical con- for early amber collecting practices in Prussia, in spite text from a different angle, than that provided in of fact that the collection itself is not highlighted in Göbel’s book. The history of amber is discussed the structure of the works in question. through the idea of the Wisdom of God and its main The development of the artistic processing of question reads: “How does the Lord rejoice among amber, especially in Königsberg, which lagged far the amazing things of His creation in the sky space, behind Gdansk, was one more line in Albrecht’s on the earth and deep within it, and in the water?” programme. This major theme must be addressed Wigand regards pearl, coral and, of course, amber separately, a task beyond the purpose of this paper. as material evidence of God’s “rejoicing” in the sea. In his work at the turn of the next century (Göbel, 1616), Göbel Junior reviewed the results Amber as a collectable of the discourse concerning amber taking place in Prussia during the latter half of the sixteenth “Soft amber” of Bishop Speratus century, demonstrating the continuity of ideas set forth by his father and Andreas Aurifaber. This al- Succini historia contains a reference to a cu- lows us to speak of the tradition in the interpre- rious and “extremely rare” exemplar owned by tation of the theme, which was formed in Königs- Paul Speratus (1484—1551), a renowned Luthe- berg on the basis of commonly accepted concepts ran theologian and hymn writer, book collector and of natural philosophy, the religious context, the court preacher to Albrecht from 1524 to 1531.10 practice of using amber and paying attention to According to Aurifaber, this was a piece of “new” “particular” specimens, as discussed below. The amber. Being recently separated from its flow, quickly common patriotic motive was the identification of carried out by the stream and resident in the cold Prussia as the native land of amber, a place cho- seawater for a short while, it remained soft, that sen by God intended for such prosperity. Wigand elicited universal wonder (Aurifaber, 1551, Cap. 5). connected this idea with the reform programme Repeated quoting turned “soft amber” by Spera- launched by Albrecht, and notes, that the Lord dis- tus into a famous Prussian rarity. Johann Wigand poses His gifts anywhere He wishes, and thus to (1590, f. 12), Thomas Bartholin (1616—1680) this place, over any other, He bestowed amber. Be- (1742, p. 264), Nathanael Sendel (1686—1757) cause of this, Albrecht, first Duke of Prussia, being (1742b, p. 361), Friedrich Samuel Bock (1767, a wise and educated sovereign, used to say that p. 62), Karl Gottfried Hagen (1749—1829) (1821, while others speak viva voce about their metal p. 216) and many others wrote about it in their works. mines, he himself makes much of this gift from God, One can speculate as to why the Bishop kept as he has an income from amber mining achieved the sample which became so well-known. His con- without the difficulty, danger, and expense incurred temporaries admired his rich library, whose num- when digging for metals (Wigand, 1590, f. 17). ber and arrangement of books and manuscripts

67 Irina A. Polyakova was very impressive, but I have never come across Coast — the specimen was so soft that he printed any reference to his interest in naturalia, inclu- his seal on it (1670, p. 2061). “Amber” has been cast ding amber. Johann Wigand alludes to the specimen from the sea the same year; it was of yellowish co- which belonged to Speratus to justify his opinion lour, transparent, with a strong scent and well bur- regarding the fluidity of the bituminous substance ning. At the same time, the sender’s brother (in Heve- of amber (1590, f. 12), and “the soft piece” itself lius words, “a very credible person”) related that is claimed as providing evidence for the ongoing he had in his possession an even more amusing process of its “maturing” (f. 19). sample, “a small piece of Amber, soft on one side, Soft “amber” was also a subject of interest and very hard on the other wherein lay buried for natural scientists in the succeeding centuries. a Fly” (1670, p. 2061). The importance of similar Thomas Bartholin, Danish scientist and physician, specimens for collections was also highlighted by founder and editor of the academic journal Acta “experiment,” but which shows elements of being a medica et philosophica Haffniensia published in legend, presented at the 1660 disputation in Königs- Copenhagen in 1673—1680s, cites the Speratus’ berg by Andreas Concius (1628—1682), Professor of specimen as natural philosophic argument in his ar- Mathematics at Albertina (Bartholin, 1742, p. 265). ticle dealing with the experiments with amber: “That A soft piece of amber containing a scrap of paper all amber was originally soft appears from various indicating the year it was produced was thrown into experiments… Andreas Aurifaber saw a flexile and the sea. This was made in order to succeeding gen- soft piece manageable like wax” (Bartholin, 1742, erations can know if “soft amber” changes in due p. 264). Scientist, physician and collector from El- course. Years later, this exemplar being thrown out bing, Nathanael Sendel regards the question of the by the sea again (a very slim chance!), was shown original state of amber as being key for the under- to have hardened by the sea’s salinity. Someone standing of its origin and notes: “The first matter of thought “amber” was hardened from liquid bitu- all ambers is soft and almost fluid” (Sendel, 1742b, men; Bartholin never doubted that it was thickened p. 360). He considers narrations of Aurifaber, Gö- wood resin, and, in general, it was believed that the bel Senior (who wrote about soft raw amber cast “experiment” proved the original softness of amber. ashore), Wigand, and Hartmann to be reputable To answer the question, what Speratus’ sample, records in support of this postulate. outwardly similar to amber so much that such an In addition, Sendel, who at various times ob- expert as Andreas Aurifaber had no doubts in its served amber mining, describes “amber-glebes.” origin, was, it is necessary to perform a chemical Their stratification (bedding of one lamina upon examination. Modern scientists assume that “soft another), in his opinion, not only demonstrates amber” is most probably a kind of resinous polymer original softness of ambers but also shows “that cum hydrocarbon mixture, which the sea occasio- they were formed successively and at different nally throws up on the Sambian Coast. times; and consequently their continued production Over several centuries, the item housed by the and generation” (1742b, p. 361). Among his own Bishop of Pomesania, was quoted as furnishing an collectables Sendel valued highly a piece of soft irrefutable “argument” in theoretical discussions earth (“no harder than stiff wax”), which he called on the origins and properties of amber. As recently “amber-glebe” (1742b, p. 362). as the eighteenth century, there were many who Bartholin reports on a comparable sample in expressed doubts concerning the opportunity of the collection of Wilhelm Worm, Royal Court coun- the natural “generation of ambers” (Sendel, 1742b, sellor, historiographer and professor of medicine p. 360). It was believed that amber was a kind of at Copenhagen (1742, p. 264). Polish astronomer ancient resin brought to Prussia at the time of uni- Jan Hevelius (1611—1687) wrote that he received versal deluge and, since then, occasionally washed a piece of amber from someone who lived on the Baltic ashore by severe storms, and before that its shatters

68 COLLECTING AMBER NATURALIA IN SIXTEENTH-CENTURY PRUSSIA were dispersed up around the world. “Soft amber” as amongst which are epigrams and distichs dated well as “new,” with a “smoky crust”, were claimed as 1533, providing evidence that the pastor from Alt- proofs that amber has its own natural history, which stadt collected amber samples with various inclu- should be elicited and demonstrated by experiment. sions. Most of humorous epigrams are dedicated to Poliander’s friend, Johannes Beler (1482—1539), “Prussian gem” in the collection of a poet a merchant, who served at Königsberg, firstly, as a municipal scribe, then as a member of munici- Johann Poliander / Graumann (1487—1541), pality and a mayor. Beler provided specimens to a Lutheran theologian, pastor at the Altstadt Church Poliander for his collection. The collector relates in Königsberg, Counsellor of Duke Albrecht, and the how he obtained an amber piece with wormlings- author of poetic paraphrase to German of Psalm inclusions in exchange for a copy of Institutiones 103 (well known as a Lutheran hymn “Now praise, by Justinian, a valuable book for the time, concer- my soul, the Lord” / Nun lob, mein Seel, den Her- ning the Roman law. Opportunities of the merchant ren), was a close friend of Speratus.11 were, seemingly, sufficiently broad: Poliander lists As German historian Christian Krollmann supposed amber inclusions, to which he prepared (1866—1944) noted, “amber and its mining were another luck than to be “imprisoned” by Beler: always a subject of inquisitive delight for the hu- mosquitos, flies, ants, and worms which are locked manists, who arrived from the West and South of up in transparent amber gem and “oppressed” Germany; Poliander could not withstand the charm in the harsh prison even more harsh Beler. Taking of this unique landmark” (1929, p. 18). This is tes- into account the social disposition of Poliander, “ano- tified to by a letter sent by him to Caspar Born- ther luck,” supposedly, was meant to make the col- er (1492—1547), his successor as a Rector of St. lection a subject of contemplation amongst friends. Thomas School in Leipzig, in 1535. It contains Poliander addressed several distichs, obviously a picturesque and emotionally charged narration correlating with epigrams by Martial, to his favourite concerning amber fishing in the “Sambian lands.” collectable — an amber-encased caterpillar given to A copy of this letter was enclosed in a book from him by Joachim Streckfus,15 a member of the munici- Poliander’s library — Natural History by Pliny the pality in Altstadt. The heroine of the couplets escaped Elder (Gaius Plinius Secundus; 23—79). Part of the death, because amber became for her a “magnificent library, bequeathed to the city by the Altstadt pas- house” rather than a tumulus. In the mouth of the cater- tor, later was caught up in the library of Albertina, pillar, the poet placed words signifying the variety of in spite of the will of bestower that the collection inclusions in amber: “I am not the only one to whom should not be shared. That is where, in 1737, the the amber gem presented this great blessing” (Fig. 3).16 copy mentioned above was discovered and pub- Poliander’s poems on amber were known in lished by Professor of Physics Karl Heinrich Rap- Königsberg in the sixteenth century. One manuscript polt (1702—1753) (Rappolt, 1737).12 copy belonged to physician Gregor Duncker (1538) The sources of Poliander’s biography point (Fig. 4), and another to Prussian cartographer Caspar to his rich library but contain no information on Hennenberger (Ms 1263) (Fig. 5), who marked on other collections belonging to him. New data ap- his maps places where amber was found by special peared when, in 1907, Professor Otto Günther inscriptions (Polyakova, 2016, p. 236). The church in (1864—1924), a member of the library in Danzig, Mühlhausen, where Hennenberger served as a pastor discovered an additional volume originating from from 1560/1561 to 1590, was owned by the Kunheim Poliander’s book collection. The convolute, bringing family with whom Poliander was close and he held together small books of poets from 1502 till 1532,13 in with Georg von Kunheim (Senior) (1480—1543), is noteworthy because in the blank pages and mar- a District Chief of Tapiau. Perhaps, one of descen- gins Poliander inserted a series of Latin poems,14 dants passed the poems to Hennenberger.

69 Academy of Sciences; Ms. 1263 Academy on an amber-encased caterpillar Fig. 5. Poems by Johann Poliander 5. Poems by Fig. Gdansk, the Gdansk Library of Polish Caspar (Kaspar) Hennenberger. Autograph Caspar (Kaspar) Hennenberger. Cod. Guelf. 14. 11. Aug. 4to Gregor Duncker. Autograph Gregor Duncker. on an amber-encased caterpillar Fig. 4. Poems by Johann Poliander 4. Poems by Fig. ü ttel, The Herzog August Library; Wolfenb Johann Poliander. Autograph Johann Poliander. Academy of Sciences; Ms. 2436 Academy on an amber-encased caterpillar Fig. 3. Poems by Johann Poliander 3. Poems by Fig. Gdansk, the Gdansk Library of Polish

70 COLLECTING AMBER NATURALIA IN SIXTEENTH-CENTURY PRUSSIA

Poliander stands alone among sixteenth-century of mosquitoes is described as having been received authors who wrote on amber. He is pretty much the from Aurifaber.21 The latter also reports his posses- only one who does not mention the medical pro- sion of an ancient piece of amber engraved with the perties of amber. The “Prussian gem,” as he calls scene of the crucifixion (Christ and the two thieves) this stone following Pliny, is seen as a subject of (Aurifaber, 1551, Cap. 5, 9). But perhaps the most aesthetic contemplation and poetic inspiration. As important note is discovered in the German ver- well as for the library of the Altstadt pastor (the sion of the book of commentaries to the De Mate- device of its ex-libris reads: “Difficulty of reading is ria Medica by Pedanius Dioscorides (ca. 40—90), overcome by reading. Johann Grauman — for himself compiled by Italian scientist and physician Pietro and his friends…”)17 his amber collection, it seems, Andrea Gregorio Matthioli (1501—1577). was also meant for his inner circle and represented A brief article on amber, as a rule, was accom- an illustration of the epigrams written by one of his panied by an image of the black poplar in herbals, favourite Roman poets. As to pieces of transparent and in this edition it reads (Matthioli, 1590, p. 39r): amber with inclusions, they reminded of God’s jokes in nature and, as collectables, better than anything, He that wishes to read the complete works complied with the cheerful nature of the collector. on amber, can have a look at the treatises written about it by highly-educated medical men, doctor Andreas Aurifaber (from whom I once saw about “Traces” of Andreas Aurifaber collection 200 or more amber [samples] of different colour) (Emphasis added. — I. P.) and doctor Severin Göbel, The opportunities of building up personal col- at the present time professor in Königsberg, an lections were primarily available to those who had especially diligent expert of nature. direct access to amber, as, for instance, in the case of Andreas Aurifaber. Like many educated contem- This evidence, which is probably due to the poraries, Aurifaber, whilst still a student, assembled book’s translator, German physician and botanist, his own library;18 upon his arrival to Königsberg, Joachim Camerarius (der Jungere) (1534—1598), he helped Albrecht to create the Castle library. The reflects the traditional organising principle of six- Duke, appreciating the learning and competency of teenth-century amber collections, also presented his counsellor, called him “Ptolemy II Philadelphus” in the “Catalogue” by Johann Kentmann mentioned (Tondel, 2001, p. 55),19 The author of Succini his- above (1565, pp. 22—23), — a demonstration of the toria, according to some sources, was a qualified colour range shown by amber in a separate sec- expert in collecting other objects of value, inclu- tion in which specimens were assorted in according coins.20 Although the records of the collection dance with their resemblance to precious stones. belonging to him have not survived, some refe- Aurifaber’s extreme availability at the court rences in sixteenth-century literature indicate that and particularly, during the past decade of his life, Aurifaber retained interesting amber specimens, and his active involvement in religious Osiandrian supposedly making them available for sale in the controversy which had broken out in Königsberg, future. Thus, he owned a piece of amber with more did not leave the time necessary for the develop- than 50 small flies inside (Aurifaber, 1551, Cap. 6). ment of his many scientific plans and did not allow This example served as a confirmation for him of him to focus sufficiently closely on the arrangement the idea of the origin of some small creatures from of the material addressed to a range of his humanis- the earth in areas of putrefaction, as expressed tic interests. His library remained uncatalogued; the by Aristotle and Theophrastus. In the catalogue apothecary shop, herbal garden and printing house of minerals compiled by German physician and entrusted to him by his father in law22 fell into de- scientist Johann Kentmann (1518—1574) (1565) cline, and only indirect testimonies denote that he another amber with inclusions containing a swarm could be the owner of a small but carefully selected

71 Irina A. Polyakova amber collection, similar to which later became Hermann, Göbel was struck by the hardened dra- known as “dealer” collections, and were extensively matic death scene of the frog and lizard, captured involved in the process of development of collecting by the amber. These Prussian rarities were also practices both in Prussia and Europe as a whole. likely seen by the Italian poet Antonio Querenghi (1546—1633), who wrote the epigram introducing Wonders of Nature or collectors’ jokes? the text of the poem in the Riga edition of 1600; he Inclusions in amber also noted the transparency and radiancy of amber as viewed by a learned contemplator with unusual inclusions (Hermann, 1600, unpag.). Nathanael Sendel in his Historia Succinorum Sometimes collections and collectables became placed the amber inclusions from Hermann’s poem known and acquired their cultural context thanks to into the section dedicated to forgeries (De falsis the responses and impressions of those who had et arte inclusis) (1742a, p. 254) emphasising in ever seen them. “Prussian” example — two pieces such a way their artificiality. Did the owners and of transparent amber, one with a frog, and another witnesses know about that? The author while sen- with a lizard. They became famous through the ding his poem to Zsigmond Bathory (1572—1613), poem by Daniel Hermann (1543—1601) “On frog the young Prince of Transylvania, wrote about and amber, encased in Prussian amber” (De rana et the “characters” of this work that they were items lacerta in succino Prussiaco insitis) (1583).23 The worthy of embellishing the treasury of any king author, a native of Neidenburg, was educated at or prince and that “Nature could hardly create several European universities,24 served as a Secre- a more graceful piece” (Hermann, 1583, unpag.). tary of the Chancery at the courts of Maximilian II The last phrase can be interpreted ambivalently, (1527—1576) and Rudolf II (1552—1612) in Vienna but the lines which Hermann placed under images (1572—1578), was a municipal solicitor in Gdansk of the frog and lizard testify to his confidence in (1572—1578), took part in the battle campaigns of authenticity of the inclusions: “And Mother Nature Stephen Bathory (1579—1582), and finally settled created a sweet-scented tomb for the frog and shi- in Riga. very lizard, embedded in amber” (1583; Fig. 6). And In Hermann’s words, the inclusions preserved Querenghi revoices him: “Or, most likely, you were their natural colour (the bodies looked “as if alive”), sculptured by Nature” (Hermann, 1600, unpag.). minor details (claws and small flakes on the back The owners of famous curiosities — the Jaski of the lizard) and even drops of blood exuding out family of Gdansk — are well known for everybody, of the bodies of little buried creatures were clearly engaging with the theme of amber. As early as visible in the transparent amber, the latter being 1533, Paul Jaski (1495—1564) received privileges a particular source of wonder. for amber trade from the Duke of Prussia. Auri- The items described were not the imagina- faber, who knew Jaski personally, believed him to tion of the poet. This fact is confirmed by an Eng- be an expert on amber, noting that the Gdansk mer- lish traveller Fynes Moryson (1566—1630), who chant could just as easily specify from where one visited Gdansk in August 1593. The sample with or another specimen originates, as it is possible the frog, in his words, was especially transparent to distinguish between the Hungarian, Italian or and the King of Poland, in the city at the time, wi- the Scotch (Aurifaber, 1551, Cap. 5).25 Since Jaski shed to buy an extravagant amber piece for a high managed by the assortment of amber, he created price (Moryson, 1908, p. 23). Another witness, Seve- a classification of its colour-grade and varieties rin Göbel Junior, conveys that both “miraculous according to the size of pieces (Aurifaber, 1551, and supernatural” (wunderbarlich und ubernatur- Cap. 5). At the time of the first edition of the poem, lich) specimens — “wonders of nature” (miracula the amber-encased frog and lizard belonged to naturae) — were palm-sized (1616, Cap. 1). Like a grandson of the renowned merchant, named, like

72 COLLECTING AMBER NATURALIA IN SIXTEENTH-CENTURY PRUSSIA his grandfather, Paul ( ?—1584) (Tesdorpf, 1887, p. 15),26 and somewhat later — great-grandson, Andreas Jaski (?—1632). Seemingly, the “wonders of nature” which amazed Hermann so much, were produced shortly before the arrival of the poet in Gdansk, where he served from 1578 till 1582 (or during his staying there), since they were not mentioned in earlier works on amber. As Göbel reports, Andreas Jaski, in spite of the high price that he was offered, did not agree to sell the frog to the King of Poland, but gave both amber inclusions to Georg Friedrich I, the Margrave of Brandenburg-Ans- bach. The latter, in turn, presented them to the Duke of Mantua (Göbel, 1616, Cap. 1). Vincenzo I Gon- zaga found a rightful place for the gifts in his Trea- sury (Schatzkammer). Thus, Hermann’s claim that the exemplars praised in his poem are worthy of princely Kunstkammer was borne out by later events. Many influential collectors in Europe, like the Duke of Mantua, wanted to have rare amber specimens or artworks in their collections.27 Genuine inclusions were not so impressive and attractive to the audience as counterfeits were. The latter to a greater extent “disclosed” wonders and jokes of Mother Nature, sometimes presenting really dra- matic subject matter. For example, the humanists Fig. 6. Page from the first edition of the poem knew an epigram by Conrad Celtis (1459—1508) by Daniel Hermann De Rana et Lacerta… (1583) about a frog which got caught up in amber while The Saxon State and University Library Dresden; swallowing a fly (Celtis, 1881, p. 13). Demonstration Lit. Lat. rec. A. 380, misc. 23 of the power of amber to preserve substances pro- tecting them from putrifaction and corruption was As falsifiable inclusions frogs and lizards, were important both for collectors from among medical especially popular and in high demand among professionals and philosophers searching for visual collectors (see: King, 2015; Polyakova, 2016, confirmations of the idea of eternity amongst na- pp. 169—170). In the 1720s, the physician and tural phenomena (Polyakova, 2016, pp. 166—172). owner of a natural history cabinet from Breslau, Less sophisticated people were surprised and Johann Сhristian Kundmann (1684—1751), com- admired the “curiosity” itself, masterfully crafted piled a catalogue of renowned city collections of from natural material and competing with artworks artworks, books and naturalia in which the frog or intricate automata. Both items appeared to have in amber from the collection of Ernst Benjamin been created by skilled craftsman, particularly von Löwenstadt-Ronneburg was announced as the frog “buried in electrum.” The combination of “the most amazing” (das curioste)28 (Kundmann, goldish transparent amber with the green colou- 1726, p. 66). We find a continuation of the story ration of the inclusion and the scarlet drops of fluc- (as likely as not, the sample cited above) in ano- tuating liquid — “blood,” from the description, was ther catalogue compiled by Kundmann (1737, extraordinarily spectacular. pp. 225—226). The owner of the amber-encased

73 Irina A. Polyakova frog demonstrated it by holding over a light and by overflowing bitumen, it has been moulded into never let it out of his hands. After the death of von electrum: thus, the form is preserved, but nothing Löwenstadt, the rarity was purchased by Count survived from the frog apart from a “death mask.” Christoph Proskau. When the latter also died, while The poem was distributed beyond Prussia. The drawing up the inventory, it was discovered that the ideas of “philosophical discourse” concerning am- piece was constructed in two parts with a hollow ber must have been fairly strong for the poem to be into which the frog had been placed — a method appreciated as a serious source. In the sixteenth — for counterfeiting inclusions in amber known at eighteenth centuries, references to it could be of- the time. ten found in scientific works on amber and cata- Contemplation of amber inclusions at various logues of collections (Bartholin, 1742, pp. 264, 265; times served as a source for philosophical reflec- Hartmann, 1677, pp. 91—92; Kundmann, 1726, tion, as demonstrated in Early Modern literature. p. 292). Severin Göbel Junior gained familiarity For Hermann, the clever forgeries raised ques- with the poem from the book of medicine recom- tions not merely about the nature of amber, but mendations and letters (Hermann, 1593). Ulisse also about things existent in and of themselves. Aldrovandi (1522—1605), a physician, scientist, Even though our poet is not original in his trains of professor of natural sciences at the University of thought (both Agricola and Prussian authors men- Bologna, and the owner of one of the best-known tioned above can be recognised), “philosophical cabinets of curiosities in Europe obtained a first discourse,” as he specified the genre of the poem, edition of the poem for his library.30 Justus Fidus with a pretension to understanding the beginning Klobius, professor at the Academy of Wittenberg, in and the ending of things, brought together a whole his work titled Ambrae Historiam (1666) together range of problems, as well as the means of their with a reference to the Hermann’s poem recorded interpretation, inherent in the science of the time. its renowned characters in pictorial form. But the Then unexplained, the properties of the substance engraving, following the structure of one published in which the frog and lizard were trapped, — “fra- in the titles of several editions, is obviously co- grant juice of the earth,” or “streaming bitumen” pied from another plate. Perhaps, its creator had (naphtha), seemingly were sources of amazement once seen published original but could not repro- for Hermann’s contemporaries. It was as if trans- duce it accurately (Figs 7, 8). At the turn of the parent amber spoke of the indestructibility of the eighteenth century the poem by Hermann was in- bodies embedded in it. cluded in a systematic bibliography guide on natu- One explanation of the origin of inclusions given ral history, economics, science and the arts, com- by Hermann was based on the idea of transfor- piled by German scientist G.R. Böhmer, as a source mation of forms (incorporeal drawings created by of information on amber together with works by Nature) in new bodies. The mechanism for these Aurifaber, Göbels both Senior and Junior, Hartmann, transformations was explained by divine inter- Sendel, and other authors who, in theme of amber, vention. What is inside amber: a material body or were representatives of the world of Early Modern an unbodied image?29 Is the matter variable but science (Bohmer, 1788, p. 475). And still in the the form unchanged? At the close of the sixteenth nineteenth century (1838), the Court counsellor century, these questions were of general concern and physician from Baden-Baden Johann August rather than only to the author of the poem. For Pitschaft in his article entitled “Natural history example, Hermann supposes that amber changes and medical compendia and margins”, published in the things inside it by “some secret power” trans- the “C.W. Hufelands Journal of Practical (applied”) forming the body into the “substance of its (amber) medicine”», mentioned the poem by Hermann and own glue,” while the form itself remains unchanged. called him, for some reason, “a theologian from (1583, unpag.). As to the cited frog, being trapped Breslau” (1839, p. 89).

74 COLLECTING AMBER NATURALIA IN SIXTEENTH-CENTURY PRUSSIA

Fig. 7. Title page from the first edition of the poem Fig. 8. Title page from the book by J.F. Klobius by Daniel Hermann De Rana et Lacerta… (1583) Ambrae Historiam (1666) The Saxon State and University Library Dresden; The Bavarian State Library; 4 M. med. 123 Lit. Lat. rec. A. 380, misc. 23

Amber from Johann Wigand collection Amber was brought to Wigand by local fisher- men and peasants, as well as by merchants from Among the owners of amber collections should Gdansk. He received the most fanciful (curious) be noted Johann Wigand, the Bishop of Pomesania. amber collectables and carved artworks from Jo- In 1577, to the Pomesanian diocese was added the hann Keylavicius, to whom he dedicated his book. diocese of Samland. From the thirteenth century on- A piece of transparent amber, which the owner ward, the Bishop of Samland was eligible to receive considered to come from India, was given to him part of the amber mined in the peninsula. Wigand by a sailor from Gdansk who traded grain in Spain examined the coastline together with his fellows — (Wigand, 1590, f. 17). Wigand tells us nothing about physician Valerius Fidler (1525—1595) and apothe- the artworks which belonged to him, but describes cary Jacob Montanus (1529—1600), both serving at only natural samples — manifestations of “Sophia’s the court of the Duke of Prussia (Wigand, 1590, f. 6). rejoicing” in amber: the diversity of its colours, si- From the amber specimens which came into Bishop’s zes, and smells; inclusions of small stones, insects, hands, according to his commentaries, he kept for preserved as if still alive with all their parts, such himself those which could be used as exemplifica- that it was impossible to observe them without ex- tions of the theoretical foundations in his works. periencing joy and delight (Wigand, 1590, f. A2).

75 Irina A. Polyakova

The Bishop held amber specimens which were found Discussions on the nature of amber were the in unusual places, such as at the bottom of a lake, and context for the development of collections. The a piece the size of a fist containing flame-colou- absence of a generally recognised concept gave red substance inside and burnt outside (as the owner natural science collectors a certain degree of free- believed, by the heat of the sun) (Wigand, 1590, dom in selecting appropriate samples for demon- f. 19). For Wigand, this example served as a proof strating the phenomena and values related to a sort that amber was driven off by the power of heat from of “wonder.” Thus, there was a special focus on the deep within the earth. inclusion of curious rarities and spectacular coun- Following Göbel Senior, Wigand cited amber terfeits in their collections. specimens with inclusions of melanteria, “halcitida” The didactic purpose of the specimens became and other “subterranean things” from the collection a focus of interest, as explanations and visual re- of a physician to the Duke of Prussia and professor presentations of the ideas, which were assigned to at Albertina Johann Pontanus (Bruckner) (? –1572) become an alternative to the outlook of ancient au- (Göbel, 1565; Wigand, 1590, f. 10). The “subterra- thors, were required. The general cultural meaning nean things” included in amber were considered as and context were maintained not by the owners of confirmation of its origins from bitumen, deep with- the collectables so much as by those who were able in the earth. It is notable that Wigand mentioned his to see them; it often depended on the “contempla- amber piece with parts of the stones inside while tor’s” education and acquaintance with the theme. polemicizing the defenders of the vegetable origin Networks and relations built up in the process of amber (Wigand, 1590, f. 10). of the development of collections, even when they were small, are especially noteworthy. University professors, physicians, religious personages, all, as Conclusions a rule, in close association the Dukes of Prussia’s court, were involved. They were highly educated During the sixteenth century, Prussian amber humanists, for whom the collecting of books, coins asserted itself in books and maps, as well as in Eu- and minerals was an essential part of spiritual life. ropean pharmacopoeias and cabinets of curiosities. These people were connected to the European tra- However, we can talk of amber collections in con- dition of amber collecting through their participa- temporary Prussia only in a very general meaning tion in the development of collections: selecting of the term. The theme of the collection (its orches- valuable specimens, they sent them to other parts tration, description, etc.) was not timely enough to of Europe, first and foremost to Germany and Italy become a subject for discussion. The collections where renowned Kunstkammern and cabinets of belonged to humanists were often served as illus- curiosities were situated. trations to the favourite books in the time — the The situation in which not only the items them- Natural History of Pliny the Elder or De Materia selves are lost, but also their histories, led in turn to Medica by Pedanius Dioscorides. In the mid- to scattered references to them. As shown above, de- late sixteenth century these books, although being scriptions of natural amber samples, or even of coun- accepted, were no longer appropriate as a basis terfeits, propagating from one source to another and for systematisation of the collections. Interest in being embellished with comments, were consequent- amber as a collectable in Prussia was directed, on ly transformed into illustrative (didactic) examples, the one hand, by the questions which contemporary and now they testify, not only to interest in amber as science could not answer, and on the other hand by a collectable, but also to scientific developments in the most popular approach to the origin of amber, the explanation of the nature of amber, as well as its that proposed by Georg Agricola. understanding as an item of cultural property.

76 COLLECTING AMBER NATURALIA IN SIXTEENTH-CENTURY PRUSSIA

Acknowledgements Succini Historia (full title — “History of amber. Brief and well-grounded report about where amber (Agtstein, I am grateful to Dr Christopher Duffin (Natural or Bo[ö]rnstein) primarily originated from; that it is not History Museum, London, UK) and Olga Gromak- a wood resin, but a kind of montane wax, and about its Robbins (USA) for close reading of the manuscript manifold uses in medicine”) republished: 1572 (Königs- and important suggestions. berg, in Germ.), 1593 (Frankfurt, Lat.), 1614 (Hanau, Lat.). 5 Göbel was born in Königsberg, studied at Alberti- na (1544; first admission), and continued his education Notes in Wittenberg (1553), where he received Doctor’s degree in medicine (1557). During his career as a doctor, 1 A family of merchants from Königsberg, success- he was at various times invited and appointed to the fully traded with grains. Friedrich Saturgus (1697—1754) highest positions: physician in ordinary to the Land- was a lover of poetry and music, an art collector, and grave of Hesse Philip I (der Grosmütige) (1504—1567), a patron of the theatre. He founded a landscape park in the Dukes of Prussia Albrecht and Albrecht Friedrich Königsberg — “Saturgus’ garden” — with greenhouses, (1553—1618); court physician in Saxony and city phy- a labyrinth, a sun clock, a water supply, and a natural sician in Gdansk (Arnoldt, 1746, p. 308). He travelled history cabinet renowned for its multifarious collections. through Italy (1558—1559), visiting the leading univer- 2 Now settlement Gvardeyskoe, Bagrationovsky sities there in order to enhance his medical education; district in Kaliningrad oblast. On Hennenberger and his he also (1561) lectured at the University of Marburg. works see Horn, 1969; Lingenberg, 1973; Lohmeyer, 1880. In 1583 Göbel was appointed the second professor of 3 Paul Jaski, Vincent Anholt and Georg Borken; medicine and professor of physics at Albertina, holding in 1545 Heinrich von Achelen from Antwerp joined them these positions until his retirement in 1593 (Arnoldt, (Slotta, 1996, p. 170). 1746, p. 308). 4 Andreas Goldschmidt — came from Breslau, gradua- 6 The work ran into several editions (1558, 1565, ted from the University of Wittenberg (bachelor’s degree – 1582); it became mostly known thanks to its inclusion 1532, master’s degree — 1534). Prior to his arrival in in the volume compiled by the Swiss humanist Conrad Königsberg he was a Rector of the St. Mary’s Latin school Gessner (1516—1565) and published in 1565. in Gdansk (1539) and a gymnasium in Elbing (1541). 7 Johann Wigand was native of Mansfeld. Studied Back in his studentship Andreas acquired a reputation for theology in Wittenberg (MA, 1540) and Rostock (docto- being a good doctor and thanks to a stipend from Alb- ral degree, 1563). He served as a pastor in the city of his recht (1542) pursued his studies in medicine at Leipzig birth (1546), and as superintendent in Magdeburg and (1542—1543), Padova and Bologna (1544—1545), where Wismar; he gave lectures on theology at the universities he took his doctorate in 1545. That same year he was ap- of Jena, Helmstedt and Königsberg. He compiled a Lu- pointed to Duke’s court and became a personal physician theran revision of the History of the Church, conducted to Albrecht (1547) and little later on — his counsellor. He botanical research, and was an active participant in the was entrusted with diplomatic missions connected with theological controversies that unfolded in the Luthe- the political and clerical concerns of the Duchy; he took ran Church after Luther’s death (on the side of Gnesio- part in opening new Latin schools and in reforming the Lutherans, against Philippists). Albertina faculty of Medicine. He was twice elected as 8 Full title — “True history of Prussian amber, Prus- Rector of the university (1550/1551, 1553/1554), and sian elk and herbs, growing in Prussia, and also metho- drew up the first apothecary statute, which regulated the dological and theological musings on salt, a most useful work of Königsberg pharmacies (1555). Some of Auri- creation of the Lord.” faber’s works on grammar, pedagogy and medicine were 9 The works became known beyond Prussia, which published during his lifetime. He became a participant in confirms intensive referencing in the literature to Auri- the religious controversies initiated by Lutheran theolo- faber and Göbel. gian Andreas Osiander [Hosemann] (1498—1552) and af- 10 Speratus was educated at universities of Freiburg, ter Osiander’s death chaired the party; see more in Polya- Paris and Vienna (doctorate in theology, law and phi- kova, 2013. He died of an apoplectic seizure in Königs- losophy). He was a priest in Salzburg and Dinkelsbühl, berg Castle on 12 December 1559. and a preacher of the Cathedral Chapter in Würzburg.

77 Irina A. Polyakova

In the 1520s, Speratus was sentenced to be burned 21 Succina gravida: Eiusdem coloris, in quo totum at the stake because of his propagation of reformist quasi examen culicum, quod habuit Andr. Aurifaber views, but he received a pardon conditional upon his (Kentmann, 1565, pp. 22—23). leaving the country. From 1530 until the end of his life 22 A filial branch of the Wittenberg printing house Speratus assumed the position of protestant Bishop of by Hans Lufft (1495—1584), a prominent printer and Pomesania. publisher in the age of Reformation, to whose daughter, 11 Poliander studied at the universities of Leipzig Helene, Aurifaber was married from 1540 until 1549. and Wittenberg; he served as a chanter, schoolmaster The filial branch gained benefits of the court and the (ludi magister) and then as Rector at St. Thomas School university printer; it existed from 1549 till 1553. in Leipzig (1518—1522) (Rost, 1808, p. 8), and preached 23 Full title — “On a frog and lizard embedded in Prus- sermons in Würzburg, Nuremberg and Eisleben. In autumn sian amber. Philosophical discourse by Daniel Hermann of 1925, at the invitation of Albrecht and upon the recom- Prussia, thanks to which an occasion might be a chance for mendation of Luther (Stang, 1835, p. 299), he arrived in understanding the natural causes [of origins] of the salt Königsberg. See more about him in Polyakova, 2012. mines in Kraków.” First published in Kraków, the poem was 12 Republished — Mentz, 1929/1930; Poliander, reprinted several times: in Frankfurt (1593; 1629 — under 1968. the title “Poetic description of Prussian amber, in which 13 BG PAN Ms. 2436. Description see in Günther, a frog and lizard are encased”), Riga (1600, 1614—1615), 1907, p. 296. Among the authors — renowned contem- Hanau (1614), and Königsberg (1731). porary poet-humanists Conrad Celtis, Angelo Poliziano, 24 Hermann studied at the Johannes Sturm Gym- Eobanus Hessus, Francis Faber, Euricius Cordus, and nasium (1558—1563) and the Academy (1567—1568) Georg Sabinus. in Strasbourg, at the Universities of Königsberg (1563/ 14 Along with his poems, Poliander included epi- 1564—1567), Basel (1568—1569), Ingolstadt (1570— grams by Martialis (“On a bee enclosed in amber” (IV, 32), 1571), and Wittenberg (1571—1572). For further infor- “On a viper enclosed in amber” (IV, 59), and “On an ant mation, see: Shiemann, 1886; Polyakova, 2014. enclosed in amber” (VI, 15)), which accompanied the 25 From his first marriage to Dorothea Rosen- descriptions of amber collections in the catalogues of berg (?—1537), Paul Jaski had ten children (Koehne’s the sixteenth — eighteenth centuries. The poems of Po- Zeitschrift, 1846, p. 276). The written sources mention liander were published in 1907 by O. Günther. Israel (?—1572) (Tesdorpf, 1887, p. 15) and the youn- 15 See: “Poliander on his caterpillar encased in am- gest, Marcus (1535/1537—1564) (Koehne’s Zeitschrift, ber, which has been gifted him by his friend, Joachim 1846, p. 277). Streckfus” (Poliander de eruca sua succino inclusa, 26 A reference to Paul Jaski Junior is presented only quam a Joachimo Streckfuss amico dono acceperat). in marginal notes of the Kraków edition, as at the time 16 On the pages of the convolute Poliander added of publishing the poem in Riga (1600) he was no longer one more epigram — “On a fly encased in amber” among the living (according to Tesdorpf, he died in (De Musca Electro inclusa), invented by his fellow, Jo- Genoa in 1584), and Hermann simply removed the note hann Apel (Apell) (1486—1536), as well an alumnus beside the point. of the Universities of Leipzig and Wittenberg, Prussian 27 On the motivation for the collecting of inclusions Chancellor from 1530 until 1534, and the author of as well as on their status in Early Modern collections see: works in the field of law. King, 2015, pp. 10—13. 17 Literally: “Johann Graumann prepared for himself 28 Das curiöste aber ist ein Stück Börnstein, in and his friends…” (Jo. Graumann sibi et amicis compa- welchem ein Frosch sich praesentiret. rabat…). 29 There is also another explanation for the ori- 18 On Aurifaber’s library see Tondel, 2001. gins of inclusions in the poem: during a Flood, various 19 Ptolemy II Philadelphos — the Egyptian ruler, things by collision and pressing left impressions of their whose reign is associated with the foundation of the shapes on the surface of the stones. Nature created celebrated Library of Alexandria. similar drawings as well inside of amber. 20 On the purchase, upon the recommendation of 30 The book is held by the University of Bologna Aurifaber, of the collection of Polish gold coins by Al- Library (Inventario A 3864; Collocazione A.5. Tab. 1. brecht in 1547, see Shevchenko, p. 132. C.1.271/3; Note 1 v.; Proven. Aldrovandi, Ulisse).

78 COLLECTING AMBER NATURALIA IN SIXTEENTH-CENTURY PRUSSIA

References Göbel S., d. J., 1616. Einfältiger jedoch gründtlicher Bericht und Bedencken, vom Ursprung der Agadt oder Agricola, G., 1955. De natura fossilium (Textbook Börnsteins, woher derselbige komme, und in wasser- on Mineralogy). Translated from the first Latin Edition len Kranckheit er gebrauchet, wie auch von dem Ohl so of 1546 by M. Ch. Bandy and J. A. Bandy. New York: Geo- daraus distiliret wird. Königsberg: Johann Schmidt. logical Society of America. [Gottwaldt, Ch.], 1714. Musaeum Gottwaldianum, Aurifaber, A., 1551. Succini historia: ein kurtzer, sive catalogus rerum rariorum, tam naturalium, quam arti- gründlicher Bericht, woher der Agtstein oder Börnstein ficialium, longa annorum serie. Curaque et sumtibus haud ursprünglich komme, das er kein Baumhartz sei, sonder exiguis collectarum… Gedani: Typis Joh. Zachariae Stolli. ein Geschlecht des Bergwachs, und wie man inen manig- Günther, O., 1907. Lateinische Gedichte des Jo- faltiglich in Artzneien moge gebrauchen. Durch Andream hannes Poliander. Aus seinen eigenhandigen Nieder- Aurifabrum Vratislaviensem, Medicum. Königsberg in Pr.: schrift. Zeitschrift des Westpreußischen Geschichts- Hans Lufft. vereins, 49, pp. 351—381. Arnoldt, D. H., 1746. Ausführliche, und mit Urkun- Hagen, K. G., 1821. Bemerkungen die Entstehung den versehene Historie der Königsbergischen Universität. des Bernsteins betreffend. In: Beiträge zur kunde Zwehter Theil. Königsberg: J. H. Hartung. Preußens, vol. 4. Königsberg: in der Universitäts-Buch- [Bartholin, Th.], 1742. Of the Nature of Amber, and handlung, pp. 207—227. Experiments thereon. From the Acta Haffniensia. Tom. 1. Hartmann, Ph. J., 1677. Succini Prussici physica & An. 1671 and 1672. P. 110. In: Acta Germanica: or The civilis historia cum demonstratione ex autopsia & inti- Literary Memoirs of Germany, etc. London: Printed for miori rerum experientia deducta. Francofurti: Impensis and by G. Smith…., vol. 1, pp. 264—266. Martini Hallevordi, typis Johannis Andre. Bock, F. S., 1767. Versuch einer kurzen Natur- Hartmann, Ph. J., 1699. Succinta succini Prussici histo- geschichte des Preußischen Bernsteins und einer neuen ria et demonstratio. Berolini: Impensis Joh. Michael Rudiger. wahrscheinlichen Erklärung seines Ursprunges. Königs- Hermann, D., 1600. Ad illustrissimum Dominum, berg: J. D. Zeisens Wittwe und J. H. Hartungs Erben. Dn. Ioannem de Zamoscio: Regni Poloniae Cancellarium Böhmer, G. R., 1788. Systematisch-literarisches supremum, & Exercituum Generalem, &c.: De Rana et Handbuch der Naturgeschichte, Oeconomie und anderer Lacerta Succino Borussiaco insitis / Danielis Hermanni damit verwandten Wissenschaften und Kunste. Leipzig, Borussi discursus Philosophicus: Eiusdem De certamine pt. 4, vol. 1. inter Ursum & Aprum, Carmen. Rigae Livonum: Typis Burmeister, K. H., 1969. Joachim Rheticus as a Geog- Nicolai Mollini. rapher and His Contribution to the First Map of Prussia. Hermann, D., 1583. De Rana et Lacerta Succino Imago Mundi, 23, pp. 73—76. Prussiaco insistis. Discursus Philosophicus. Ex quo sumi C. W. Hufelands Journal der practischen Heilkunde, potest, de causis Salisfodinarum Cracoviensium natura- 1839, 88. libus ratio cinandi. Cracoviae: n. l. Celtis, C., 1881. De Rana cum Musca in Succino Hermann, D., 1593. De Rana et Lacerta Succino involutis. In: Celtis, C. Funf Bucher Epigramme. Berlin, Prussiaco insistis. Discursus Philosophicus. In: Crato p. 13. von Crafftheim, J. Consiliorum, et Epistolarum Medic- Duncker, G., [1538]. Von der herkunft nahmen und inalium… Francofurti: apud haeredes Andreae Weche- kraft des Bornsteyns Gregorij Dunckers zu konigspergk li, Claudium Marnium, & Ioan. Aubrium, liber quartus, phisici Meynung. Herzog August Bibliothek Wolfenbut- pp. 465—472. tel. [3049]14.11. Aug. 4to. Horn, W., 1969. Henneberger Kaspar. In: Neue Göbel, S. d. Ä., 1565. De succino libri duo. In: [Gess- Deutsche Biographie (NDB). Berlin: Duncker & Humblot, ner, C.] De omni rerum fossilium genere, gemmis, lapidi- vol. 8, p. 542 f. bus, metallis, et huiusmodi, libri aliquot, plerique nunc Kentmann, J., 1565.Catalogus rerum Fossilium. In: primum editi … Tiguri: Jacob Gesnerus. [Gessner C.] De omni rerum fossilium genere, gemmis, Göbel, S. d. Ä. 1558. Pia commonefactio de pas- lapidibus, metallis, et huiusmodi, libri aliquot, plerique sione, resurrectione ac beneficiis christi, quae in historia nunc primum editi … Tiguri: Jacob Gesnerus. succini depinguntur. huic vera de origine Succini addita King, R., 2015. Collecting Nature within Nature: est sententia. Oberursel: Heinrich, Nikolaus d. A. Animal Inclusions in Amber in Early Modern Collections.

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In: Collecting Nature; eds. Galdy, A. & Heudecker, Paschke, D. H., 1744. Weitere Beschreibung des mit S. Cambridge: Cambridge Scholars Publishing, pp. 1—18. Ende des 1742ten Jahres eröffneten Bornstein-Cabi- Klobius, J. F., 1666. Ambrae Historiam ad Omni- nets... Königsberg: n.l. potentis dei Gloriam, et Hominum Sanitatem. Witten- Pisamski, G. Ch., 1853. Entwurtf der Preußischen bergae. Litterargeschichte. Mit einem einleinteden Wort. Auf [Koehne’s Zeitschrift], 1846. Koehne’s Zeitschrift Veranlassung der Alterthums- Gesellschaft Prussia. für Münz-, Siegel- und Wappenkunde. Sechster Jahr- Königsberg: W. Koch, vol. 2. gang. Mit XII Kupfertafeln. Berlin; Posen; Bromberg: [Poliander, J.], 1968. Johannes Poliander über den E. S. Mittler. Bernstein und die Sudauer. Scriptores rerum Prussicarum, Krollmann, Ch., 1929. Geschichte der Stadtbiblio- 6, pp. 331—336. thek zu Konigsberg. Mit einem Anhang: Katalog der Polyakova, I. A., 2013. Andreas Aurifaber (1513— Bibliothek des M. Johannes Poliander, 1560. Königsberg: 1559) i ego “Istoriya yantarya” [Andreas Aurifaber (1513— Magistrats-Druckerei. 1559) and his “History of amber”]. 2nd ed. Kaliningrad: Kundmann, J. Ch., 1726. Promptuarium Rerum Kaliningradskij oblastnoj muzej yantarya (in Russ.). Naturalium Et Artificialium Vratislaviense. Vratislavia: Polyakova, I. A., 2012. Iogann Poliander (1487— Michael Hubert. 1541). Gimn yantaryu [Johann Poliander (1487—1541). Kundmann, J. Ch., 1737. Rariora Naturae & Artis Hymn to amber] Kaliningrad: Kaliningradskij oblastnoj item in Re Medica; oder, Seltenheiten der Natur und muzej yantarya (in Russ.). Kunst des Kundmannischen Naturalien-Cabinets, wie Polyakova, I. A., 2014. Kratkij ocherk intellektual’- auch in der Artzeney-Wissenschafft darinnen agehaldet nogo puteshestviya Danielya Hermana [A sketch of in- werden… Bresslau und Leipzig: Michael Hubert. tellectual journey by Daniel Hermann]; “Tak mnogo tajn Lingenberg, H., 1973. Zur Geschichte der Kartog- prirody ne izucheno:” poema o yantare, ili filosofskoe raphie Preussens: Original und Kopie bei A. Ortelius am rassuzhdenie bez itoga [“So many secrets of the Nature Beispiel der Ortelius-Kopien von Hennebergers Preus- are not discovered:” a poem on amber or philosophi- senkarte. Nordost-Archiv, 6, pp. 3—13. cal discourse without conclusions]. In: Polyakova, I. A., Lohmeyer, K., 1880. Henneberger Kaspar. In: Allge- Dementyev I. O. eds. Hermann, D. O lyagushke i yash- meine Deutsche Biographie (ADB). Leipzig: Duncker & cherice, zastryavshih v prusskom yantare [About a frog Humblot, vol. 11, pp. 769—771. and a lizard trapped in Prussian amber]. Kaliningrad: [Matthioli, P. A.], 1590. Kreutterbuch desz Hochge- Kaliningradskij oblastnoj muzej yantarya, pp. 11—30; lehrten und weitberühmten D. Petri Andreae Matthioli, 31—77 (in Russ.). Jetzt widerumb mit viel schönen neuwen Figuren, auch Polyakova, I. A., 2016. The Justification of the Hea- nützlichen Artzeneyen und andern guten stücken… durch ling Properties of Amber in the Frame of Natural Phi- Ioachimum Camerarium… Franckfort am Mayn: J. Feye- losophy. Background to the Problem. In: Polyakova, I., rabend für H. Dack und P. Fischer. Duffin, C. J. & Suvorova, T. J. eds. Amber in the history Mentz, A., 1929/30. Der Bernstein und die Sudauer. of medicine: Proceedings of the International Confe- Mitteilungen des Vereins fur die Geschichte von Ost- und rence. Kaliningrad: Kaliningrad Regional Amber Museum, Westpreussen, 4, pp. 61—68. pp. 133—152. Moryson, F., 1908. An itinerary written by Fynes Rappolt, C. H., 1737. De Origine Succini In Littore Moryson Gent, containing his ten yeeres travell Sambiensi, Meditatio Epistolaris. Quam excipit Johan- through the twelve dominions of Germany, Bohmerland, nis Poliandri, Celeberrimi Viri, Descriptio Sudinorum Sweitzerland, Netherland, Denmarke, Poland, Italy... Glessum Captantium: Nuuc primum in lucem prolata ex Glasgow: J. MacLehose and Sons to the University of autographo. Regiomonti Prussorum: Reusnerianis. Glasgow, vol. 4. Rheticus, G. J., 1964. Georgiya Ioahima Retika Novgorodova, D. D., 2016. First scientific collec- o knigah vrashchenij Nikolaya Kopernika Pervoe povest- tion of amber in Russia. In: Polyakova, I., Duffin, C. J. vovanie… (Pohvala Prussii) [Georg Joachim Rheticus’ & Suvorova, T. J. eds. Amber in the history of medi- First Account of the Books On the Revolutions by Nico- cine: Proceedings of the International Conference. laus Copernicus… (In prase to Prussia)]. In: Kopernik, N. Kaliningrad: Kaliningrad Regional Amber Museum, O vrashcheniyah nebesnyh sfer. Malyj kommentar- pp. 155—171. ij. Poslanie protiv Vernera. Upsal’skaya zapis’, per.

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I. N. Veselovskogo ; obshch. red. A. A. Mihajlova [Coper- Slotta, R., 1996. Die Bernsteingewinnung im Samland nicus, N. On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres. (Ostpreußen) bis 1945. In: Bernstein: Tränen der Götter; Little Commentary. Letter against Werner. The Uppsala Katalog der Ausstellung des Deutschen Bergbau-Muse- notes. transl. I. N. Veselovsky; ed. A. A. Michaylov]. Мos- ums Bochum; Ganzelewski, M. and Slotta, R. eds. Bochum: cow: Nauka, pp. 488—547 (in Russ.). Deutsches Bergbau-Museum, pp. 169—214. Rost, F. W. E., 1808. Memoria Joannis Poliandri re- Stang, C. F. G., 1835. Martin Luther. Sein Leben und praesentata. Lipsiae: ex officina Klavbarthiana. Wirken. Leipzig und Stuttgart: J. Scheible. Schiemann, Th., 1886. Daniel Hermann. Ein livlän- Tesdorpf, W., 1887. Gewinnung, Verarbeitung und discher Humanist. In: Historische Darstellungen und Ar- Handel des Bernsteins in Preussen von der Ordenszeit chivalische Studien. Beitrage zur Baltischen Geschichte. bis zur Gegenwart. Eine historisch-volkswirtschaftliche Hamburg; Mitau: Behre, pp. 52—74. Studie. Jena: Gustav Fischer. Shevchenko, N., 2007. Eine historische Anthropolo- Tondel, J., 2001. Książka w dawnym Krolewcu gie des Buches. Bücher in der Preußischen Herzogs- Pruskim. Toruń: Wydawnictwo Universytetu Mikołaja familie zur Zeit der Reformation. Göttingen: Vanden- Kopernika. hoeck & Ruprecht. Wigand, J., 1590. Vera historia de succino Borussico. Sendel, N., 1742a. Historia Succinorum corpora De alce Borussica. a: De herbis in Borussia nascentibus aliena involventium, et natura opere pictorum et caela- Item. De sale creatura dei saluberrima, consideratio torum. Lipsiae: Io. Fridericum Gleditschium. methodica, a theologica … Ienae: Tobias Steimannus. [Sendel, N.], 1742b. Of the softness and various contents of Ambers. From the Electrologia of Nathan. Sendelius. An. 1726. Transl. from the Latin. In: Acta Ger- manica: The Literary Memoirs of Germany, etc. London: Printed for and by G. Smith…, vol. 1, pp. 360—366. ON THE AUTHORS

Akimova Galina A. — Research Associate at the Mu- Manukyan Andranik R. — Candidate of Scien- seum of the World Ocean (Kaliningrad, Russia). ces (Research Doctorate in Biology), Senior Research Bagužaitė-Talačkienė Sigita — Dr. (PhD in Archaeo- Associate at the Kaliningrad Regional Amber Museum logy/History), Chief Curator of the collection and resea- (Kaliningrad, Russia). cher at the Palanga Amber Museum (Palanga, Lithuania). Markov Boris V. — Dr. of Philosophy, Professor of Barroso Maria Do Sameiro — Director of the De- the Institute of Philosophy at the St Petersburg State partment of Medicine History of the Portuguese Medical University, Honoured Science Worker of the Russian Association (Lisbon, Portugal). Federation (St Petersburg, Russia). Boeckh Hans — Dr. (PhD in History of Art) (Geneva, Mikitina Violetta V. — Head of the Department of Switzerland). ceramics and glass, custodian of the fund of Russian Bogdasarov Maksim A. — Dr. of Sciences (Highest and foreign glass at the State Museum of Ceramics and Research Doctorate in Geology and Mineralogy), Kuskovo Estate of the 18th Century (Moscow, Russia). Professor, Head of the Department of Geography and Novgorodova Daria D. — Candidate of Sciences Nature Management at the A. S. Pushkin Brest State (Research Doctorate in Cultural Studies), Research As- University, Corresponding Member of the National Aca- sociate, Curator of the collection of semi-precious and demy of Sciences of Belarus (Brest, Belarus). precious stones at the Fersman Mineralogical Museum Bogdasarova Yulia V. — lecturer at the Brest gym- RAS (Moscow, Russia). nasium no. 2 (Brest, Belarus). Polyakova Irina A. — Candidate of Sciences (Re- Boikina Irina N. — Research Associate at the Muse- search Doctorate in Philosophy), Associate Professor, um of the World Ocean, Honored Employee of Culture of Chief Research Associate at the Kaliningrad Regional the Russian Federation (Kaliningrad, Russia) Amber Museum (Kaliningrad, Russia). Borovkova Natalia V. — Candidate of Sciences (Re- Ratuszna Jolanta — professional restorer at the search Doctorate in History of Arts), Research Associate Malbork Castle Museum (Malbork, Poland). at the Mining Museum of the St Petersburg State Mining Salaks Juris — Dr. Med., Professor, Director of the University Russia (St Petersburg, Russia). Institute of the History of Medicine at the Riga Stradiņš Cinquegrani Maurizio — Dr. (PhD in Film Studies), University (Riga, Latvia). Senior Lecturer, Faculty Director of Internationalisation of Sivkova Svetlana G. — General Director of the Mu- the School of Arts at University of Kent (Canterbury, UK) seum of the World Ocean, Honored Employee of Culture Duffin Christopher J. — Dr. (PhD in Palaeontology; of the Russian Federation, Laureate of the State Prize of PhD in History of Medicine), Scientific Associate in the the Russian Federation (Kaliningrad, Russia). Earth Science Department at the Natural History Muse- Solop Irina V. — Chief Laboratory Assistant of the um (London, UK). Department of Geography and Nature Management at Dmitriev Igor S. — Dr. of Philosophy, Professor, Di- the A. S. Pushkin Brest State University (Brest, Belarus). rector of the Dmitry Mendeleyev Museum and Archive at Suvorova Tatiana J. — Director of the Kaliningrad the St Petersburg State University (St Petersburg, Russia) Regional Amber Museum, Honored Employee of Culture King Rachel — Dr. (PhD in History of Art), Curator of the Russian Federation (Kaliningrad, Russia). of Renaissance Europe and the Waddesdon Bequest at Syrovatko Lada V. — Candidate of Sciences (Re- the British Museum (London, UK). search Doctorate in Pedagogy), a teacher and lecturer Kozhanov Yury D. — teacher at Brest school no. 28 at the Kaliningrad Lyceum 49 (Kaliningrad, Russia). (Brest, Belarus). Toropova Irina A. — Candidate of Sciences (Re- Kostyashova Zoya V. — Leading Reasearch Asso- search Doctorate in Pedagogy), Deputy Director for ciate at the Kaliningrad Regional Amber Museum, Hono- Research at the Kaliningrad Regional Amber Museum red Employee of Culture of the Russian Federation (Kaliningrad, Russia). (Kaliningrad, Russia). Trusted Marjorie — Dr. (PhD in History of Art), Laue Georg — art historian, international expert, foun- Honorary Senior Research Fellow at the Victoria and der of the Kunstkammer Georg Laue (Munich, Germany). Albert Museum (London, UK). Lemoine-Bouchard Nathalie — Dr. (PhD in History of Art), founder of the Lemoine-Bouchard Fine Arts Gallery (Paris, France).

339 Scholarly publication

COLLECTION IN THE SPACE OF CULTURE PROCEEDINGS OF THE INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE

Edited by Irina A. Polyakova, Christopher J. Duffin, Tatiana J. Suvorova

Layout editor — N. N. Martyniuk Texts’ translations by N. V. Andreeva, M. A. Bezukh, I. V. Ostroverkhaia, I. A. Polyakova, D. V. Suvorova, L. V. Syrovatko Upmaking and design by E. M. Strukova with the participation of the S-Media Group Cover design by I. Lapiņa A fragment of the engraving from the “Catalogue” by Christian Maximilian Spener has been used in the cover

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