Upcoming Events:

13 Sept 2018 Cheyenne Journal “United States Research: Mid-Atlantic Region” FamilySearch Webinar Musings by the President . . . 1:00 p.m.

I have a confession to make. Sadly, I’ve come to the realization that I’m no researcher. Oh 20 Sept 2018 I’ve made some successful research trips to the Family History Library in Salt Lake City and to ”Locating Images of An- my ancestors’ home towns or the county seats to look at records and while there I’ve found birth, cestors: Putting a Face marriage and death records. I just haven’t obtained all the probate records in every case. I’ve recorded the sales of lands involving my ancestors, but I didn’t follow through with the land rec- With That Name” ords. I’ve visited some of the churches of my ancestors while I was making my research trips, Larimer County Genealogy but not all of them. Don’t get me wrong. I’m thrilled when I do find an ancestor and I can add Society Monthly Meeting information to my family tree. I love seeing my ancestor’s name in a church register, for in- 6:30-8:30 p.m. Good Sa- stance. I haven’t made one phone call to a remote county maritan Society, 508 W. clerk’s office to ask for a birth, death or marriage record. I Trilby Road, Ft Collins haven’t written to a clerk of court for a probate record; not one letter for a deed. In my defense I did write for my great- 20 Sept 2018 great grandfather’s civil war pension file. That was easy; all I “England & Wales Civil had to do was fill out a form and submit it along with a check. Registratiom” What’s holding me back? I don’t know. FamilySearch Webinar ...Maybe this year I’ll develop a plan to get ‘er done. Sue 1:00 p.m.

21 Sept 2018 “Genealogical Problem-Solving”—4th Annual Conference for a Cause “Finding Your Hispanic to feature Thomas W. Jones, Saturday, Oct 13 in Loveland Ancestors on Family Search” The Larimer County Gene- “blocked” lineages and genea- using autosomal DNA test FamilySearch Webinar alogy Society’s 4th annual Con- logical problem solving. He will results to help solve 11:30 a.m. ference for a Cause will be present the following topics: longstanding genealogical held from 9:00 a.m. to 3:00 --Finding “Unfindable” An- problems. 27 Sept 2018 p.m. on Saturday, 13 Oct 2018 cestors: The failure of com- --What is the Standard of “Danish Emigration” in Loveland, Colo., at the Med- mon research practices to Proof in Genealogy?: This FamilySearch Webinar ical Center of the Rockies, identify ancestors does not presentation will explain the 1:00 p.m. Community Room. Featured mean they are unfindable. This Genealogical Proof Standard, speaker, Thomas W. Jones, session will describe and its five elements, and how 9 Oct 2018 has been co-editor of NGHS demonstrate nine approaches each contributes to convincing “Witches & Healers, Oh since 2002 and is a past APG to locating difficult- to- trace proof. Examples will demon- My!” board member, BCG trustee, ancestors. strate the standard’s applica- CGHS Monthly Meeting and president. With over 40 --Systematically Using Auto- tion to simple and complex 6:15-8:30 p.m. Laramie years of research and teach- somal DNA Test Results to situations that genealogists County Library ing experience, he frequently Help Break Through a Genea- frequently encounter. It will Cheyenne lectures, teaches, and writes logical Brick Wall: A case answer the question, “How about genealogical methodolo- study set in the early 1800s much evidence is enough for 11 Oct 2018 gy. His interests include demonstrates methodology for proof?” “United States Research: --Maximizing Your Use of Pacific Region” Evidence: When researchers FamilySearch Webinar analyze and compare sources, 1:00 p.m. they go far beyond what sur- face information tells them 13 Oct 2018 with resulting evidence that ”Conference For a Cause” can solve simple and complex Thomas W. Jones genealogical problems. Numer- 9:00 a.m-3:00 p.m. Commu- ous examples will show partici- nity Room, Medical Center pants how they can discover of the Rockies, Loveland many layers of genealogical (registration info at left) evidence and use it to advance their family histories. Pay & 16 Oct 2018 register online at Eventbrite “Starting Family Tree: or use a paper registration by Navigating, Adding, Edit- printing this downloadable ing & Standardization” document. (Mailing instruc- FamilySearch Webinar tions included.) 10:00 a.m. We All Probably Have Indentured Servants Among Our American Ancestors Information in this article is from Wikipe- affordability of travel to North Ameri- transport a young worker from Britain dia, the free encyclopedia— ca that made immigrants less likely to or a German state, who would work for https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indentured_se rely on indentures to pay travel costs; several years to pay off the debt of rvitude_in_the_Americas and effects of the American Revolu- their travel costs. During the indenture tion, particularly on immigration from period the servants were not paid cash Indentured servitude in the Britain. In the Caribbean, the number wages, but were provided with food, Americas was a means by which immi- of indentured servants from Europe accommodation, clothing and training. grants, typically young Europeans under began to decline in the 17th century as The indenture document specified how 25, came to the Americas from the ear- Europeans became aware of the cruelty many years the servant would be re- ly 17th to the early 20th centuries. of plantation masters and the high quired to work, after which they would Immigrants would contract to work for death rate of servants, largely due to be free. Terms of indenture ranged an American employer for a certain tropical disease. After the British Em- from one to seven years with typical time period, usually between one and pire ended slavery in 1833, plantation terms of four or five years. In south- seven years, in exchange for the em- owners returned to indentured servi- ern New England, a variant form of ployer paying for their passage to the tude for labor, with most servants com- indentured servitude, which controlled Americas. The employer provided sub- ing from India, until the British govern- the labor of Native Americans through sistence for his indentured servants, ment prohibited the practice in 1917. an exploitative debt-peonage system, but no wages; he could restrict some of Between one-half and two-thirds of developed in the late 17th century and their activities such as marriage, could European immigrants to the Thirteen continued through to the period of the sell or transfer their contract to an- Colonies between the 1630s and the American Revolution. other employer, and could seek legal American Revolution came under inden- sanctions, such as prison, if they ran tures. The practice was sufficiently away. At the end of the agreed time common that the Habeas Corpus Act period, the servant would become free 1679, in part, prevented imprisonments to go his own way or demand wages for overseas; it also made provisions for his work. In some cases, the newly those with existing transportation con- freed person also received an item of tracts and those "praying to be trans- value such as a small parcel of land or a ported" in lieu of remaining in prison new suit of clothes. upon conviction. In any case, while half The consensus view among economic the European immigrants to the Thir- historians and economists is that inden- teen Colonies had been indentured tured servitude became popular in the servants, at any one time they were Thirteen Colonies in the seventeenth outnumbered by workers who had never century because of a large demand for been indentured, or whose indenture labor there, coupled with labor surplus- had expired. Free wage labor was more es in Europe and high costs of transat- common for Europeans in the colonies. lantic transportation beyond the means Indentured persons were numerically of European workers. Between the important mostly in the region from 1630s and the American Revolution, one Virginia north to New Jersey. Other -half to two-thirds of white immigrants colonies saw far fewer of them. The to the Thirteen Colonies arrived under total number of European immigrants to indentures. Half a million Europeans, all 13 colonies before 1775 was about mostly young men, also went to the Car- 500,000-550,000; of these 55,000 An indenture signed by Henry Mayer, with ibbean under indenture to work on plan- were involuntary prisoners. Of the an "X", in 1738. This contract bound May- tations. Most indentures were volun- 450,000 or so European arrivals who er to Abraham Hestant of Bucks County, tary, although some people were tricked Pennsylvania, who had paid for Mayer to came voluntarily, Tomlins estimates travel from Europe. or coerced into them. A debt peonage that 48% were indentured. About 75% (bondage) system similar to indenture were under the age of 25. The age of Not all European servants came will- was also used in southern New England legal adulthood for men was 24 years; ingly. Several instances of kidnapping and Long Island to control and assimi- those over 24 generally came on con- for transportation to the Americas are late Native Americans from the 1600s tracts lasting about 3 years. Regarding recorded, though these were often through the American Revolution. the children who came, Gary Nash, an indentured in the same way as their Indentured servitude continued to American historian, reports that, "many willing counterparts. As historian Rich- be used in North America into the early of the servants were actually nephews, ard Hofstadter pointed out, "Although 20th century, but the number of inden- nieces, cousins and children of friends efforts were made to regulate or tured servants declined over time. Alt- of emigrating Englishmen, who paid check their activities, and they dimin- hough experts do not agree on the their passage in return for their labor ished in importance in the eighteenth causes of the decline, some possible once in America." century, it remains true that a certain factors for the American colonies in- Farmers, merchants, and shopkeep- small part of the white colonial popula- clude changes in the labor market and ers in the British colonies found it very tion of America was brought by force, the legal system that made it cheaper difficult to hire free workers, primarily and a much larger portion came in re- and less risky for an employer to hire because it was easy for potential work- sponse to deceit and misrepresentation African slave labor or paid employees, ers to set up their own farms. Conse- on the part of the spirits [recruiting or made indentures unlawful; increased quently, a common solution was to agents]." (Continued on page 3) Apprentices Were Often Children—Orphans or from Poor Families—Bound Out to Work

(Continued from page 2) To address this imperfection, the than less productive or more sickly Many white immigrants arrived in Virginia Company would allow laborers to servants. Similarly, destinations with colonial America as indentured servants, borrow against their future earnings at harsh working climates such as the usually as young men and women from the Virginia Company for a fixed number West Indies would come to offer Britain or Germany, under the age of 21. of years in order to raise sufficient cap- shorter contracts compared to the Typically, the father of a teenager ital to pay for their voyage. Evidence more hospitable colonies. would sign the legal papers, and work shows this practice was in use by 1609, The majority of indentured serv- out an arrangement with a ship captain, only two years after the founding of the ants ended up in the American South, who would not charge the father any Virginia Company's original Jamestown where cash crops necessitated labor- money. The captain would transport the settlement. However, this practice cre- intensive farming. As the Northern indentured servants to the American ated a financial risk for the Virginia colonies moved toward industrializa- colonies, and sell their legal papers to Company. If workers died or refused to tion, they got significantly less inden- someone who needed workers. At the work, the investment would be lost. By tured immigration. For example, end of the indenture, the young person 1620, the Virginia Company switched to 96.28% of English emigrants to Vir- was given a new suit of clothes and was selling contracts of "one hundred serv- ginia and Maryland from 1773 to 1776 free to leave. Many immediately set out ants to be disposed amongst the old were indentured servants. During the to begin their own farms, while others Planters" as soon as the servants same time period, only 1.85% of Eng- used their newly acquired skills to pur- reached the colonies. This minimized risk lish emigrants to New England were sue a trade. A few became sufficiently on its investment to the 2–3 months of indentured. prosperous that they were eventually transatlantic voyage. As the system able to acquire indentured servants of gained in popularity, individual farmers their own. and tradesmen would eventually begin Given the high death rate, many investing in indentured servants as well. servants did not live to the end of their In the 18th century, wages in Great terms. In the 18th and early 19th cen- Britain were low because of a surplus of tury, numerous Europeans, mostly from labor. The average monetary wage was outside the British Isles, traveled to about 50 shillings (£2.50, equivalent to the colonies as redemptioners, a partic- £344 in 2016) a year for a plowman, and ularly harsh form of indenture. 40 shillings (£2) a year for an ordinary Indentured servants were a sepa- unskilled worker. Ships' captains negoti- rate category from bound apprentices. ated prices for transporting and feeding The latter were American-born chil- a passenger on the 7- or 8-week journey dren, usually orphans or from an impov- across the ocean, averaging about £5 to erished family who could not care for £7, the equivalent of years of work back Women and girls were often placed in them. They were under the control of in England. Still, demand for indentured service of well-to-do families doing cook- ing, washing and helping with chores. courts and were bound out to work as an labor remained relatively low until the apprentice until a certain age. Two fa- adoption of staple crops, such as sugar- Restrictions mous bound apprentices were Benjamin cane in the West Indies or tobacco in Indentures could not marry with- Franklin who illegally fled his appren- the American South. With economies out the permission of their owner, ticeship to his brother, and Andrew largely based on these crops, the West were subject to physical punishment Johnson, who later became President of Indies and American South would see (like many young ordinary servants), the United States. George Washington the vast majority of indentured labor. and saw their obligation to labor en- used indentured servants; in April 1775, Historian Richard Hofstadter wrote: forced by the courts. To ensure unin- he offered a reward for the return of “The most unenviable situation was terrupted work by the female serv- two runaway white servants. that of servants on Southern planta- ants, the law lengthened the term of Development tions, living alongside but never with Ne- their indenture if they became preg- Indentured servitude in the Ameri- gro slaves, both groups doing much the nant. But unlike slaves, servants were cas was first used by the Virginia Com- same work, often under the supervision guaranteed to be eventually released pany in the early seventeenth century of a relentless overseer…Even as late as from bondage. At the end of their as a method for collateralizing the debt 1770, William Eddis, the English surveyor term they received a payment known finance for transporting people to its of customs at Annapolis, thought that as "freedom dues" and became free newfound British colonies. Before the the Maryland Negroes were better off members of society. One could buy rise of indentured servitude, a large than ‘the Europeans, over whom the rigid and sell indentured servants' con- demand for labor existed in the colonies planter exercises an inflexible severity.’ tracts, and the right to their labor to help build settlements, farm crops The Negroes, Eddis thought, were a life- would change hands, but not the per- and serve as tradesmen, but many la- long property so were treated with a son as a piece of property. Both male borers in Europe could not afford the certain care, but the whites were and female laborers could be subject transatlantic crossing, which could cost "strained to the utmost to perform their to violence, occasionally even result- roughly half a worker’s annual wage. allotted labor." ing in death. Hofstadter noted that, European financial institutions could not Over time the market for indentured as slaves arrived in greater numbers easily lend to the workers since there servitude developed, with length of con- after 1700, white laborers in Virginia was no effective way to enforce a loan tracts showing close correlations to indi- became a “privileged stratum, as- from across the Atlantic, rendering cators of health and productivity. Tall, signed to lighter work and more labor immobile via the Atlantic because strong, healthy, literate or skilled serv- skilled tasks." (Continued on page 4) of capital market imperfections. ants would often serve shorter terms Indentured Servitude Was One Method of Increasing the Number of Colonists (Continued from page 3) ants could agree to contracts with ed over the 18th century and culminat- He also notes that "Runaways were regu- ship captains and then refuse to sell ed in the early 19th century. Over the larly advertised in the newspapers, re- themselves once they arrived in the 18th century, the penal sanctions that wards were offered, and both sheriffs colonies. Increased lobbying from were used against all workers were and the general public were enlisted to immigrant aid societies led to in- slowly going away from colonial codes, secure their return. ...The standard pen- creased regulation of the indentured leaving indentured servants the only alty in the North, not always rigorously labor market, further increasing the adult white labor subject to penal sanc- enforced, was extra service of twice the difficulty of enforcing contracts. tions (with the notable exception of time the master had lost, though whip- With less ability to enforce the con- seaman, whose contracts could be crim- ping was also common." tracts, demand for indentured serv- inally enforced up to the 20th century). Indentured servitude was a method ants may have fallen. However, most These penal sanctions for indentured of increasing the number of colonists, debtor prisons were still in service laborers continued in the United States especially in the English and later British when indentured servitude disap- until the 1830s, and by this point treat- colonies. Voluntary migration and convict peared and many regulations on inden- ment of European laborers under con- labor only provided so many people, and tured servitude were put in place well tract became the same as the treat- since the journey across the Atlantic before the disappearance. ment of wage laborers (however, this was dangerous, other means of encourag- A rise in European per-capita in- change in treatment didn't apply to ing settlement were necessary. Contract come compared to passage fare during workers of color). This change in treat- laborers became an important group of the nineteenth century may also ex- ment can be attributed to a number of people and so numerous that the United plain the disappearance of indentured factors, such as the growing identifica- States Constitution counted them spe- servitude. While passage from Eng- tion of white indented labor with slav- cifically in appointing representatives: land to the colonies in 1668 would cost ery at a time when slavery was coming “Representatives and direct Taxes roughly 51 percent of English per- under attack in the Northern states, shall be apportioned among the several capita income, that ratio would de- the growing radicalism of workers influ- States which may be included within this crease to between 20 and 30 percent enced with the rhetoric of the Ameri- Union, according to their respective by 1841. This increase in relative in- can Revolution, and the expansion of Numbers, which shall be determined by come may have been further supple- suffrage in many states which empow- adding to the whole Number of free Per- mented by a demonstrated increase in ered workers politically. The rise in the sons, including those bound to Service savings among European laborers, affordability of immigration reduced for a Term of Years…” meaning European emigrants would emigrants’ need for external financing Displaced from their land and unable have the capital on hand to pay for in the form of indentures. David Ga- to find work in the cities, many of these their own passage. With no need for lenson’s analysis on affordability shows people signed contracts of indenture and transit capital, fewer laborers would that the cost of immigration from Brit- took passage to the Americas. have become indentured, and the sup- ain to the United States over the ply of indentured servants would have course of the 18th Century dropped decreased. from 50% of per capita income to less Labor substitutions may have led than 10%. This is attributable to higher employers away from indentured serv- levels of real income in Europe (a result ants and towards slaves or paid em- of economic growth in the 18th Centu- ployees. In many places, African ry) and to a sharp decline in transporta- slaves became cheaper for unskilled tion costs. Innovation had a strong im- and then eventually skilled labor, and pact on the ease and cost of passenger most farmhand positions previously transportation, reducing the need of filled by indentured servants were indentures. The railroad made non-port ultimately filled by slaves. Wage la- cities a much cheaper destination for borers may have been more produc- immigrants. The steamboat was not tive, since employers were more will- necessarily cheaper than older sailing technologies, but it made transatlantic Virginia and Maryland operated under what ing to terminate waged employment. was known as the "headright system." The In comparison, firing an indentured travel much easier and comfortable, an leaders of each colony knew that labor was servant would mean a loss on the orig- attractive factor for high-income clas- essential for economic survival, so they pro- inal capital investment spent purchas- ses (that could easily afford immigra- vided incentives for planters to import work- ing the servant’s contract. Either sub- tion without indentures). The British ers. For each laborer brought across the stitution would lead to a decrease in Navy’s efforts against piracy also re- Atlantic, the master was rewarded with 50 demand for indentured servitude. An duced transportation costs. Safer seas acres of land. additional problem for employers was implied smaller crews (for there was no that, compared to African slaves, Eu- need to man weapons on board) and also Decline ropean indentured servants who ran reduced insurance costs (ships were at Indentured servitude appeared in the away could not always be easily distin- lower risk of being captured). The com- Americas in the 1620s and remained in guished from the general white popu- position of immigrants also shifted use as late as 1917. The causes behind lation, so they were more difficult to from single males towards entire fami- its decline are a contentious domain in re-capture. lies. Single males usually left their economic history. The end of debtors' Indentured servitude's decline for homes with little if any savings. In- prisons may have created a limited com- stead, families generally liquidated as- mitment pitfall in which indentured serv- white servants was also largely a re- sult of changing attitudes that accru- sets in Europe to finance their venture. Genealogy News You Can Use... Get to Know Familypedia: the Biggest Genealogy Site You Probably Never Heard of Information in this article is from Dick East- I could add to their information personal “watchlists” to keep an eye man’s Online Genealogy Newsletter of 11 July about the individuals I have researched, on favorite articles, be notified of 2018. change anything I knew to be incorrect, changes by email, and other advanced Familypedia is a , part of the or create a new web page for other indi- features. User names can be whatev- commercial Wikia site. It is a place viduals and link them to related people. er you choose, within a few common where YOU can create articles about In short, Familypedia and other are sense limits (no profanity, no spam, your ancestors and easily link them to truly democratic communities. Any user etc.) and can be fully anonymous. Oth- other articles about where and when can create a new web page for any indi- er users will not see your real name, they lived. The site is primarily text- vidual at any time. Perhaps even better, address, telephone number, or other based with biographical pages about any user can also edit each existing page. personal information. However, regis- deceased individuals. In some cases, you If you have supplemental information tered users may optionally create a can find pictures of individuals as well about an individual you find already user talk page where others can con- as pedigree charts, maps, and other listed, or if you wish to correct an error tact them. Information shown on a graphics. In most cases, each deceased on a page, you can do so within seconds. talk page can include as much or as person has a separate web page giving If you can type and click, you can edit little information as each person details about his or her life and also almost every page in a wiki. Of course, wishes to share. containing hyperlinks to other web pag- such anarchy might invite spam, graffiti, Familypedia is a part of the family es that contain information about the and other junk to be added by uncaring of wikis available at Wikia.com. Other person’s relatives. Entire families can be users. Luckily, like most other wikis, wikis on the same service are devoted hyperlinked together. Familypedia can Familypedia easily handles such junk. to television shows, movies, food, be used alone as a separate service, or Multiple copies are saved for each page fashion, environmental sustainability, it can be linked via hyperlinks to other on the site. When you visit a page, the online games, lifestyle, and many oth- online services, such as MyHerit- latest version is displayed. If you see er topics. Wikia is supported by ad- age.com, FamilySearch.org, Ances- inappropriate content, you (or anyone vertising, so the site is free for all try.com, or independent web pages cre- else) can click on EDIT and then on users. If you have an interest in gene- ated by individuals. Because the Fami- SHOW CHANGES to show the various alogy wikis, you will want to check out lypedia web site has a wiki format, you revisions. Finally, click on the last unmo- Familypedia. can work collaboratively with others to lested web page to revert to that ver- create a network of articles about your sion. MyHeritage Launches Filtering ancestors and about those they lived It actually takes more time to create System for DNA Matches and worked with. The site has no con- graffiti than it does to delete it. There- straints on where the data resides, so fore, spammers and other unwelcome Thanks to the growth of their da- you can provide links to your ancestors “guests” soon lose interest and move on tabase, most users on MyHeritage now on whatever web sites host the infor- to other pastures. Each and every user have thousands of DNA Matches. mation. Before you start entering your becomes an editor, able to delete un- Managing all those DNA Matches, and own ancestors on Familypedia, you will wanted content within seconds. Likewise, making sense of them has become a want to see if there is already some if anyone deletes good content, a click on challenge. Filtering lets you view a information about them or their family. EDIT and then on SHOW CHANGES will subset of your DNA Matches at a To find existing information, you can go show all the different revisions, includ- time, focusing on those that meet par- to http://www.familypedia.wikia.com and ing those previously deleted. With a few ticular criteria. A new user interface use the search box. However, a more more mouseclicks, any deleted pages can to the DNA Overview page lets you organized search method is to use the be restored in seconds. The reality is filter your DNA Matches easily by Surnames Index, Birth Country Index, that Familypedia, Wikipedia, and other relationship, by country or by ethnici- Death Country Index, Birth Decade online wikis receive very little spam or ty. Using the new filter toolbar, you Index, or Death Decade Index, all other unwanted junk. The self-policing can combine multiple filters, and filter found on the same home page. by users works well as long as there are matches by additional criteria such as I started by searching on my own plenty of users. The more popular the those that have a family tree, have surname and found a number of individu- site becomes, the better the self- shared ancestral surnames with you als listed. However, they were not tied policing effort works. Unlike some other or have Smart Matches™ with you. together as a “family” but appeared to wikis, Familypedia allows anyone to add Filtering of DNA Matches can be com- be somewhat random listings. As I tried or correct information, even without bined with sorting and searching. For other surnames from my own family creating an account. However, there are example, you can easily find all your tree, I found several families linked advantages to creating a free account. DNA Matches that include “Gordon” in together with a lot of information. All For one thing, your free account lets you the name of the match or as an ances- information on Familypedia is contribut- register a user name for yourself. Be- tral surname, filtering them to view ed by users, so we can expect the quan- coming known under that user name only those who have a particular eth- tity and quality of information to vary means that you will be able to gain repu- nicity and live in a particular country, widely. Some of the information is well tation and recognition in the community while sorting them alphabetically or by sourced while other entries contain no when others see your user name as the the amount of shared DNA. See the source citations at all. Since anyone can person who made the changes. Regis- full blog post here with a step-by-step edit a wiki, I could jump right into col- tered users also can do more with the guide on how to use it. laboration mode even though I don’t site; they can upload pictures, create know the other contributors personally. Cheyenne Genealogical & Historical Society

P.O. Box 2539 Cheyenne, Wyoming 82003-2539 Website: www.cghswyoming.org

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The Cheyenne Genealogical & Historical Society welcomes contributions and suggestions to this newsletter. Send them to the P.O. box or email address above.

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