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Establishing the Most Suitable Processes in The ESTABLISHING THE MOST SUITABLE PROCESSES IN THE RECRUITMENT AND RETENTION OF DECK CADETS INTO THE UK MERCHANT NAVY By Barbara Kelly A thesis submitted in partial fulfilment for the requirement of Liverpool John Moores University for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy May 2021 i This thesis is the result of the author’s original research. It has been composed by the author and has not been previously submitted for examination which has led to the award of a degree. The copyright of this thesis belongs to the author under the terms of the Copyrights Designs and Patents Act 1988. Due acknowledgement must always be made of the use of any material contained in, or derived from, this thesis. Signed: Barbara Kelly Date: 10-04-2021 ii Abstract There has been under recruitment of deck cadets into the UK Merchant Navy for many years, and even with increased funding and support to increase the numbers being recruited, there are still not enough cadets progressing to Officer of the Watch each year, to support the needs of the industry in the future. The factors to consider in this are the numbers being recruited and the retention rates of those on the training programmes. This research looks at both issues and evaluates the contributing factors, including the different levels of control in place through national and international input on standards, against the requirements of those employing cadets through training to officer of the watch. The research then assesses the training programmes in place and considers retention at different stages of these programmes, particularly after the initial sea phase which is the most likely point for leaving the training programme. The research then combines these elements and considers if alternative selection techniques can be used that can improve retention rates. The research discovers those traits that predominate in the profile of UK personnel who continue in a career at sea, then provides the test to be used to identify similar traits at recruitment stage, to ensure that those being offered cadetships have a higher likelihood of continuing in the profession. The research also assesses the possibility of using this method to identify those recruited that may need better support during training to reduce attrition. Current policies are also discussed to establish the most suitable way forward in the structure of deck cadet programmes, and in the selection processes. It was found that personnel who stay at sea in the role of deck officer generally demonstrated higher than median scores in conscientiousness and lower than median scores in extraversion, though the female participants demonstrated higher than median scores in extraversion. The test was then refined against those currently in use in this area, and tested against a group of first phase cadets to see if it could be used as a diagnostic for those needing support to better prepare them for their first sea phase. It was concluded that a personality test focussed on conscientiousness and iii extraversion, can aid in decision making at recruitment stage of deck cadets, can be an aid to identification of the sector of employment most suited to an individual recruit, or as a diagnostic to identify where more preparation is needed to ensure that expectations are managed against the realities of the first sea phase. iv Acknowledgments The author would like to thank all of the participants in the research for freely giving their time to provide the data for this work. This extends particularly to those who consented to be interviewed and to give up extended periods of their time. My thanks also extend to my director of studies, Dr E Blanco-Davis and supervisors Dr A Wall and Dr D McIlroy for their patience and tolerance and the support offered and time given to develop themes throughout completion of this work. v Contents 1.0 Introduction 1.1 Background 1 1.2 Aim 4 1.3 Outcomes 5 1.4 Scope and Limitations 5 1.5 Structure of work 5 2.0 Literature Review 2.1 Introduction 7 2.2 Retention 7 2.3 Recruitment 16 2.4 Recruitment Practice 24 2.5 Testing 26 2.6 Conclusion 37 3.0 Methodology 3.1 Introduction 41 3.2 Mixed Methods 41 3.3 Selection Processes 42 3.4 Samples and Data quality 46 3.5 Data Analysis 50 3.6 Ethical Approval 51 3.7 Research structure 51 3.8 Data Outcomes 52 3.9 Limitations 52 3.10 Development of the questionnaire 53 3.11 The Single-Item Measures of Personality (SIMP) 56 3.12 Final Stage 62 3.13 Example FFM test for use with deck cadet applicants 62 3.14 Summary 65 4.0 Factors relating to Selection and Retention in Seafaring 4.1 Introduction 66 4.2 Recruitment of Seafarers 66 vi 4.3 Management and regulation including Tonnage Tax 68 4.4 Training structures in the UK 70 4.5 OOW Training 74 4.6 The academic element of training, and the relationship to 78 recruitment 4.7 Selection from the available pool 80 4.8 Technology in Training 88 4.9 Support for cadets during the sea phase 90 4.10 Summary 96 5.0 Stakeholder Opinion 5.1 Introduction 97 5.2 Merchant Navy Training Board 97 5.3 International Association of Maritime Institutions 99 5.4 Colleges 100 5.5 Companies 103 5.6 Maritime UK 105 5.7 Oil Companies International Marine Forum (OCIMF) and 108 Intertanko 5.8 Collective views 112 5.9 Summary 113 6.0 Perception of Cadets of their Sea Phase 6.1 Introduction 115 6.2 Recruitment of cadets 115 6.3 Cadet expectation of Sea Phase 115 6.4 Survey of deck cadet entrants to identify expectations 116 prior to their first sea phase 6.5 Results 116 6.6 Survey of deck cadets post first sea phase 117 6.7 Summary 119 7.0 Main questionnaire results and analysis 7.1 Introduction 120 7.2 The single item measure of personality 120 7.3 Profile of each group of respondents 127 vii 7.4 Analysis 132 7.5 The final stage 136 7.6 Summary 139 8.0 Discussion 8.1 Introduction 140 8.2 Recruitment and retention 140 8.3 Recruitment targets 141 8.4 Who is the right person to recruit? 146 8.5 The test 149 8.6 The sea phase 150 8.7 Wider strategies 152 8.8 Retention 157 8.9 The gender issue 159 8.10 COVID-19 161 9.0 Conclusions 9.1 Testing 163 9.2 Retention 165 9.3 Recruitment 166 10.0 Recommendations 167 11.0 References 168 viii List of Figures Figure 1.1 Seafarer supply and demand 2 Figure 3.1 Gatekeeper request for data 49 Figure 3.2 Pilot test with seafarers 60 Figure 3.3 Pilot test with cadets 61 Figure 3.4 Reviewed pilot test with seafarers 61 Figure 4.1 Training structure 72 Figure 6.1 Results February intake 32 deck cadets 116 Figure 6.2 Results February intake 32 deck cadets 117 Figure 7.1 UK cadets 121 Figure 7.2 UK cadet distributions 121 Figure 7.3 UK experienced seafarers 122 Figure 7.4 UK experienced seafarer distributions 122 Figure 7.5 Non-UK experienced seafarers 123 Figure 7.6 Non-UK experienced seafarer distributions 123 Figure 7.7 Irish experienced seafarers 124 Figure 7.8 Irish experienced seafarer distributions 124 Figure 7.9 Combined results of UK respondents 125 Figure 7.10 Combined results of all groups 126 Figure 7.11 Mean of means 126 Figure 7.12 Rank 127 Figure 7.13 Preferred ship type 128 Figure 7.14 Preferred voyage type 128 Figure 7.15 Age 129 Figure 7.16 Gender identifier 129 Figure 7.17 Highest academic qualification 130 Figure 7.18 Years at sea 131 Figure 7.19 Age expected to move to a career ashore 131 ix List of Tables Table 1.1 UK officer cadets under SMarT1 scheme, 1999 to 2019 3 Table 2.1 Description and definition of retention factors 8 Table 2.2 Recruitment and retention dimensions. 11 Table 2.3 Seafarer retention 15 Table 2.4 Structure of the questionnaire “Youngsters’ 19 motivations and difficulties for choosing seafarer career” Table 2.5 Cattell’s sixteen basic source traits 27 Table 2.6 Facets encompassed within the Five-Factor model: 28 Table 2.7 Definition of NEO facets 29 Table 2.8 Summary of factor correlates 31 Table 3.1 Stakeholders 43 Table 3.2 Data outcomes 52 Table 4.1 Length of training programmes 69 Table 4.2 Training route for deck trainees 71 Table 4.3 Frameworks for the Merchant Navy Deck Cadet scheme 74 Table 4.4 Short course requirements 76 Table 4.5 MCA requirements for STCW training 77 Table 4.6 Entry routes to cadet training 82 Table 6.1 Results February intake 32 deck cadets 118 Table 6.2 Additional questions 118 Table 7.1 Rank and preferred voyage type as percentage 135 Table 7.2 Identifying as female scores 135 Table 7.3 Results of first phase cadets to pre-sea test 137 Table 7.4 Summary of test results for pre-sea cadets 138 x List of Abbreviations BIMCO Baltic and International Maritime Council BMA Britannia Maritime Aid CoC Certificate of Competence CTC Company Training Commitment Dft Department for Transport FFM Five-Factor Model IAMI International Association of Maritime Institutions ICS International Chamber of Shipping ILO International Labour Organisation IMO International Maritime Organisation ITF International Transport Workers’ Federation MBTI Myers-Briggs Type Indicator MCA Maritime and Coastguard Agency MEF Maritime Educational Foundation MET Maritime Education and Training MLC Maritime Labour Convention MMPI Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory MNTB Merchant Navy Training Board MTT Maritime Training Trust NEO-FFI NEO Five-Factor Indicator NEO-PI-R NEO Personality Inventory Revised NI Nautical Institute PILOT Payment In Lieu Of Training RYA Royal Yachting Association xi SIMP Single-Item Measures of Personality SIRC Seafarers International Research Centre SMarT Support for Maritime Training STCW Standards of Training, Certification and Watchkeeping TRB Training Record Book xii 1.0 Introduction 1.1 Background Within the UK system, ships’ officers have traditionally been trained through programmes that have phases in College/University and phases at sea.
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