ENTER WORLD HERITAGE: A LOOK AT THE DEVELOPMENT OF HERITAGE SITES IN SOUTHEAST ASIA
By
KATHERINE JACOB
A THESIS PRESENTED TO THE GRADUATE SCHOOL OF THE UNIVERSITY OF FLORIDA IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF MASTER OF HISTORIC PRESERVATION
UNIVERSITY OF FLORIDA
2015 © 2015 Katherine Jacob To my parents ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I would like to thank my advisor and thesis chair, Marty Hylton, who graciously guided me through this progress and led me out of the forest of research. Without
Marty’s help and encouragement this thesis would have never been completed. I would also like to thank my makeshift editor, Pamela Gombos, who read through the pages and fixed my many grammar mistakes. Also to my committee member, Vandana
Bawejsa, who asked questions that developed my research further. I would also like to thank my friends who guided with me through this process, and were there to keep me calm during the stress. Most importantly, a huge thanks to my parents, Steve and
LuAnn Jacob, who encouraged me to follow a career path that brings me joy. Their support has been unwavering.
4 TABLE OF CONTENTS
page
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ...... 4
LIST OF TABLES ...... 7
LIST OF FIGURES ...... 8
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ...... 9
ABSTRACT ...... 10
CHAPTER
1 INTRODUCTION ...... 11
2 LITERATURE REVIEW ...... 18
Context of the Role of Heritage ...... 18 Heritage Conservation ...... 20 Heritage Tourism ...... 23 World Heritage ...... 24 World Heritage Center ...... 24 Discourse surrounding World Heritage ...... 28 Angkor Archaeological Site in Cambodia ...... 30 Rise to Power ...... 31 Colonization ...... 32 Modern ...... 34 Site Information ...... 35 World Heritage Report ...... 36 Ownership ...... 37 Historic City of Ayutthaya in Thailand ...... 38 Rise to Power ...... 39 Colonization ...... 40 Modern ...... 41 Site Information ...... 42 World Heritage Report ...... 43 Ownership ...... 43 Pyu Ancient Cities in Myanmar ...... 44 Ancient ...... 45 Colonization ...... 46 Modern ...... 47 Site Information ...... 48 World Heritage Report ...... 48 Ownership ...... 50
5
3 METHODOLOGY ...... 57
Qualitative Research...... 57 Case Study Development ...... 58 Content Analysis ...... 60 Categories of Sources ...... 61
4 CASE STUDY ANALYSIS ...... 65
Infrastructure ...... 66 Angkor ...... 67 Siem Reap ...... 67 Borders and Buffer Zone ...... 70 Conservation and management plan at Angkor ...... 71 Ayutthaya ...... 73 The Modern City of Ayutthaya ...... 73 Boundaries and Buffer Zones ...... 75 Conservation and Management Plan ...... 76 Pyu ...... 78 The Pyu Cities ...... 78 Boundaries and Buffer Zones ...... 79 Conservation and management plan ...... 81 Economic ...... 81 Angkor ...... 83 Ayutthaya ...... 84 Pyu ...... 86 Tourism ...... 86 Angkor ...... 87 Ayutthaya ...... 89 Pyu ...... 90 Identity ...... 91 Angkor ...... 92 Ayutthaya ...... 93 Pyu ...... 94 Conclusion ...... 96 Summary Tables ...... 99
5 CONCLUSIONS ...... 110
Considerations ...... 112 Future Research ...... 114
LIST OF REFERENCES ...... 116
BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH ...... 122
6 LIST OF TABLES
Table page
2-1 USA Tentative List for World Heritage Nomination ...... 52
2-2 Number of World Heritage Sites in the World ...... 53
2-3 Number of World Heritage Sites in Case Study Locations ...... 53
4-1 Infrastructure Comparison Summary ...... 99
4-2 Economics Comparison Summary ...... 100
4-3 Tourism Comparison Summary...... 101
4-4 Identity Comparison Summary ...... 102
4-5 Table of Historical Monument Sites within Ayutthaya Historical Park ...... 106
4-6 Number of People living within the Site and Buffer Zone of Pyu Ancient Cities ... 107
4-7 Number of Visitors to Pyu Ancient Cities ...... 109
7 LIST OF FIGURES
Figure page
2-1 The Forces That Shape International Architectural Conservation Practice ...... 52
2-2 Map of Angkor Archeaological Park ...... 54
2-3 Map of the Historic City of Ayutthaya ...... 55
2-4 Map of the Ancient Cities of Pyu ...... 56
3-1 Relation of the Impacts to World Heritage Sites ...... 64
4-1 Land Use Map of Siem Reap ...... 103
4-2 Map of Villages located within Angkor Archaeological Park ...... 104
4-3 Boundary Map of the Historic City of Ayutthaya ...... 105
4-4 Map of Historical Monument Sites within Ayutthaya Historical Park...... 106
4-5 Distance between Pyu Ancient Cities ...... 108
4-6 Economic and Tourism Relationship ...... 109
8
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
APSARA Authority for the Protection and Management of Angkor and the Region of Siem Reap
ASEAN Association of Southeast Asian Nations
ICC Angkor International Coordinating Committee for the Safeguarding and Development of Angkor
ICOMOS International Council of Monuments and Sites
UNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientific, and National Organization
9
Abstract of Thesis Presented to the Graduate School of the University of Florida in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Master of Historic Preservation
ENTER WORLD HERITAGE: A LOOK AT THE DEVELOPMENT OF HERITAGE SITES IN SOUTHEAST ASIA
By
Katherine Jacob
May 2015
Chair: Morris Hylton Major: Historic Preservation
In 2014, Myanmar received its first World Heritage listing in Pyu Ancient Cities.
This was not the first site to be considered for World Heritage listing, but instead a replacement for the already denied Bagan. The recent emergence of Myanmar into the global community led to Myanmar’s heritage being brought to the forefront as a catalyst for economic development. Through looking at lessons learned in other listed sites throughout Southeast Asia, this thesis presents the impact of development of World
Heritage Sites.
The case studies address Angkor in Cambodia, Historic City of Ayutthaya in
Thailand, and Pyu Ancient Cities in Myanmar. Focusing on their histories and development as a World Heritage site. The impacts of infrastructure, economics, tourism, and identity are cohesively intertwined in the development of a World Heritage site, but for the purpose of this thesis are taken apart and looked at individually.
10 CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION
The number of countries in Southeast Asia participating in globalization is currently expanding. Among the more recent countries to open its doors to the international community is Myanmar. As a result, there has been increased interest in the modernization and development of Myanmar and other emerging countries in an effort to support, among other things, tourism. Foreign investments are rapidly coming into the countries to support the new developments. The World Tourism Organization states that, “Tourism is one of the strongest drivers of world trade and prosperity.
Poverty alleviation is one of the greatest global challenges. Despite turbulent times for the world’s economy, these basic facts are unlikely to change. Focusing the wealth creating power of tourism on people most in need remains an immense task and opportunity.”1 For nations re-entering the global community, heritage can be used as a catalyst for economic development through tourism.
One of the questions that arises from the use of tourism to help emerging nations is: what venues the tourists going to visit? Will it be the buildings, the landscapes, the food, or the overall environment that make a site desirable? What drives travelers to visit and what drives the people to want to promote that place? The two primary elements that come together when an emerging country opens its borders for an influx of foreigners are the tourists and the local people. While that sounds simple, there are numerous factors that go into the development of a successful tourist site.
1 World Tourism Organization, “Tourism and Poverty Alleviation,” http://step.unwto.org/content/tourism- and-poverty-alleviation-1
11
One mechanism for promoting tourism is the use of the World Heritage
Inscription designation. World Heritage is an organization that is run by United Nations
Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), and seeks to share places of universal significance with the world. There are currently 1007 properties listed on the World Heritage List that are considered to possess “universal outstanding values.”2
On their website UNESCO states that, “What makes the concept of World Heritage exceptional is its universal application. World Heritage sites belong to all the peoples of the world, irrespective of the territory on which they are located.”3
World Heritage Sites can be fundamental in the creation of nationalistic pride, this pride can be stemmed from the government or an organic process of a nation looking to find their identity. Many times the sites are most representative of a particular nation’s culture, and are used to bring the people of a nation together through an appreciation of their romanticized past.4 The sites of Southeast Asia that this thesis focuses on have long histories. The nations of Cambodia, Thailand, and Myanmar were not always considered to be unreachable by globalism. Their histories as recognizable cultural entities go back from Modern to Colonial and even Ancient times. Their societies and politics that have developed today, however, are a direct result of the Cold
War realities of the twentieth century. The simplest summary comes from Sarah
Goldhagen in Anxious Modernism, “The simmering conflict between the United States
2 UNESCO, “Global Strategy,” http://whc.unesco.org/en/globalstrategy/
3 UNESCO, “World Heritage,” http://whc.unesco.org/en/about/
4 Tim Winter, “Heritage and Nationalism: An Unbreachable Couple?” ICS Occasional Paper Series 3:4, December 2012, http://www.uws.edu.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0017/413630/ICS_Occasional_Paper_Series_3_4_Winter_ Final.pdf pp.1.
12
and the Soviet Union enveloped both Europe and developing countries, as decolonization in Africa, Asia, and the Indian subcontinent left weak countries and unstable governments that could not resist, and indeed often encouraged, intervention by the superpowers and their allies.”5
Thailand, Cambodia, and Myanmar each developed in their own way after their
“creation” in the mid twentieth century. Thailand always considered to be free, came together and changed their nation from Siam to Thailand. They kept the monarchy, which in time disappeared then reappeared as a result of numerous military coups, and now call themselves a constitutional monarchy. Cambodia was colonized under
France, received its freedom, and has perhaps one of the most tragic histories of a developing nation. Myanmar, in contrast, was colonized by England, but fought it every step of the way. After gaining independence from Great Britain and a failed implementation of a monarch, a military junta was formed that imposed strict sanctions and blocked the country from modern globalization.
While it might seem odd to say that these nations were “isolated” in the twentieth century, it is the term being used in the context of development by World Heritage.
Before 1990, World Heritage designation was not something that was available to the countries of Southeast Asia. While Thailand accepted the World Heritage Convention in
1987, they did not nominate a site until 1991. Cambodia accepted the Convention in
1991 and Myanmar accepted the convention in 1994, but did not participate until the military lifted political isolation. The two sites in Cambodia and Thailand were listed in
5 Sarah Golhagen and Rejan Legault, Anxious Modernism: Experimentation in Postwar Architectural Culture (Cambridge: The MIT Press, 2001) pp. 12.
13 1991, Myanmar did not receive its first listing until 2014. This means that these states were not eligible to sign into the World Heritage Convention until the late twentieth century. The development that has surrounded the sites in Thailand and Cambodia from 1991 has been astronomical. The anticipated outcome of Myanmar’s recent listing is that Myanmar will see similar growth in the context of World Heritage Sites.
This research seeks to explore how the influence of World Heritage status affects the development of the site and the community that surrounds the site. The focus of this thesis is Southeast Asia and the use and impacts of World Heritage listing as a tool for development. Through the use of case study analysis, it will evaluate indicators of impact of infrastructure, economics, tourism, and identity to try to better understand the impacts of World Heritage inscription in Southeast Asian countries.
The following three sites chosen as case studies are all listed as World Heritage sites with UNESCO and are geographically located within Southeast Asia:
1. Angkor Archaeological Site in Cambodia, 1992; 2. The Historic City of Ayutthaya in Thailand, 1991; and 3. Pyu Ancient Cities in Myanmar, 2014.
Each of these sites were abandoned by their ancient civilizations and subsequently rediscovered. These ancient cities represent the kingdoms long past of their people before subsequent colonization and/or occupations and coups. While these sites share much in common they are each different reflecting their distinct local, regional, and national context. One of the issues this paper will address is that if Association of
Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) countries are looking to develop their cultural heritage around communities that had nothing to do with colonialism or negative historical aspects of their culture. Often the idealization of the past is used to foster a
14 nationalistic cultural heritage that brings the community together to support their country.
Through the use of case study analysis, a set of considerations are put forward to encourage emerging nations to look at the context of their site and its relation to the local people. Is it important to the country as a cornerstone in their cultural heritage?
Does the creation of the World Heritage Site isolate the community or bring them together? By looking at the lessons learned in the case studies, this paper will show the good and the bad that may result from these sites becoming World Heritage sites.
This paper relies heavily for its sourcing on World Heritage Center reports along with the International Council of Monuments and Sites (ICOMOS) reports of the sites.
Along with the reports provided by the World Heritage Center and ICOMOS, each government has a master plan for each site. The impacts developed from known changes that happen to an area due to cultural tourism as reported by UNESCO and the World Bank. The impacts fall under development, but have been separated in this paper into: infrastructure, economics, tourism, and identity. These impacts are analyzed using the qualitative method through case study analysis. Each impact is reflected in the three World Heritage sites.
The impacts of infrastructure, economics, and tourism are all inter-related under the umbrella of physical developments that are related to the World Heritage Site.
These impacts have more concrete conclusions to work with such as boundary maps, development plans, specific numbers relating to the GDP or tourist visitations, and conservation impacts. In contrast, the impact of identity does not have concrete conclusions. This impact is founded in the theory that a successful World Heritage Site
15
is based on one that represents the people of the nation and that aspect that they would like to share with the world that creates a site of “outstanding universal value.”6
While the impact of identity does not seem to line up with the other impacts involved in development, it does directly relate to the case studies being used in
Southeast Asia. Myanmar ended its military-induced isolation in 2011, that same year its first world heritage site was proposed as a possible nomination to the World Heritage
Center. Bagan, a twenty-six mile area with 3,000 temples and pagoda created in the ninth century and flourished until the thirteenth century, is the centerpiece of religious devotion and national pride for Myanmar.7 The site, however, has gone through extensive renovations that have been deemed to make it in-authentic and a result of disneyfication. As most of the temples have been overtly restored in a non-sensitive way in the eyes of professional preservationists.8
As a result of the challenges of Bagan, a new site was nominated and subsequently approved in 2014. Pyu Ancient Cities was considered to be an authentic representation of the pre-cursor civilization to Bagan and the modern day Burmese people. It seems though that it was a consolidation site for the Burmese people, as they felt that Bagan was the historical site that truly represented the identity of their people.
Similar in fashion to the way the Thai and the Cambodians feel about Ayutthaya and
6 UNESCO, “World Heritage,” http://whc.unesco.org/en/about/
7 Brandan Brady, “The Ancient Burmese City of Bagan Struggles for International Recognition,” Time, May 15, 2013, http://world.time.com/2013/05/15/bagan/
8 Dallen J. Timothy and Gyan P. Nyaupane, “Protecting the Past: Challenges and Opportunities,” Cultural Heritage and Tourism in the Developing World: A Regional Prespective (New York: Routledge, 2009): pp. 27.
16
Angkor, respectively. Therefore, identity is an important impact in the first development of a World Heritage Site – choosing the right place to nominate.
Through the analysis of impacts a series of considerations are presented in the conclusion of this thesis. These considerations seek to assist future preservations on the impacts of World Heritage Sites in emerging nations. The importance of a strong infrastructure and local support are among the most important factors for the creation of a successful World Heritage Site. As well as a strong management plan that utilizes local resources and is open to collaboration with local and international entities. As stated by UNESCO, “Heritage is our legacy from the past, what we live with today, and what we pass on to future generations.”
17
CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW
The creation of a nation relies on heritage to create a cohesive identity. Antoine de Saint Exupery, a French writer and author of The Little Prince states that, “A civilization is a heritage of beliefs, customs, and knowledge slowly accumulated in the course of centuries, elements difficult at times to justify by logic, but justifying themselves as paths when they lead somewhere, since they open up for man his inner distance.”1 The process of defining heritage can be as simple as it is complicated; from cultural heritage that relates to the tangible and intangible to the idea of a collective social memory, heritage is something that surrounds us every day whether we choose to recognize it or not. The concept of heritage is the foundation of this paper. By understanding the advent heritage, it becomes possible to clearly see how heritage is further affected by preservation and tourism, and how that need led to the creation of the World Heritage Center through the United Nations Education, Scientific, and
Cultural Organization (UNESCO). This in turn gets even more specific when the facts and brief histories about the case study sites in Southeast Asia are presented.
Context of the Role of Heritage
Heritage is a broad term that is used to describe the past, not just any past, but one that is personal. Heritage can be defined as cultural heritage, which definition in turn can be described as tangible and intangible heritage. Tangible heritage is the past that can be touched or has a physical manifestation such as a historic building or a
1 Quote received from http://thinkexist.com/quotation/a_civilization_is_a_heritage_of_beliefs- customs/322628.html
18 monument.2 In contrast, intangible heritage is something whose permanence cannot be physically touched such as a dance, a ceremony, or a specific way of cooking.3 Is there a specific definition for heritage? According to the dictionary provided by Miriam
Webster, heritage as a total five definitions that are related to the concept of heritage:
1. Property that is or may be inherited; an inheritance. synonyms: inheritance, birthright, patrimony;
a) Valued objects and qualities such as cultural traditions, unspoiled countryside, and historic buildings that have been passed down from previous generations. "the richness of our diverse cultural heritage" synonyms: tradition, history, past, background;
b) Denoting a traditional brand or product regarded as emblematic of fine craftsmanship. "heritage brands have found a growing cachet among younger customers"
2. NORTH AMERICAN (of a plant variety) not hybridized with another; old- fashioned. "heritage roses"
a) ARCHAIC: a special or individual possession; an allotted portion. God's chosen people (the people of Israel, or the Christian Church).
The definition of real value to this paper is 1(a), the one that focuses on cultural traditions. These traditions bring communities together and create a social collective memory that sustains a part of our identity. In Heritage Values in Contemporary
Society, the editors point out on this issue that,
Heritage is important to us. Our local, regional, and national identities are formed and defined by legacies from the past. They are reflected in the ways our predecessors have shaped the landscape, in the buildings and monuments and archaeological sites we know, as well as by the cultural and artistic practices and traditions we embrace and enjoy. Taken together, these tangible and intangible expressions contribute to our
2 UNESCO, “Tangible Cultural Heritage,” http://www.unesco.org/new/en/cairo/culture/tangible-cultural- heritage/
3 UNESCO, “Intangible Cultural Heritage,” http://www.unesco.org/new/en/cairo/culture/intangible-cultural- heritage/
19
sense of belonging, or order and continuity, and our collective meaning the world.4
Heritage specifically is something that should be preserved for future generations. While cultural heritage embodies both the tangible and intangible, the focus of this paper is on the tangible, and the impacts of built tangible heritage. We preserve our past to remember it. We seek to preserve the nostalgia and romanticism that surrounds the beauty of places that have historical, religious, and national memories.5
Heritage Conservation
Heritage is not a new concept, but the idea of preserving that heritage, particularly built heritage, is something that more formally developed in the 20th century.
The start of preservation on a global level started with the Athens Charter in 1931, which had a brief seven point mission statement created by the First International
Congress of Architects and Technicians of Historic Monuments:
to establish organizations for restoration advice to ensure projects are reviewed with knowledgeable criticism to establish national legislation to preserve historic sites to rebury excavations which were not to be restored. to allow the use of modern techniques and materials in restoration work. to place historical sites under custodial protection. to protect the area surrounding historic sites.6
4 George Smith, Phyllis Mauch Messenger, Hilary A. Soderland, Eds, Heritage Values in Contemporary Society (Walnut Creek: Left Coast Press, 2010), pp. 15.
5 John Stubbs, Time Honored: A Global View of Architectural Conservation, (Hoboken: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 2009): pp. 54 – 57.
6 The Athens Charter for the Restoration of Historic Monuments, 1931. Text from ICOMOS, http://www.icomos.org/en/charters-and-texts/179-articles-en-francais/ressources/charters-and- standards/167-the-athens-charter-for-the-restoration-of-historic-monuments
20 This became the foundation for the more complete Venice Charter formulated in
1964 along with the creation of the International Council on Monuments and Sites
(ICOMOS). ICOMOS helps set the standard for global architectural conservation including the use of conferences that bring professionals from different cultural backgrounds together to learn in the field of preservation. The preservation movement has been growing and becoming more and more professionalized. Cultural resource management (CRM) encompasses all the working aspects of the preservation movement including architectural preservation, cultural heritage, archaeology, and natural conservation.7
The preservation movement galvanized after World War II, when it became apparent that not only did we lose numerous monuments from bombing, but even more from the new wave of urban redevelopment.8 It was no longer about preserving the great ancient ruins, but about rebuilding what was lost. Throughout Europe the destruction caused by World War II, particularly in London, Berlin, and Warsaw, brought the idea of preservation to the forefront of policy making. In America, the preservation movement developed with the urge to save our forefathers historic homes, and bring to the forefront the great properties lost due to urban renewal.9 In contrast, the development of preservation in the countries discussed in this paper came about very differently, as stated by Gamini Wijesuriya in her paper for the World Archaeological
Conference,
7 Stubbs, Time Honored, pp. 25, 26.
8 IBID, pp. 26.
9 IBID, pp. 25 – 27.
21 Two major movements of heritage conservation can be seen in South Asia. The first has a regional outlook and originated more than one hundred fifty years ago…colonial administration introduced “archaeology” into their public sector management regimes in South Asia. Soon “conservation” became a major activity in this management system. The second movement is universal in its outlook; it affected the region through World Heritage activities. The concept of World Heritage and its operations over the past three decades brought, even demanded new definitions as well as new approaches to the conservation of heritage. The concept required a reassessment of heritage values, a broadening of conservation approaches, a demarcation of buffer zones, and above all new management structures.10
Before colonization, preservation was not something that many Asian cultures focused on. In order for World Heritage to be successful there has to be a compromise in defining authenticity and value between cultures.
The idea of preservation varies from culture to culture. An example of this is seen in two other World Heritage Sites: the Acropolis in Greece and the Temple
Complex of Confucius in China. The Acropolis stands as a museum piece would untouched and unchanged in its ancient glory. Whereas the Confucius temple has been changed, restored, and added to throughout the years. Disparate things are seen as important to each culture. In the case of the Acropolis it has been restored to a particular place in time that ignores its function in subsequent empires. In contrast, the
Confucian temple, while physically changed the embedded spirit of place remains as a temple.11 John Stubbs provides a chart entitled “The Forces That Shape International
Architectural Conservation Practice” combining East and West ideologies (Figure 2-1).
10 Gamini Wijesuriya, “Are We Ready to Learn? Lessons from the South Asian Region?” Of the Past, for the Future: Integrating Archaeology and Conservation, (The Conservation Theme of the 5th World Archaeological Congress: Washington, 2003) pp. 157.
11 Stubbs, Time Honored, pp. 267-268.
22
Heritage Tourism
Heritage Tourism is a growing subset field of tourism. The National Trust defines heritage tourism as, “’traveling to experience the places, artifacts and activities that authentically represent the stories and people of the past,’ and heritage tourism can include cultural, historic and natural resources.”12 Heritage sites have catered to tourists around the world by providing authentic experiences about their histories. With tour groups offered the Pyramids of Egypt, the Great Wall of China, The Mayan Ruins in
Central America, or Medieval Ruins in Europe, it seems that “the past is increasingly becoming another country that we can visit.”13
There is, however, an ongoing debate about the economic benefits of heritage tourism versus the determinant of heritage tourism in the relation to conservation. The management plans that need to be created at each World Heritage Site to deal with tourism is a large part of their nomination file and master plan. Once a site opens up to tourism the need for conservation of the site becomes much greater.
Tourism is a constantly growing business According to the World Tourism
Organization run by the United Nations, tourism accounts for one in eleven jobs and nine percent of the Gross Domestic Product (GDP).14 The Asia and Pacific region is one of the fastest growing regions in tourism. In 2013, there was a six percent increase in international arrivals, making it the second most visited locale besides Europe. More
12 National Trust for Historic Preservation, “Heritage Tourism,” http://www.preservationnation.org/information-center/economics-of-revitalization/heritage-tourism/
13 Stubbs, Time Honored, pp. 60-61.
14 World Tourism Organization, UNWTO Tourism Highlights, (Madrid, UNTWO, 2014) pp. 2. http://dtxtq4w60xqpw.cloudfront.net/sites/all/files/pdf/unwto_highlights14_en.pdf
23 specifically, Thailand was one of the ten most visited places in both arrivals and receipts. In concordance, Myanmar saw a fifty-two percent increase in tourism and
Cambodia saw an eighteen percent increase in tourism since 2013.15 These areas have experienced a dramatic rise in tourism and at least fifteen percent of those tourism visits are directly related to heritage.16 Heritage conservation and tourism are part of the development of heritage management, which internationally is set by the World
Heritage Center.
World Heritage
In order to understand the impacts of receiving a World Heritage listing, it is important to understand the origins and development of current sites. The histories of these sites are too encompassing to be fully detailed and discussed in this academic work, and well-documented by other authors. Therefore, this paper will present a shortened history of each site that looks into the context of the nation that holds the site designation and assesses the information about the site provided by the World Heritage
Center. In order to understand the impact and development of these sites for case study analysis it is important to provide contextual background information. World
Heritage Sites, particularly in developing countries, should not exist in a void that ignores the current context: socially, culturally, politically, and otherwise.
World Heritage Center
The World Heritage Centre is a department of the United Nations Educational,
Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), which stems from the United Nations.
15 IBID, pp. 7.
16 Stubbs, Time Honored, pp. 60.
24
World Heritage sites represent places that have significance beyond that of national landmarks. This designation recognizes an area of significance not only for the residents of that state, but the people of the world. In 1972, UNESCO created an international treaty called the Convention concerning the Protection of the World
Cultural and Natural Heritage. Their mission statement states that they are to:
encourage countries to sign the World Heritage Convention and to ensure the protection of their natural and cultural heritage;
encourage States Parties to the Convention to nominate sites within their national territory for inclusion on the World Heritage List;
encourage States Parties to establish management plans and set up reporting systems on the state of conservation of their World Heritage sites;
assist States Parties in safeguarding World Heritage sites by providing technical assistance and professional training;
provide emergency assistance for World Heritage sites in immediate danger;
support States Parties’ public awareness-building activities for World Heritage conservation;
encourage participation of the local population in the preservation of their cultural and natural heritage;
encourage international cooperation in the conservation of our world’s cultural and natural heritage.17
In conjunction with their mission, the World Heritage Centre classifies their sites into two different areas: cultural heritage and natural heritage. This thesis focuses on cultural heritage. Cultural heritage is defined as “monuments, groups of buildings and sites with historical, aesthetic, archaeological, scientific, ethnological, or anthropological value.” 18
17 UNESCO World Heritage Centre. “World Heritage Information Kit,” 3.
18 IBID, 3.
25 According to the World Heritage website there are five steps to complete in order to nominate a site to become a World Heritage Site. The first step is to make sure that the site is listed on the states’19 tentative list of national landmarks. The names of these lists vary from state to state, but in order to be recognized by the World Heritage Center the site must be on the states’ tentative list for at least five years. Each state devises its own process for creating the “tentative list.” It is encouraged that the tentative list is a collaboration effort between the Government Organizations and Non-government
Organizations (or Non-profits). For example, the United States tentative list was last updated in 2008 by the National Park Service (Table 2-1).20
Tentative lists are not considered to be exhaustive, and are encouraged to be updated every ten years, though a property could be on the tentative list for much longer. In order for a property to be nominated as a World Heritage Site it must be on the state’s tentative list for a year before it can go in front of the convention.21
The second step is to create a nomination file that will be turned into the World
Heritage Committee for review. The nomination process includes the nomination file completed by the states’ party, and provides exhaustive information about the site. The third step is the evaluation of the nomination by the two advisory boards, The
International Council of Monuments and Sites (ICOMOS) and the World Conservation
Union (WCU). These evaluations are then handed to the World Heritage Committee. In the fourth step, the World Heritage Committee meets once a year to decide what sites
19 UNESCO and the World Heritage Centre refer to countries as states.
20 Chart taken from UNESCO, “Tentative Lists,” http://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/state=us
21 UNESCO, “Tentative Lists,” http://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/
26 should be added to the list. The final and fifth step includes reviewing the criteria for
why that site should be a World Heritage Site. 22
The criterion provided by the World Heritage Convention is the base for all World
Heritage Sites. All sites match one of the ten criteria; the first six criterion deal with
cultural heritage and the last four deal with natural heritage. The criterion for cultural
heritage sites as determined by UNESCO’s World Heritage Convention is as follows:
i. to represent a masterpiece of human creative genius; ii. to exhibit an important interchange of human values, over a span of time or within a cultural area of the world, on developments in architecture or technology, monumental arts, town-planning or landscape design; iii. to bear a unique or at least exceptional testimony to a cultural tradition or to a civilization which is living or which has disappeared; iv. to be an outstanding example of a type of building, architectural or technological ensemble or landscape which illustrates (a) significant stage(s) in human history; v. to be an outstanding example of a traditional human settlement, land-use, or sea- use which is representative of a culture (or cultures), or human interaction with the environment especially when it has become vulnerable under the impact of irreversible change; vi. to be directly or tangibly associated with events or living traditions, with ideas, or with beliefs, with artistic and literary works of outstanding universal significance. (The Committee considers that this criterion should preferably be used in conjunction with other criteria);23
Each site that makes it through the nomination process and becomes a World
Heritage Site satisfies at least one of these criteria. The criteria help determine how the
site is interpreted by the state and use of the site for the public.
22 UNESCO produced a 138 page manual called, “Preparing World Heritage Nominations,” published in 2011. This is an in depth resource on the process of nominations, if the reader would like a more comprehensive view of the nomination process.
23 UNESCO World Heritage Centre. “World Heritage Information Kit,” 3.
27
The World Heritage Convention provided an across-the-board process for states to nominate their cultural and natural heritage sites. Every state follows the same rules during the nomination process. Therefore, whether the site is in Asia, Europe, or the
Americas they are filling out the same paperwork and working to match the same ten criteria. The World Heritage Centre is concerned with recognizing places that not only create a sense of national pride, but a pride that resounds with all world citizens. The
World Heritage Convention seeks to make all states able to have world heritage sites.
Currently the majority of World Heritage Sites are located within the European and North American Region. Table 2-2 looks at the mapping of World Heritage Sites throughout the world.24
If we analyze these statistics with a view to the region discussed in this paper, it can be seen that Asia and the Pacific region is the second largest holder of World
Heritage sites, however, the specific states that are presented in this paper have a total of only eight sites compared to the two hundred and thirty one sites listed in the Asia and the Pacific Region. Table 2-3 gives a summary of the states of Thailand,
Cambodia, and Myanmar and their relation to the World Heritage Convention.25
Discourse surrounding World Heritage
The World Heritage Convention has been around since 1972. In the past forty years the convention has grown beyond its humble beginnings and now covers not just monuments, but also natural and intangible heritage. The Convention’s growth, however, has caused backlash between states parties and there are numerous
24 UNESCO, “World Heritage List Statistics,” http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/stat
25 IBID
28
scholarly articles written that discuss the discourse surrounding the World Heritage
Convention.26 There have been concerns that World Heritage has become more focused on politics rather than conservation and creating sites that have universal significance. There is continuing listings that persist because the committee has decided to go against what the Advisory Board declares. In Meskell’s article about the
World Convention she receives a quote from an Estonian delegate who states:
To preserve the quality and the credibility of the WH List and the compliance of the listed sites with the required criteria and conditions it is necessary that the evaluation and inscription mechanism guarantees the neutrality and reliability of the process. The role of Advisory Bodies who provide professional and independent advice to the Committee is essential in the established evaluation system. However, as highlighted in the Audit, the decisions of the Committee diverge more and more frequently from the professional advice of the Advisory Bodies. Based on our experience of 2010 and 2011 Committee sessions the inscription process did not take fully into account the detailed analysis of nominations made by the Advisory Bodies when other factors such as a big anniversary of the site, relevant lobbying, or political pressure came into play. Therefore, the credibility and consistency of the decisions was compromised.27
Complaints include a rush to inscribe sites with no concern for the conservation, geopolitical decisions outweigh scientific decisions, and lack of heritage expertise within the delegate states. These complaints follow the unprecedented growth of the World
Heritage Convention with states putting forth more and more nominations each year.
The Convention had dealt with more responsibilities and oversight with less funding.
26 The most recent documentation includes Lynn Meskell, “UNESCOs World Heritage Convention at Forty,” Current Anthropology 54:13, August 2013 and JP Singh, “Cultural Networks and UNESCO,” Heritage and Society 7:1, May 2014.
27 Lynn Meskell, “UNESCOs World Heritage Convention at Forty: Challenging the Economic and Political Order of International Heritage Conservation,” Current Anthropology 54:13, August 2013, pp.487.
29
The power make the inscription of sites has become much more important than the
Conventions power to conserve sights.28
Angkor Archaeological Site in Cambodia
Angkor Archaeological Site has captured the hearts and minds of the world since it was “discovered” by Henri Mouhout in the late 1850s. Ironically, the site was never really lost as it has been engrained in the cultural memories of the Cambodian people as the seat of power of the Khmer Empire that was reigned from the ninth to the fifteenth century. Since its rediscovery by western society, Angkor has continued to impress international historical bodies making it one of the more treasured World
Heritage sites. The site was placed on the World Heritage list in 1992, but was always in the international mind through excavations and published works by the French group
Ecole Francoise d’Extreme Orient (EFEO) since the late 1800s.
Angkor as we see it today was the result of the Khmer Empire, while the empire did not last, the ruins of its capital did. As a result, Angkor has been a part of the
Cambodian’s general historical conscience.29 A quick review of the Flags of the World website reveals it can be seen that Angkor has been featured on all versions of the
Cambodian flag except when it was under United Nations Administration from 1991 to
1993.30 While the politics of the country were under constant change and Angkor was
28 IBID, pp.493
29 Lindsey French, “Hierarchies of Value at Angkor Wat,” Ethnos 64:2(1999): 174.
30 “Cambodia,” The World Factbook, https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world- factbook/geos/cb.html
30
abandoned as a political power; it remained a constant symbol to the Cambodian people.
Cambodian history is grand, but is also wrought with confusion and pain. A lot of
Cambodian history is lost due to the amounts of destruction that have taken place within the country. Ben Kiernan in his article “Recovering History and Justice in Cambodia” states,
Half a millennium of intermittent civil conflict, foreign invasions, and even genocide not only devastated Cambodia, but also prevented the Khmer people from weighing their experiences in historical perspectives. Hindu, Buddhist, royalist, republican, colonial, and communist regimes came and went. Five relocations of the Khmer capital in as many centuries preceded the three foreign occupations and seven regime changes of the past sixty years alone. Time and again, officials abandoned archives. Rulers erased rivals from the record. International leaders denied Cambodia’s history or blocked its documentation.31
The political timeline of Cambodia starts in 802CE with the start of the Khmer
Empire, and ends in present time with its current constitutional monarchy form of government. The timeline of Cambodian history can be summed up in two words: greatness and horror.
Rise to Power
Angkor is a product of the Jayavarman II, who was crowned king in 802CE. His coronation centralized the Khmer people under royal authority and started the period of
Angkor as a political and religious seat of power.32 Angkor was built to bring to life the mountain homes of Hindu gods. Its large monuments represent the homes while its irrigation system and The Khmer people and its leader grew Angkor into a large city that
31 Ben Kiernan, “Recovering History and Justice in Cambodia,” Comparative 14(2004): 76.
32 Keat Gin Ooi, Southeast Asia: A Historical Encyclopedia, from Angkor Wat to East Timor. Vol. 1(Santa Barbara: Abc-clio, 2004), 149.
31
highlighted the Khmer people’s ingenuity, arts, and culture. The city grew until it was ultimately abandoned as a political capital in 1431CE. The ancient civilization is an ancient wonder: the grand temples and irrigation systems show how advanced the
Khmer people were.33
Most information about the Angkor period comes from archaeological investigations of the site and through the first-hand account of Chinese envoy Zhou
Daguan, who visited Angkor from 1296 – 1297CE. Zhou presents a short forty page memoir of his trip to visit the Khmer Kingdom that comments on the lifestyle of the
Khmer including their festivals, agriculture, markets, elites, and religion.34 The Angkor
Period reached its apogee under the reign of Jayavarman VII who built the city Angkor
Thom and the Bayon Temple. After his death in 1218CE, the Angkor kingdom was forced to move their capital to Phnom Phen after the Ayutthaya kingdom expanded into
Angkor, leaving Angkor to be sacked and captured by the Siamese.35
Colonization
After the fall of Angkor in 1431CE, Cambodia has been ruled by other countries until its independence in 1953CE. Specifically, the Khmer people were ruled over by the Thai and Vietnamese until the colonization of Cambodia by the French in 1863CE.
In “The Tragedy of Cambodian History” David Chandler points out that
Modern Cambodian history has been shaped to a large extent by the fact that its capital, Phnom Penh, lies on a cultural fault-line between the Indianized, Theravada Buddhist culture of Thailand and the Sinicized, Confucian culture of Vietnam. Cambodia itself, of course, was until recently a Theravada kingdom; but its capital region, where most of its
33 IBID, 150.
34 David Chandler, The History of Cambodia, (Boulder: Westview Press, 2007): 72 -75.
35 French, “Hierarchies of Value,” 174.
32
people live, has always been more accessible to Saigon than to Bangkok. These facts led to the country being invaded by the Thai (ostensibly to free Cambodia from Vietnamese protection) in 1811, 1833 and 1840.1 Between 1834 and 1847, much of the country was occupied by the Vietnamese; Cambodia returned to Thai protection between 1847 and the imposition of French hegemony in 1863. Until gaining independence in 1953, Cambodia, unlike her large neighbours, had been exploited (the Khmer phrase, jih joan, means literally, "ridden on and kicked") and colonized for a hundred and fifty years.36
During the colonial period it seemed that the memory of Angkor disappeared from the conscious of the Khmer people. The site had lost its political significance and had changed its purpose to a site of religious pilgrimage.37
The French colonial period entered Angkor into a stage of learning, scholarship, and collecting. The idea of restoring a fallen civilization to its past grandeur culminated in the creation of the Ecole Francoise d’Extreme Orient, which was considered to be the scholarly and scientific arm of the French colonial empire. The restoration of the temples became a focus of the group, and policies were set up against theft and destruction of the temple. While Angkor came under the protection of the French, the politics of Cambodia were still under the control of the French. King Norodom sought out French protection from the encroaching powers of the Thai and the Vietnamese. As a result, he eventually lost all of his authority to the French administration.38 During this time the French sought to educate the Cambodians about Angkor, and their ancestors.
Ironically, the Cambodians were not fully accepting that this was their past civilization.
Some believed it was built by a mythological creatures or just appeared there magically.
36 David P. Chandler, “The Tragedy of Cambodian History,” Pacific Affairs 62:3(1979): 411.
37 French, “Hierarchies of Value,” 174.
38 IBID, 174 – 176.
33
Part of this non-acceptance comes from the people not understanding how such a great civilization could fall to where they were now – lacking independence and constantly at war with the Thai and the Vietnamese.39
Modern
In 1953, Cambodia gained its independence from French Indochina colonization, and created its new monarchy based off of the French studies of the Angkor period.
The peace lasted only a few years until Cambodia became a sideshow in America’s
Vietnam War. Numerous bombs were dropped onto the country, and the citizens that could flee to France did. As a result of the conflict, and anti-western sentiment started to grow in the land. In 1970, there was a military coup that overthrew the reigning prime minister.40
Cambodia in the twentieth century is a far cry from its past opulence particularly that associated with the Khmers. Within five years of the last military coup, the infamous
Pol Pot had become the leader of the Khmer Rouge. The Khmer Rouge was a murderous communist organization that controlled Cambodia completely from 1975 to
1979. Once they were ousted by the Vietnamese, they continued to practice guerilla warfare throughout the country until the 1990s. During the reign of the Khmer Rouge,
Cambodia’s population lost two million people through genocidal killings. The Khmer
Rouge sought to create an agrarian communist society that idealized the farmer and the worker. They completely closed off Cambodia to the world including abolished money,
39 Christopher Pym, The Ancient Civilization of Angkor, (New York: The New American Library, 1969): 197.
40 Tim Winter, Post Conflict Heritage, Post-Colonial Tourism: Culture, politics and development at Angkor, (New York: Routledge Group, 2007): 3.
34
started a new calendar, and emptied the cities into the country to create their newfound society. As a result, higher educated people were not tolerated along with religious leaders and those considered not ethnically Khmer. It is believed that 1 in 7
Cambodians lost their lives during the four years of the Khmer Rouge Reign.41
The Khmer Rouge were ousted from power when the Vietnamese sent 100,000 troops in. Pol Pot fled as did the Khmer Rouge soldiers to Thailand. Cambodia was back under the rule of the Vietnamese. It was not until the end of the Cold War that international assistance was brought to Cambodia. The United Nations ruled over
Cambodia in the early 1990s to assist in its reintroduction to the world.42 As of 1993,
Cambodia is a multi-party democracy, the Prime Minister serves as the head of the government while King plays an important symbolic role. However, while Cambodia has stabilized over the past two decades it is still full of corruption and confusion when it comes to politics and its justice system.43
Site Information
Angkor Archaeological Park is located outside the City of Siem Reap. The sprawling park contains the ruins of the Khmer Empire along with a numerous temples, artwork, farmland, and ancient irrigation system. Along with the ruins, the park also holds modern villages that are inhabited by Cambodian people. The regulations that
41 IBID, 4 – 5.
42 IBID, 5.
43 “Cambodia Profile,” BBC News, last modified 9 July 2014, http://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-pacific- 13006539
35
apply park are expansive, and the international community is just as invested in the state of Angkor as is the state of Cambodia, perhaps even more (Figure 2-2).44
World Heritage Report
Angkor is a four hundred square kilometer archaeological site in the Cambodian province of Siem Reap. The site includes a series of temples and decorative sculptures that represent the different eras of the Khmer Empire. The most recognizable temples are Angkor Wat, Angkor Thom, and the Bayon Temple. Angkor was listed as a World
Heritage in 1992, and immediately placed under the World Heritage Sites in Danger list due to the prominent theft of artifacts and the surrounding political affairs. The site was removed from the danger list in 2004. The site was listed under World Heritage criteria i, ii, iii, iv;
CRITERION (I). The Angkor complex represents the entire range of Khmer art from the 9th to the 14th centuries, and includes a number of indisputable artistic masterpieces (e.g. Angkor Wat, the Bayon, Banteay Srei).
CRITERION (II). The influence of Khmer art as developed at Angkor was a profound one over much of South-east Asia and played a fundamental role in its distinctive evolution.
CRITERION (III). The Khmer Empire of the 9th-14th centuries encompassed much of South-east Asia and played a formative role in the political and cultural development of the region. All that remains of that civilization is its rich heritage of cult structures in brick and stone.
CRITERION (IV). Khmer architecture evolved largely from that of the Indian sub- continent, from which it soon became clearly distinct as it developed its own special characteristics, some independently evolved and others acquired from neighboring cultural traditions. The result was a new artistic horizon in oriental art and architecture.45
44 UNESCO, “Angkor,” http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/668/. Map is provided by UNESCO.
45 UNESCO, “Angkor,” http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/668/.
36
Under the influence of the United Nations in the early 1990s, Angkor became an international hotspot for historic preservation and conservation. The creation of committees to protect the site was done to provide bureaucratic communication between international parties and Cambodia’s state government. These include the
Supreme Council on National Culture and the International Coordinating Committee for the Safeguarding and Development of Angkor (ICC – Angkor) and the Authority for the
Protection and Management of Angkor and the Region of Siem Reap (APSARA).
Ownership
The temples ideally belong to the Cambodian people, but it is a joint partnership between the Cambodian government and APSARA or the management of Angkor.
Angkor is also considered to be a religious site for Buddhism and Hinduism. In reality, the management of Angkor is a combination of international and local effort to keep the buildings standing and accessible. There are numerous international bodies doing conservation work. The ICC-Angkor, which is co-chaired by France and Japan approve the efforts with assistance from APSARA.
The main international excavations underway are at Angkor Thom, royal terraces and Baphuon, funded by France and implemented by the EFEO, and at Angkor Wat, the west alley and the north library, which are carried out by Japan. The treatment of stone, preservation of Apsaras and bas- reliefs are undertaken by Germany. Japan is also in charge of the steering plan for the conservation of Bayon, the Sour Prat towers and the north library, and Banteay Kdei. Other countries and organizations also play a part: China at Chau Say Tevoda; the World Monuments Fund at Preah Khan; Italy at Pre Rup; Germany at Prah Ko; and Switzerland at Banteay Srei.46
46 HE Molyvan, “Management of the Angkor Site: National Emblem and World Heritage Site,” Museum International 54:1 (2002): 113.
37
Recently, APSARA has decided to allow Sokimex, a private company, to control ticket sales. This decision has led to many rumors that Angkor was been leased out to a private company. They confirmed with newspaper The Cambodian Daily, that this is not the case. “Basically, after revenue collection was put under direct supervision by a state institution for a period of time, and proved weak in terms of efficiency, the government decided to hire a private company to collect the revenue generated from selling tickets to visit Angkor Wat instead…But the protection, conservation and development responsibilities of the Angkor resort remain under the authority of the state institutions, especially the Aspara Authority.” Though currently only 15 percent of ticket sales go into the conservation fund, while a majority goes into the National Treasury.47
Historic City of Ayutthaya in Thailand
As Angkor is a national symbol for the Cambodians’ so is the Historic City of
Ayutthaya to the Thai people. Ironically, it was the Kings of Ayutthaya who conquered
Angkor and the Khmer Empire in 1431. The rise of Ayutthaya in Southeast Asia led to open trade and exchanging of ideas with the Western world. Besides being the capital of the Siamese Kingdom, Thailand would not be named such until 1937, Ayutthaya was a wealthy port city that was considered an intermediary between east and west relations. Ayutthaya impressed the world as a living city and living culture. When the city fell to the Burmese in 1767, the capital was moved to Bangkok, and Ayutthaya became a myth of the past.48
47 Hul Reaksmey, “APSARA Authority Rejects Claim Angkor Wat Rented Out,” The Cambodia Daily, November 12, 2014, https://www.cambodiadaily.com/news/apsara-authority-rejects-claim-angkor-wat- rented-out-73204/
48 “Thailand Profile,” BBC News, 28 November 2014, http://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-15641745
38
Rise to Power
Ayutthaya was founded in 1351CE, there are suspicions as to how exactly
Ayutthaya was founded. In Charnvit Kasetsiri’s The Rise of Ayudhya, he states, “The kingdom seems to arise suddenly, founded by an adventurer. The early history of
Ayudhya is still a mystery and a remote past for the Thai. Its origin is surrounded with legends and myths rather than ‘tangible historical facts’, and yet Ayudhya was the last of the major ancient Thai kingdoms to emerge.”49 Kasetsiri presents two different theories about the origins: one from a dynastic interpretation and the other from a
Buddhist interpretation.
The founder of Ayutthaya was Uthong. Later is to become one of the most important figures in Thai history because he was the reason that the Menam Basin came under Thai rule, and dominated for at least four hundred years. In contrast to the dynastic interpretations that read like a large family tree archive, the Buddhist interpretation is more poetic. Buddha prophesied, “In the future this at will be reborn as a powerful king; he will build a city at Lake Nong Sano. It will be a prosperous country and will honor my footprint which I have left on top of the mountain. It will be a place where gods and men will pay homage.”50 In the self-fulfilling prophecy, Uthong and his men went to search for this place. When the place was found, Uthong threw his sword to find the center of the city, and Ayutthaya was born.51
49 Charnvit Kasetsiri, The Rise of Ayudhya: A History of Siam in the Fourteenth and Fifteenth Centuries, (London: Oxford University Press, 1976): 51.
50 From the Khamihaikan Chao Krungkao, pg. 51, as seen in Kasetsiri, The Rise of Ayudhya, 61.
51 IBID, 62.
39
The city-state continued to expand across the peninsula. Ayutthaya not only conquered remaining cities, but also merged them into their society. Two large kingdoms, Sukothai and Angkor, fell to Ayutthaya by the end of the 15th century. As a result, the city became a sprawling place that was accepting to foreigners.
Colonization
Thailand or Siam is the only country in Southeast Asia that has never been colonized. This can be attributed to strong absolute monarchies that existed during the times of colonization. The kings were seen has gods with complete power over their kingdom. Another factor was Siam’s geographical location. Because Ayutthaya was a powerful port city that invested in trade and was friendly to foreign entities it became a commercial center. Siam was centered between British owned Burma and French owned Cambodia. Therefore the King and his court were able to play the two countries against one another so they would not find the need to colonize Siam.52
In the early 17th century, Ayutthaya grew into one of the largest and most cosmopolitan cities in SE Asia. The King’s court embraced foreigners, and utilized the knowledge of these travelers into their everyday life. In A History of Thailand, Chris
Baker and Pasuk Phongpaichit state,
It [the King’s court] recruited Malays, Indians, Japanese, and Portuguese to serve as palace guards. It brought Chinese and Persians into official ranks to administer trade. It hired Dutch master craftsmen to build ships, French and Italian engineers to design fortifications and waterworks, British and Indians to serve as provincial governors, and Chinese and Persians as doctors…As part of the management of such a cosmopolitan center, the kings allowed freedom of religion.53
52 Chris Baker and Pasuk Phongpaichit, A History of Thailand (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2005), 1 – 14.
53 IBID, 14.
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Unfortunately, this utopia of free trade and cosmopolitan lifestyle ended during the folly of 1688, when the French thought they could convert of Siamese King. This led to the death of his advisor, Phaulcon, and the subsequent expulsion of the French. The
English soon followed their lead, and fled the country; and the Dutch remained. Less than a hundred years later, the great city of Ayutthaya would fall and be destroyed by the Burmese. 54
Modern
Thailand, as we know it today, was created in 1939 from borders that were created in the 1890s and 1900s. After the fall of Ayutthaya the capital was moved to
Bangkok, and continued to develop into the modern country. Thailand is currently a constitutional monarchy. The current King, Bhumibol Adulyadej, took the throne in
1946. He is the longest reigning monarch. The current government is the result of a military coup that happened in August 2014. The prime minister is the former army chief, General Prayuth Chan-ocha.55
The Revolution of 1932 started Thailand’s modern history of revolutions and military coups. Since the Revolution in 1932 that disbanded the absolute monarchy, there have been twelve military coups toward the Thai government. The violence that is present in Thailand, particularly the massacres of the 1970s, were a result inbred political discourse. While the stability of the monarch is there, the use of democracy is
54 IBID, 14.
55 “Thailand Profile,” BBC News
41
weak. The corrupt Prime Ministers disappoint the people, which leads to protesting, which leads to a military coup. It seems to be an endless cycle.56
While the politics in Thailand are on shaky ground, their commerce and tourism department have exploded more than its SE Asia counterparts. The urban sprawl of
Bangkok has returned Thailand to the international scene in a similar way to how
Ayutthaya was an international port city in the 16th to 17th centuries. The embrace of capitalism increased the total trade making Bangkok a trading center. Trade accounted for 120 percent of the GDP in 2000 compared to the 40 percent of the GDP in 1970.
Tourism increased from a few thousand to over 12 million a year. While the globalization of Thailand is positive for the market, it has turned out to be the problem that the paternal government has been trying to control.57
Site Information
The Historic City of Ayutthaya consists of the ruins of Siam’s second capital. The city is part of state park and run by the Fine Arts Department of the government. The conservation of the ruins began in 1969, and continued more fervently after the site was declared a National Park in 1975. The historic city is about eighty miles north of
Bangkok and is surrounded by modern day Ayutthaya and its urban sprawl. The
National Park is located on an island and contains most of the historic cities ruins
(Figure 2-3).58
56 IBID
57 Baker, A History of Thailand, 228 – 229.
58 UNESCO, “Historic City of Ayutthaya,” http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/576/ Map is provided by UNESCO
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World Heritage Report
The Historic City of Ayutthaya was in scripted to the World Heritage List in 1991 under criteria iii:
CRITERION (III). The Historic City of Ayutthaya bears excellent witness to the period of development of a true national Thai art.
Even though the city was destroyed by the Burmese, many important structures remain standing. The main focus for World Heritage is the tall prang towers and large
Buddhist monasteries.59 The most famous monument in the historic park is the Buddha statue that has been overtaken by Banyan Trees. The park is very large and the best way to view the site is by bicycle. The towers and monuments are open to the public and allowed to be interacted with. In their Master Plan, the Fine Arts Department recognized the openness of the Historic City stating;
There is an attempt to expand the preserved area to provide a buffer zone, which will protect and benefit the management and preservation of the site. The true dedication to preserve the historic city of Ayutthaya and the devising of the Plan to preserve and develop the ancient Ayutthaya area to be the Ayutthaya Historical Park, has created the harmony between the ancient and the modern Ayutthaya cities.60
Ownership
The Historic City of Ayutthaya is owned by the Thai government, and is managed by the Department of Fine Arts. The Thai government also has a Department of
National Parks that is similar to the National Park Service system in the United States.
The Fine Arts department works with various organization such as the Pra Nakorn Sri
Ayutthaya province, the Municipality of Pra Nakorn Sri Ayutthaya, the Sub District
59 IBID
60 Thailand National Periodic Report, “Section II: State of Conservation of Specific World Heritage Sites,” http://whc.unesco.org/archive/periodicreporting/APA/cycle01/section2/576.pdf pp.4
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Administration Office, and the Department of Religious Affairs to run The Historic City of
Ayutthaya. When the site was made a World Heritage Site in 1991, a Master Plan was created and implemented by the Fine Arts Department to conserve the historic city.61
The laws enacted by the Thai Government protect the site legally. Even through all the coups that have plagued Thailand, the laws protecting the site have remained intact since the earliest one created in 1957. The laws are, “The Act on Ancient
Monuments, Antiques, Objects of Art and National Museums B.E. 2504 (1961) and the
Amended Act on Ancient Monuments, Antiques, Objects of Art and National Museums
B.E. 2535 (1992); The Ratchaphasadu Land Act B.E. 2518 (1975); The Urban Planning
Act B.E. 2518 (1975); The Building Control Act B.E. 2522 (1979); Land Code B.E. 2497
(1954); Regulations of the Fine Arts Department Concerning the Conservation of
Monuments B.E. 2528 (1985).”62
Pyu Ancient Cities in Myanmar
Pyu is an ancient civilization that existed in the dry zone of the Ayeyarwady
(Irrawaddy) River Basin in modern day Myanmar. The ancient kingdom survived 1,000 years and flourished from 200BCE to 900CE. Within the river basin the three main cities of focus are Beikthano, Halin, and Sri Ksetra. These three sites are considered to be the three main cities of the Pyu people. The archaeological remains of these cities show the sophistication of the Pyu people.63
61 IBID, pp. 1
62 IBID, pp. 2
63 UNESCO World Heritage Centre, “Pyu Ancient Cities,” http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1444/
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Ancient
Very little is known about the Pyu people. While examples of their language exist it is not easily translated and decoded. Besides the left behind archaeological remains there is little written record of their civilization. The most comprehensive history of the
Pyu people was composed in 1990 by Janice Stargardht for the Publications on Ancient
Civilization in South East Asia (PACSEA) at Oxford University. Her book entitled, The
Ancient City Pyu of Burma goes through a history of Pyu civilization with the main focus on their agricultural accomplishments, urban landscape, and their religious culture. The record left by the Pyu people is one of agricultural and urban landscape importance.
Their civilization seems to have successfully merge with the more prevalent Bagan culture around 1,000 CE. Their emergence led to the Pyu people adopting the Bagan customs, culture, and heritage.
It is believed that the Pyu migrated from China during the first century BC where they settled in the Ayeyarwady River Basin. During their lifetime, the Pyu civilization built up a townscape in the area. They were considered to be an advanced ancient society since they had figured out important agricultural development including water control, iron works, and brick making. There are three cities within the World Heritage
Site are considered to be the best examples of Pyu civilization, though it is believed that there were villages along the routes to the cities. The Pyu cities provided the opportunity or the mix of Indigenous and Indo cultures to come together, and assisted in the mass conversions to Buddhism. The cities were urban meccas for the new
Buddhist religion to come through. The technologies the Pyu possessed enabled them
45
to build walled cities with a developed urban center that provided the opportunity for all classes to live within one area.64
Colonization
As the French had their eyes on Cambodia, the British were seeking to make
Myanmar, then Burma, part of their colonial enterprise. This, however, would not come easily. The colonization of Burma by the British was completed after two wars and a brief battle in Mandalay. The Anglo-Burmese Wars (1824 – 1826 & 1852) led to the full colonization of the Burmese people by 1886. At first Burma was merged with British
India, but in 1937 became its own crowned colony.65
Burma is populated with many different ethnicities, who in the past did not get along. The British used these tensions to help gain control over the country. During colonization, the king and his family were exiled to India and local rulers’ powers were frozen. Resentment towards the British gained traction particularly with the Buddhists.
It was believed that the British did not respect the Buddhist religion. The priests began to speak out against the British, and were subsequently arrested. The spark for independence started with the re-emergence of Buddhism, but was continued on by the students seeking independence and democracy. It was finally granted after the British were unable to gain control after the Japanese occupation of WWII in 1948.66
64 Janice Stargardt, The Ancient Pyu of Burma (Cambridge: PACSEA, 1990): 343-370.
65 “Myanmar Profile,” BBC News, 7 October 2014, http://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-pacific-12992883
66 Christina Fink, Living Silence: Burma under British Rule (London: Zed Books, 2001): 17 – 21.
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Modern
Once independent, Myanmar started on the road to a democratic government.
The challenges within the country between ethnic groups proved too much for the newly independent nation to handle. As a result, the military government took control in 1962.
The idea of democracy has always existed within Myanmar, but has never fully come to fruition.67 The most dramatic instance of this is the rejection of 1990 elections and the placement of winner Aung San Suu Kyi under permanent house arrest until her recent release. Her peaceful protest have led her to be a leading voice for the implementation of democracy and human rights within Myanmar.
The military government closed Myanmar off from the world creating an isolated nation that is trapped in time. The government controls and regulates the country harshly. Human rights ranks low on the list of priorities for the Myanmar government.
In 2011, however, Secretary of State Hilary Clinton visited Myanmar and opened up
US/Myanmar relations for the first time since the end of WWII. The government is still run by the military, but this is considered to be the new generation of the military families who are working to make Myanmar a democratic republic.
The Financial Times published an op-ed piece on the current state of Myanmar politics and life in July 2014 that summarizes nicely with the shortened version of this history. David Pilling summarizes modern Myanmar’s problems into three issues. One, that Aung San Suu Kyi, while freed from house arrest, will not be allowed to run for president as it is illegal for a president to have spouses or children who are foreign nationals. Two, the state of violence with the ethnic minorities on the borders and the
67 “Myanmar Profile,” BBC News
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Buddhist Nationalism working against the influx of Muslims to the population. Last, the wealth of the nation. The GDP of Myanmar is currently at $870 per capita, and out of the sixty million people in Myanmar, only one hundred and twenty thousand are counted as middle-class. The international thought that the release of Aung San Suu Kyi from house arrest would end the political and social turmoil that have existed was a much idealized thought.68
Site Information
Pyu Ancient Cities is a set of three cities: Beikthano, Halin, and Sri Ksetra. The cities are spread apart throughout the Irrawaddy region of Myanmar. These cities are the oldest yet newest in this series of case studies. They are the oldest in the timeline, but the newest to the World Heritage List. They are partly excavated archaeological sites that consist of Buddhist stupas, citadels, burial grounds, and extensive agricultural features (Figure 2-4).69
World Heritage Report
Pyu Ancient Cities in Myanmar is the newest ASEAN site to be placed on the
World Heritage Site List. The site includes three cities of archaeology remains:
Beikthano, Halin, and Sri Ksetra. The significance of the site is establised under World
Heritage criterion ii, iii, and iv, and was officially listed as a World Heritage Site in 2014.
Pyu is Myanmar’s first site to be listed on UNESCOs World Heritage list.
The nomination file was completed by the Republic of the Union of Myanmar. In
2012, Myanmar requested assistance with the preparation for the nomination dossier,
68 David Pilling, “No Fairytale Ending for Poor, Divided Myanmar,” Financial Times, July 10, 2014, pp. 11
69 UNESCO, “Pyu Ancient Cities,” Map is provided by UNESCO
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and received at total 30,000USD to complete the nomination file. UNESCO recently approved Pyu Ancient Cities as having outstanding universal value under as follows:
CRITERION (II). Due to interaction between indigenous Pyu societies with Indic cultures from the 2nd century BCE, Buddhism achieved its first permanent foothold in Southeast Asia among the Pyu cities, where it was embraced by all classes of society from the ruling elite to agrarian labourers. Marked by imposing memorial stupas and other sophisticated forms of brick ritual structures, the Pyu Ancient Cities provide the earliest evidence of the emergence of these innovative architectural forms in the region, some of which have no known prototypes. The development of Pyu Buddhist urban culture had widespread and enduring impact throughout Southeast Asia, providing stimulus for later state formation after the 5th century CE following the onward transmission of Buddhist teaching and monastic practice into other parts of mainland Southeast Asia.
CRITERION (III). The Pyu Ancient Cities marked the emergence of the first historically-documented Buddhist urban civilization in Southeast Asia. The establishment of literate Buddhist monastic communities arose in tandem with the re-organization of agricultural production, based on expert management of seasonally-scarce water resources and the specialized production of manufactured goods in terracotta, iron, gold, silver and semi-precious stones both for veneration and for trade. Buddhism underpinned the construction of religious monuments in brick through royal and common patronage, marking the shift to permanent materials from earlier timber building techniques. The Pyu developed unique mortuary practices using burial urns to store cremated remains in funerary structures. Trading networks linked the Pyu ancient cities with commercial centres in Southeast Asia, China and India. Through this network Buddhist missionaries carried their Pali-based teaching into other areas of mainland Southeast Asia.
CRITERION (IV). Technological innovations in resource management, agriculture and manufacturing of brick and iron at the Pyu Ancient Cities created the preconditions leading to significant advances in urban planning and building construction. These innovations resulted in the rise of the three earliest, largest, and most long-lived Buddhist urban settlements in all of Southeast Asia. The Pyu cities’ urban morphology set a new template of extended urban format characterized by massive gated walls surrounded by moats; a network of roads and canals linking urban space within the walls with extensive areas of extramural development; containing civic amenities, monumental religious structures defined by towering stupas and sacred water bodies. At or near the center of each Pyu city was the palace marking the cosmic hub of the political and social universe.70
70 IBID
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ICOMOS, the expert advisory board for the World Heritage center declared that the site should be deferred until next year due to the lack of information that would prove the location as having outstanding universal value.71 However, due to the political situation in Myanmar and the recent need for tourism, it was decided that a World
Heritage Site designation was necessary.
Ownership
The management and ownership of the site fall under the Ministry of Culture’s
Department of Archaeology. The ICOMOS evaluation goes into more detail stating,
“Within the nominated property 32% of the land is publicly-owned; while 68% of the land is privately owned. The publically owned land includes excavated and unexcavated areas of archaeological exploration, the standing monuments and other historic structures, and the service buildings constructed for the protection, management, maintenance, and interpretation of the property, such as the site office, site museums, and artefact stores.”72
The site is monitored from the top down by the Myanmar Cultural Central
Committee and the Myanmar National Committee for World Heritage, which is headed by the Union Minister. Along with these organization there is the Pyu Ancient Cities Co- ordinating Committee (PYUCOMM) that consists of three specific working site groups that report back to the Myanmar Cultural Central Committee. PYUCOMM is responsible for the everyday management of the three sites, and the creation of the final master
71 ICOMOS, Evaluations of Nominations of Cultural and Mixed Properties to the World Heritage List, 2014.
72 ICOMOS, “Pyu Ancient Cities (Myanmar) No 144,” Advisory Body Evaluation, http://whc.unesco.org/archive/advisory_body_evaluation/1444.pdf, pp. 9.
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plans. PYUCOMM created regional groups that invited different stakeholders to take process in the development of the World Heritage Sties including: regional authorities, local government, village representatives, and the sangha (body of monks). There are three stakeholder groups, as the three sites are separated from each other.73
73 IBID, pp. 10
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Figure 2-1. The Forces That Shape International Architectural Conservation Practice. Reprinted from Stubbs, John H. Time Honored: A Global View Of Architectural Conservation. Hoboken: John Wiley & Sons, 2009, pp. 267.
Table 2-1. USA Tentative List for World Heritage Nomination Site Date Type Civil Rights Movement Sites 30/01/2008 Cultural Dayton Aviation Sites 30/01/2008 Cultural Fagatele Bay National Marine Sanctuary 30/01/2008 Natural Frank Lloyd Wright Buildings 30/01/2008 Cultural Hopewell Ceremonial Earthworks 30/01/2008 Cultural Mount Vernon 30/01/2008 Cultural Okefenokee National Wildlife Refuge 30/01/2008 Natural Petrified Forest National Park 30/01/2008 Natural San Antonio Franciscan Missions 30/01/2008 Cultural Serpent Mound 30/01/2008 Cultural Thomas Jefferson Buildings 30/01/2008 Cultural White Sands National Monument 30/01/2008 Natural
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Table 2-2. Number of World Heritage Sites in the World 2015 World Heritage Sites Regions Cultural Natural Mixed Total % States Parties with inscribed properties Africa 48 37 4 89 9% 33
Arab States 71 4 2 77 8% 18
Asia and the Pacific 161 59 11 231 23% 34
Europe and North 408 61 10 479 48% 50 America Latin America and 91 36 4 131 13% 26 the Caribbean Total 779 197 31 1007 100% 161
Table 2-3. Number of World Heritage Sites in Case Study Locations State Year added to World Heritage Tentative List Sites Convention Sites Thailand 1987 5 4 Cambodia 1991 2 9 Myanmar 1994 1 14 Total 8 27
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Figure 2-2. Map of Angkor Archeaological Park. Reprinted from UNESCO, http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/668/.
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Figure 2-3. Map of the Historic City of Ayutthaya. Reprinted from UNESCO, http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/576.
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Figure 2-4. Map of the Ancient Cities of Pyu. Reprinted from UNESCO, http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1444.
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CHAPTER 3 METHODOLOGY
The primary goal of this study is to assess the impacts of World Heritage listing on the local, regional, and national context of Southeast Asian countries and potential lessons learned. The methodology utilized in this paper is qualitative research in case study analysis. Through the use of UNESCO reports, World Bank publications, and academic journals the research developed into looking at four specifics impacts involved in the development surrounding World Heritage Sites. This chapter looks at qualitative research and how it is utilized through each case study, the development and definitions of the impacts presented, and the sources utilized to complete this paper.
Qualitative Research
Qualitative research covers a large body of research methods. The process is fluid, and allows for flexibility when determining the ‘how’ and ‘why’ of the case study analysis. The basic definition of qualitative according to the dictionary provided by the
Oxford English Dictionary is “relating to, measuring, or measured by the quality of something rather than its quantity.” The definition gets a little more complicated once the term research is added to qualitative. The definition used throughout the balance of this paper is presented in the Qualitative Research: A Guide to Design and
Implementation, namely, “Qualitative researchers are interested in understanding the meaning people have constructed, that is, how people make sense of their world and the experiences they have in the world.”1 One of the main points of qualitative research
1 Sharan B. Miriam. Qualitative Research: A Guide to Design and Implementation, (San Francisco: John Wiley & Sons, Inc, 2009), pp.13.
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is that it looks beyond the number of something and seeks to tell readers about its essential qualities.
Qualitative research is accepted within the heritage community and provides a flexibility when assessing heritage values to locations. The Getty Institute provides more information on the benefit of qualitative research when assessing heritage and cultural values,
Qualitative research methods, ranging from narratives and analyses written by experts to interviews of ordinary citizens, elicit cultural values more effectively…values and other forms of meaning are produced out of the interaction of artifacts and their contexts, not from the artifact itself. This arena is where qualitative research methods have a particular strength; they are sensitive to contextual relationships (as opposed to causal connections) and are therefore indispensable in studying the nature and interplay of heritage values.2
By utilizing the qualitative method, the case studies helped assess the outcomes of
World Heritage listing and inform considerations.
Case Study Development
Case Studies can be summarized as a method that is “used to gain extensive knowledge about one complex issue, object, site, project type, etc. The knowledge gained is characterized as generalized and covering a broad range of issues rather than focusing on specific insight about one aspect of the study object. From studying one or a few limited examples, we can make larger generalized statements.”3 Case studies provide the opportunity to get a holistic view of World Heritage Sites in Southeast Asia through being able to research the history, development, economics, and tourism of
2 Randall Mason, “Assessing Values in Conservation Planning: Methodological Issues and Choices,” Assessing the Values of Cultural Heritage (Los Angeles: The J. Paul Getty Trust, 2002) pp.15-16
3 Kay Williams, LAA 6342 “Research, Design and Strategy,” summarized from Linda Groat and David Wang, Architectural Research Methods (New York: John Wiley & Sons, 2002) pp. 87 – 95.
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each site. It also allows the ability to look at items that are beyond facts and history reports such as social memory and national identity. Heritage is a study that is messy, but through the use of case studies, this author is able to categorize the site towards particular research objectives and focus on the points relevant to this thesis.
One of the main limitations of the case study approach was geographic location and World Heritage Status. As the paper addresses researching the development of
World Heritage sites in emerging countries, each heritage site had to be located within
Southeast Asia, and be listed as a World Heritage Site as of the end of 2014. Other factors that came into the final decisions were that the sites existed or were created in pre-colonial times, had religious significance, and were part of the national identity of the country. In current events, the latest country to enter globalization was Myanmar.
When Myanmar opened its borders to international trade and tourism, there was a rush to make sure that it had its first World Heritage Site.4 My chosen research topic seemed even more relevant with each passing news story. As I did not have the ability to travel there, the idea of case study analysis became the strongest methodology.
Myanmar’s first World Heritage Site of Pyu provided an up and coming look at the development of a World Heritage site in an emerging country. In order to fully understand the opportunities and challenges of the process, it was necessary to look at past sites that came from emerging countries. By using the World Heritage list, two other sites presented themselves that were geographically central and had similar histories. The countries of Thailand and Cambodia were optimal because they provide
4 Alexandra Von Arx, “UNESCO Eyes Myanmar for Potential World Heritage Site,” Mizzima: News from Myanmar, November 26, 2013, http://www.mizzima.com/mizzima-news/world/item/10660-unesco-eyes- myanmar-for-potential-world-heritage-sites
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two sites that have a strong documentation through World Heritage Centre, and have a past of unstable political policies. While Cambodia and Myanmar share different aspects of colonization, Thailand was able to balance that out as a country that has never been colonized. In modern times, Thailand was the first to enter globalization, and Cambodia is still considered to be a recent emergence, i.e. in the last 30 years.
Content Analysis
As referenced above, these sites were very similar yet different in their development. They provided specific avenues for research, which led to the creation of the criteria. Angkor, Ayutthaya, and Pyu are World Heritage Sites in Southeast Asia that are the result of pre-colonized society that have survived in the national mind in spite of the political instability of the twentieth century. The criteria within these case studies that is being analyzed is identity, development, economics, and tourism. This framework was developed in the research process because the framework provided by established organization such as the World Bank did not fit properly.5 Each of these criteria are interconnected throughout the creation of World Heritage Sites.
The criteria upon which the content analysis depends are all inter-related (Figure
3-1). World Heritage Sites are created because of their “outstanding universal value.”
This value comes from the site being loved the local people and that they are willing to share it with the world. By making it a World Heritage site it helps valorizes their identity as a country. When a World Heritage Site is created it is expected to increase tourism revenues and the larger economy as a result. That increase in tourism draws the need
5 For more information on the World Bank framework for global development please see http://www.worldbank.org/en/topic
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for urban development to handle the new influx of people. This criteria, which turns into impacts, of World Heritage Sites are present in each case study.
The criteria developed from researching World Bank indicators. The World Bank states a list of indictors that are needed for emerging countries. Some of them were applicable to World Heritage sites, such as infrastructure, but most of them were not.6
Using the World Bank indicators as a model, it was determined that the four impacts should be:
1. INFRASTRUCTURE, relating to the physical demands of a World Heritage Site including management plans and the buffers/boundaries
2. ECONOMICS, relating to the economic benefit of having a World Heritage Site
3. TOURISM, relating the concept of heritage tourism and
4. IDENTITY, relating to the connection the local people feel with the World Heritage Site
The first three impacts relate directly to development while the fourth impact relates closer to connection between the site and the people.
Categories of Sources
The sources utilized in the thesis fall into these categories: official documents and reports, published books by heritage professionals, papers presented at heritage conferences, academic journals, news stories, and public opinion essays. The wide range of sources provides formal and informal information, providing more well-rounded view of the research. The research gathered is all in the public record, and does not come from any undocumented sources or private interviews. This is purely document and literature analysis that has allowed me to reach my considerations. It is truly a gift of
6 “Indicators,” The World Bank, http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/all
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the internet and globalization that I was able to complete this thesis without the need to travel to the location.
The most valuable sources that have developed this thesis are the documents provided by the World Heritage Center and their advisory body, ICOMOS. All of the nomination files, the maps, the advisory board evaluations, and world heritage papers are available online through their website. In similar fashion, their sister organizations such as the World Tourism Organization and Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific, all under the huge umbrella that is the United Nations, provided statistics and information regarding tourism, politics, and cultural values.
In addition to documents provided by the United Nations and related entities, this paper relied on scholarly documents that have been published into text, online journals, or scholarly papers (these documents provided the inspiration for the development of the methodology framework), newspapers, and opinion papers. The new nomination in
Myanmar, and the political unrest within all three countries are all documented in global leading newspapers, online and in-print, which provided updated and current information that was not available in scholarly articles or official reports. Unfortunately, I do not speak the languages of Thai, Khmer, and Burmese. Therefore, I am unable to use local sources that might have been valuable to this research without the use of translator. Fortunately most documents have been presented in both the native language and in English.
This thesis is written from an outside perspective utilizing qualitative research method with case studies. The case studies were picked due to their World Heritage
Status, geographic locations, and their connection to the current events of emerging
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nations. The development of the impacts of each case study comes from their correlation with the development of World Heritage Sites. This will lead to content analysis and a set of considerations that will be presented in Chapter 4.
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Identity
World Heritage Sites: Developemnt Angkor, Cambodia - Urban Economics -Population Ayutthaya, Thailand Pyu Cities, Cambodia
Tourism
Figure 3-1. Relation of the Impacts to World Heritage Sites. Figure created by author.
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CHAPTER 4 CASE STUDY ANALYSIS
This chapter presents the outcomes of the case study analysis of impacts of
World Heritage Listing at four Southeast Asian sites: Angkor Archaeological Park, The
Historic City of Ayutthaya, and Pyu Ancient Cities. The impacts of infrastructure, economics, tourism, and identity relate to the broader concept of development. In this chapter the focus is to look at each impact through individual lenses, even though they are essentially interrelated. In the World Heritage Papers, UNESCO states that,
Throughout the region, cultural properties seem to be affected negatively by the local conditions and by tourism. In a few cases interaction with society can also have an undesirable impact. The factors with positive impact on cultural properties are generally management activities, tourism and interaction with society. Often service infrastructure and infrastructure development are also considered a positive impact.1
Each impact affords opportunities and presents challenges to sites inscripted as World
Heritage. There are both positives and negatives to each impact that will be addressed in this chapter. Positive impacts often include increased and improved infrastructure, economics, tourism and identity, specifically access to better living conditions and employment and to cultural heritage, shared cultural experience, and the valorization of national identity. Negative impacts can include over-development, money going to foreign entities, invasion of foreigners, and the lack of exchange between government and local residents.2
1 Kaori Kawaskmi, ed. “Understanding World Heritage in Asia and the Pacific: The Second Cycle of Periodic Reporting 2010 – 2012,” World Heritage Papers 35 (Paris: UNESCO, 2012), pp. 59
2 Dallen J. Timothy and Gyan P. Nyaupane, Cultural Heritage and Tourism: A Regional Prespective, (New York: Routledge, 2009) pp. 3-20.
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The organization of this chapter is based on the impacts, and each case study is used as an example to address the impacts of infrastructure, economics, tourism, and identity. Angkor and Ayutthaya, however, are more developed as heritage sites when compared to Pyu. Because Pyu is a recent development in World Heritage, the impacts have not been fully realized. Instead, a hope for the impact development will be presented instead of actual results. This also provides a comparison that helps interpret the lessons learned from Angkor and Ayutthaya that can then be used to evaluate the upcoming World Heritage Sites in Myanmar. At the end of the chapter a summary of the information is presented in a table format.
Infrastructure
Good infrastructure is a basic need in the development of World Heritage Sites around the world; without good infrastructure simple needs such as getting to the World
Heritage Site would be impossible. The World Heritage Centre specifically states that factors that fall under infrastructure are, “housing, commercial development, industrial areas, ground transportation, air transport, marine transport, underground transport, and effects arising from use of transportation.”3 Each World Heritage Site is broken up into three subsections that focus on the connected city, the use of borders and buffer zones, and the conservation management plan needed within the World Heritage Site. The infrastructure impact provides an overview of development surrounding and inside of the World Heritage Sites presented (Table 4-1).
3 Kawaskmi, ed. “Understanding World Heritage,” 68.
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Angkor
Angkor Archaeological Park is about ten kilometers from the town of Siem Reap.
Due to previous political regimes, the cities of Cambodia were abandoned in favor of creating an agricultural society where the population lived in the country. After the fall of the Khmer Rouge regime, and the subsequent stabilization of the Cambodian government, the restoration of Angkor by UNESCO, foreign entities, and the
Cambodian government began. There were many factors about Angkor that helped it develop into the popular site it is today (a little over two million visitors in 2013), but the most important one is the development of a good infrastructure. When looking at
Angkor through the development of its infrastructure, this paper focuses on the following three main sections: the development of Siem Reap; the borders and buffer zones, and the conservation/management plan of Angkor.
Siem Reap
Siem Reap, with a current population of just above nine hundred thousand, is located ten kilometers from the most famous temple of Angkor Wat that is within the
Angkor Archaeological Site.4 It is the newfound resort city that holds tourists who are traveling to see the Ancient Khmer Temples. Siem Reap’s urban development has grown exponentially in the past thirty years coinciding with the listing of Angkor on the
World Heritage List. When Cambodia was first safe to travel to for tourist and Angkor
Archaeological Park became a must-see destination for World Heritage, Siem Reap was the nearest urban environment that could successfully house tourists. The urban
4 “Population – Siem Reap, Cambodia,” 2007, http://www.tourismcambodia.com/travelguides/provinces/siem-reap/population.htm
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development of Siem Reap from a French colonial town to a nearly abandoned city to a booming tourist destination is a direct result of its involvement with Angkor
Archaeological Park. A story by the Phnom Penh Post states that hopefully,
By 2020, Siem Reap will have become a "beautiful and unique tourist city based on a harmony of history, arts and Khmer culture," the report states in its strategic vision. "It will have learnt from the implications of Angkorian wisdom for sustainable development and cultural diversity in the 21st century; it is to be realized through participation of all the people, both local and international; it is not just the seat of physical monuments but the source of universal spirit being conveyed to the rest of the world; and it will be a cultural magnet in Southeast Asia."5
The development of Siem Reap has been mainly at the hands of foreign entities particularly the countries of France and Japan. Both of these countries have initiated plans to turn Siem Reap into a tourist destination town that emphasizes the cultural heritage that is represented at Angkor Archaeological Park. Unfortunately, many of these proposed plans have not come to fruition.6 The city is under continuing growth without the use of a guiding master plan other than to not encroach on the buffer zones set by the Angkor Archaeological Park. The urban increase of Siem Reap from 1993 to
2011 has been huge as seen in land use maps completed by Department of Civil
Engineering at the University of Minho (Figure 4-1).7 These maps give a visual to the
102% of urban growth that Siem Reap has seen in the last two decades.
5 Sam Rith, “Siem Reap: The Building of a Tourist City,” The Phnom Penh Post, March 10, 2006, http://www.phnompenhpost.com/siem-reap-insider/siem-reap-building-tourist-city
6 Adele Esposito, “Planning Urban Development from an Outsider’s Perspective: Siem Reap, the Backdrop of Changing Urban Representations,” Antropologia 1:1 (2014), pp. 144 – 145.
7 Chanvoleak Ourng and Daniel Souto Rodrigues. "Urban growth pattern identification: a case study in Siem Reap, Cambodia." (2012).
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The private investments that have happened in Siem Reap has turned it from a small town that only extreme backpackers and adventurers would go to, to one with new resorts that provides all the amenities expected by Western tourists. Siem Reap, like
Angkor, has developed much of its infrastructure, such as roads, housing developments, water management, and urban planning, with the assistance of international entities: Vietnam and China have been instrumental in the development of roads, Japan and France have worked with ASPARA to create an urban development plan to make Siem Reap a top tourist destination by 2020, and other foreign investors have worked on the creation of resorts, golf courses, and restaurants.8 In 2011 it was estimated that ninety-five percent of the hotels are foreign owned and eighty percent of the food is imported.9 The impact of development in terms of statistics is not overtly recorded, but in a Facts and Details about Siem Reap its states, “As of 2004, there were
71 hotels and guesthouses with 5,000 hotel rooms in Siem Reap, twice the number as
2000. The town itself grew from 83,000 people in 1998 to 108,000 in 2002.”10 This data is already from over ten years ago, and the development has not slowed down.
One of the main Cambodian Organizations that works with the urban development is ASPARA. They state their objectives as listed below:
The creation of a physical limit between the protected archaeological reserve (Angkor Park) and urban development zones.
8 Esposito, “Planning Urban Development from an Outsider’s Perspective: Siem Reap, the Backdrop of Changing Urban Representations,” pp. 144-146.
9 “Angkor Wat: Temple of Boom,” Current World Archaeology, November 7, 2011, http://www.world- archaeology.com/features/angkor-wat-temple-of-boom.htm
10 Jeffery Hays, “Siem Reap,” Facts and Details, May 2014, http://factsanddetails.com/southeast- asia/Cambodia/sub5_2f/entry-3511.html
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The preservation of irrigated agricultural land at the city perimeter, most concentrated in the western sectors.
The preservation of the city's unique character by maintaining its dense vegetation, spacious habitats and low skyline. The riverbanks, protected under zoning laws, will be strengthened and enhanced by natural landscaping.
Urban development is concentrated to the east of the Siem Reap River. Residential areas and new public services will be extended to the south along National Route 6. A Hotel Zone will be developed to the north of the highway. This area is unfavorable to local agricultural exploitation and development remains sparse. Land will be replanted with native species. A vast reforestation campaign to the south of the Angkor Park is to be undertaken. Preliminary studies are to determine species composition most useful to the local population.11
There is a continued focus of the protection of the World Heritage Site within the endless construction that is happening in Siem Reap. Even though, ASPARA, is a
Cambodian organization it still relies on international assistance from international entities.
Borders and Buffer Zone
The borders and buffer zone created through the World Heritage Centre are essential to the conservation of Angkor Archaeological Park. While Angkor
Archaeological Park was on the World Heritage Sites in Danger List from 1992 to 1995, the creation of five zones were created (Figure 4 – 2):
ZONE1. Monumental Sites
ZONE 2. Protected Archaeological Reserves
ZONE 3. Protected Cultural Landscapes
ZONE 4. Sites of Archaeological, Anthropological or Historic Interest
11 ASPARA Authority, “Strategy,” http://www.autoriteapsara.org/en/apsara/urban_development/strategy.html
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ZONE 5. The Socio-economic and Cultural Development Zone of the Siem Reap region, comprising the whole of Siem Reap province, is the largest zone to which protective policies apply.12
The 400km2 archaeological park not only contain ancient temples, banyan trees, and the reminiscence of a once great society. The park is also home to many villages of people who have lived beside the temples before its inauguration as a World Heritage
Site. According to Map 4-2 the red dots represent towns that are located with Zones 1 and 2, which are the most important zones of Angkor Archaeological Park. The borders and buffer zones were created as the site took on World Heritage designation, and the people currently living within the new boundaries had to adapt to living within a World
Heritage site.
A “Living with Heritage at Angkor” study completed by ASPARA and the
University of Sydney looks at the values an impacts of the world heritage site on the population within the park. They determined that there are approximately one hundred thousand Khmer that live within the park in villages. These villages that live within the boundaries have to cope constantly with not causing physical damage to the archaeological remains, restrictions on everyday life to keep the scene authentic, and intrusion of a large amount of tourists disrupting traditional ceremonies.13
Conservation and management plan at Angkor
The conservation and management plan is created and implemented by
ASPARA. ASPARA works towards using global and community involvement in the
12 ASPARA Authority, “Royal Decree establishing Protected Cultural Zones,” http://www.autoriteapsara.org/en/apsara/about_apsara/legal_texts/decree3.html
13 Richard Mackay and Sharon Sullivan, "Living with heritage at Angkor." (2008) pp. 3-4.
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management of Angkor. Angkor Archeological Park is perhaps one of the most documented World Heritage Sites by UNESCO. When compared to the Historic City of
Ayutthaya and the Ancient Cities of Pyu, Angkor Archeological Park has fifteen State of
Conditions Reports whereas Ayutthaya has two periodic reports and Pyu has none.
One can conclude that this is the case because much more foreign input and foreign aid were put into the protection and development of Angkor. The international response to
Angkor has been overwhelming in trying to conserve the site. This phenomenon is best stated in Current World Archaeology:
Angkor represents the ultimate heritage conundrum for archaeological sites in the 21st century. Tourists might accelerate damage to a site by their presence, but the money generated invigorates local and national economic development, enables site protection and restoration work, and encourages further research – which, in turn, enriches our knowledge of past cultures. Tourism is inescapable, so better management, controlled development, conservation, education, and poverty reduction are key to Cambodia’s future – the shame would be if the integrity of Angkor is sacrificed for short-term economic benefits.14
In the latest State of Condition report from 2014, ASPARA, with assistance from
Australian consultants and the UNESCO Phnom Penh Office, is working towards the implementation of the Angkor Heritage Management Framework Project. The project consists of the creation and implementation of a tourism management plan, a risk map that locates areas in need of conservation maintenance, a framework document that will streamline the management process, and the use of four pilot projects to test the new management system.15 The results of the project have not been published. Though in a
UNESCO press release it was mentioned that Angkor has received a commendation of
14 “Angkor Wat: Temple of Boom,” Current World Archaeology, November 7, 2011, http://www.world- archaeology.com/features/angkor-wat-temple-of-boom.htm
15 UNESCO, “State of Condition Report: Angkor,”
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“Best in Practice” in the use of “international coordination committee, community based development, Angkor Participatory Natural Resources and Livelihood, community learning centres, eco-village, system staff rewards, interpretation centres, long-term vision.”16
Ayutthaya
The Historic City of Ayutthaya is interspersed among the modern day city of
Ayutthaya. There are some monuments outside of the official Historic City of Ayutthaya.
Unlike Angkor Archaeological Park, which tries to remove itself from the urban development of Siem Reap, the remains of the Historic City of Ayutthaya are not concentrated in one area. Ayutthaya is located in the river valley of the Chao Phraya
River. The core of the city is located on an island that is formed by the rivers interconnecting to form a circle around the land. Ayutthaya is managed by the
Department of Fine Arts within the Thai government. The international partnerships at
Ayutthaya are not as extensive as Angkor, but are still necessary especially for the conservation of the temples within the Historic City.
The Modern City of Ayutthaya
Ayutthaya is one of Thailand’s smaller, yet thriving cities. The most recent population number for the city is at around eighty thousand.17 Ayutthaya is a steadily growing city that has the ruins of its Ancient Capital throughout. The cultural landscape surrounding the Historic City of Ayutthaya is constantly changing with new construction
16 UNESCO, “Angkor,” http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/668/bestpractice/ The nomination is currently only available in French.
17 “Population of Phra Nakhon Si Ayutthaya, Thailand,” January 2012, http://population.mongabay.com/population/thailand/1607532/phra-nakhon-si-ayutthaya
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and urban projects. The city is an inland island that lies about 80km north of Bangkok.
The main concentration of historic buildings is located within an area of 3km2 in the middle of the island. Though there are still historic features outside of the park they stand in contrast to the new grocery store built next door.18 In “Along the Waves of
Change,” the author states that “today life in Ayutthaya is influenced by a combination of the three arenas of industrial activity, tourism and historic preservation; the economics imperatives of the first two to some extent undermining the character and extent of the last.”19
The development of Ayutthaya as a continuous city since its creation in 1350CE qualifies it as an historic city, and the development of the city as it is today is a direct result of its heritage. The ancient ruins of the former capital sit next to the modern day conveniences that are necessary in a growing city. One of the earlier maps presented to the World Heritage Center at the time of its nomination in 1991 breaks the city up into specific areas that show what is historic and what areas can be developed in (Figure 4-
3).20 The most historical significant areas are in black. It is important to note that the
Historic City of Ayutthaya is part of the larger Ayutthaya Historical Park, which covers a much bigger area of the town.
18 Jane Therese Harrington, "'Being here': heritage, belonging and place making: a study of community and identity formation at Avebury (England), Magnetic Island (Australia) and Ayutthaya (Thailand)." PhD diss., James Cook University, 2004. Pp. 247 - 248
19 IBID 248
20 UNESCO, “The Historic City of Ayutthaya.”
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Boundaries and Buffer Zones
When Ayutthaya was first nominated to the World Heritage Center, the Fine Arts
Department created a Master Plan, which is still used today. As part of the Master Plan, there was a proposal to create a better buffer zone to help preserve the monuments from modern development. The 2003 Periodic Report, however, states that, “Attempts have been made to extend the preserved area in order to provide a buffer zone, but the immediate realization of this buffer zone is impeded by the closeness of the contemporary city of Ayutthaya.”21 There is a movement in the Fine Arts Department to look at possibly changing the World Heritage Site from a historic city to a historic park, which would allow the buffer zones to be increased as the whole historic park would be included, instead of only the main area of nomination from 1991.22 The historic park consists of six zones that contain the whole island and land outside the island (Table 4-
5, Figure 4-4).23 Each of these zones contain a number of historic monuments that have been integrated into the modern development of the city.24 Currently only the monuments in Zone 1 are considered to have World Heritage Status.
21 UNESCO, “Thailand: Historic City of Ayutthaya and Associated Towns,” State of Conservation of the World Heritage Properties in the Asia-Pacific Region, http://whc.unesco.org/archive/periodicreporting/APA/cycle01/section2/576-summary.pdf
22 IBID, Also see the UNESCO Map of boundaries presented in 2012, there is an increase of area from the map that was presented in this chapter from ICOMOS Advisory Body report.
23 Daungthima, Wittaya, and Kazunori Hokao, "Analysing the Possible Physical Impact of Flood Disasters on Cultural Heritage in Ayutthaya, Thailand," International Journal of Sustainable Future for Human Security Vol. 1, No. 1 (2013) pp. 35-39.
24 Prateep Phengtako, “Laws And Regulations To Support Conservation And Lopment Of Ayutthaya Historic City,” 7th Seminar on the Conservation of Asian Cultural Heritage, (Tokyo National Research Institute of Cultural Properties, 1998), http://www.tobunken.go.jp/~kokusen/ENGLISH/MEETING/SEMINAR/7SEMINAR/phengta.html
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Because the Historic City of Ayutthaya is integrated into the modern city of
Ayutthaya the population within the historical park is not large. In comparison to both
Pyu and Angkor, Ayutthaya is an industrial city with modern amenities that is not separate from the World Heritage Site. A better comparison for an image of Ayutthaya would be to that of Rome. Along the streetscapes of Ayutthaya, commercial businesses are juxtaposed with ancient sites.
Conservation and Management Plan
The Master Plan has been in place since 1993, and the main objectives for the site have not really changed over the years. The plan is broken up into eight projects that were given an initial budget of 2,946 million baht to be completed after a seven year delay period:
1. WORK-PLAN FOR ARCHAEOLOGICAL, HISTORICAL RESEARCH AND RESTORATION OF MONUMENTS, which depends upon archaeological knowledge and preservation / restoration as the key procedures. Within this plan, the Nation Center for Restoration of Monument will be established.
2. WORK-PLAN FOR DEVELOPMENT AND IMPROVEMENT OF INFRASTRUCTURE OF THE HISTORIC CITY. Its main activities include the rehabilitation of ancient canal systems and providing more infrastructure such as electricity, water supply, telephone link, etc. among the present communities in the proposed area. All of these must be designed and constructed in harmony with a historical atmosphere of the city.
3. WORK-PLAN FOR RESTORATION AND LANDSCAPE IMPROVEMENT OF THE MONUMENTS. The plan is to rectify all surrounding physical environments which are unsightly and not in harmony with the atmosphere of Historic City.
4. WORK-PLAN FOR THE DEVELOPMENT AND IMPROVEMENT OF RESIDENTIAL COMMUNITIES. Such communities, in fact, create much lively atmosphere to the city, but some of those lying within or blocking the scenic views of the monuments and historical sites must be relocated in such way that appropriate and orderly atmosphere could be achieved.
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5. WORK-PLAN FOR THE DEVELOPMENT OF HEADQUARTERS AND PERSONNEL. This is to construct the headquarters building, to secure office facilities, to form working team adequately for every aspect to the project work.
6. WORK-PLAN FOR ACADEMIC AND TOURISM SERVICES. The plan is to establish an information center fully equipped with documents and other media making full use of new technology.
7. WORK-PLAN FOR THE IMPROVEMENT OF SOCIO-ECONOMIC OF LOCAL RESIDENTS. The plan's effort must be made to promote earnings through various occupation activities related to tourism, together with the promotion of local arts and crafts through the development of an art-craft village.
8. WORK-PLAN FOR THE RELOCATION OF INDUSTRIAL PLANTS AND REDEVELOPMENT OF THEIR TERRAIN. Industrial plants and factories are not in accord with the atmosphere of a historic city. Some of them are located in the Rear Palace (Wang Lang) area. These must be relocated and the terrain property restored.25
In the 2003 Periodic Reporting document there is no change in the objectives of the original master plan; instead there is a focus on disaster management. Because the
Historic City of Ayutthaya is located on an island it is at serious risk for floods. The most extreme flood came in 2011, when the monuments were flooded with water up to two meters high for four weeks. The amount of damage produced awakened the need for a flood risk management plan for the city, not only for the protection of the monuments, but also for the protection of the people. In a press release, UNESCO Bangkok stated,
“The new project aims to undertake a flood risk study which will inform the development of a disaster risk mitigation plan for Ayutthaya…The initiative will implement the strategy of the World Heritage Committee for reducing disaster risks at World Heritage sites. The
Ayutthaya World Heritage flood risk mitigation plan will become one of the first of its kind not only in the region but also globally.”26
25 IBID
26 UNESCO Bangkok, “Developing a Flood Risk Mitigation Plan for Ayutthaya World Heritage Site (2013- 2014),” http://www.unescobkk.org/culture/wh/ap-sites/ayutthaya/
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Pyu
The newest World Heritage site has little infrastructure to support visitation and tourism. . The country of Myanmar is newly emerging and, due in part to its isolation, transportation and water development have not been a priority. The serial aspect of this listing means that the Pyu cities are scattered through the Irrawaddy region of
Myanmar. The cities fall on the banks of the Irrawaddy River that runs through the middle of Myanmar.
The Pyu Cities
The Pyu Cities are isolated within an already hard to navigate country. The only way to access the cities currently is by car or bus routes that will take tourist from the main international cities, such as Yangoon and Mandalay, to the city of Pyu. The cities are separated from each other making good roads necessary for future tourist to be able to see the sites and navigate the countryside (Figure 4-5).27 Also each site is located in the rural country side. According to the nomination file, Halin has no railroad tracks or roads crossing through the heritage site, only cart tracks made by local farmers; whereas the other two sites of Beikthano and Sri Ksetra have remnants of the railroad placed by the British, but no roads.28
The sites and the villages are in desperate need of water management plans. All of the problems are present including lack of clean water, flood management, sewage, and good water facilities. If the site wants to house large amounts of tourists in the
27 “Pyu Ancient Cities: Halin, Beikhanto, and Sri Ksetra,” Nomination of Properties for Inscription on the World Heritage List, pp.
28 IBID, pp. 254.
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future, it will be important that water management plan is put in place. Not only for the protection of the sites from flood water, but also for the benefit of the people.
One of the factors that must be considered is the impact of the creation of the new infrastructure that is going to have to be built to make these sites viable as World
Heritage Sites. The International Council of Monuments and Sites (ICOMOS) addresses this problem in their advisory board review stating, “The nomination dossier mentions a road, a railway line, an (unused) airfield, and more recently a gas pipeline, and high-wire electricity pylons, across the site of Sri Ksetra ancient city. There is a need to codify how infrastructural improvements will respect buried archaeology and the integrity of the archaeological remains.”29 The ruins of the Pyu Cities are scattered throughout the rural villages that surround them; while the most important features are within the borders it seems that it will be a long process to create the correct infrastructure to manage this site.
Boundaries and Buffer Zones
The boundaries that were created at each site are based on the ancient walls.
Therefore within the boundaries of each site there are the mounds, monuments, and landscape alterations. The buffer zone that was created relates directly to the natural features that surround each property such as mountains and rivers. There are also physical markers that denote were the boundaries are.30 These cities are a part of the living cultural landscape in Myanmar even if they are isolated; and in their management vision the authorities state that they seek to “contribute to local community economic,
29 ICOMOS, “Pyu Ancient Cities (Myanmar) No 144,” pp. 178.
30 “Pyu Ancient Cities: Halin, Beikhanto, and Sri Ksetra,” Nomination of Properties for Inscription on the World Heritage List, pp.
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social, and cultural development, by integrating heritage preservation into environmental conservation and sustainable development through a participatory approach to the property’s management, undertaken in cooperation with other stakeholders including the sangha (monk body) and the local community.”31
While the Pyu sites are isolated from the threat of urban development currently, they are not free from human interaction. In order to appropriately implement boundaries and respect towards the ruins an education plan should be put into effect to educate and raise awareness among the local inhabitants. In the ICOMOS report it was stated that, “Local people make use of bricks apparently lying around at Sri Ksetra and
Beikthano. This issue needs to be addressed through awareness raising campaigns.”32
It is important to have open communication with the local people in order to successfully utilize Pyu Ancient Cities as a World Heritage Site. In the nomination file a chart was created from a 2012 census that addressed the number of people living within each city
(Table 4-6).33
The nomination file states that many of the villagers while possibly ignorant to the importance of the archaeological site were the main caretakers of the sites particularly the one village in Halin.34 There needs to be a continuing interaction and education between heritage professionals and the people of Myanmar to make their cultural heritage sites successful as World Heritage Sites.
31 IBID, pp. 153.
32 ICOMOS, “Pyu Ancient Cities (Myanmar) No 144,” pp. 177.
33 “Pyu Ancient Cities: Halin, Beikhanto, and Sri Ksetra,” Nomination of Properties for Inscription on the World Heritage List, pp. 166
34 IBID, pp.166
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Conservation and management plan
The management plan for Pyu was presented in its nomination file. Because of its newness the plan has currently not been fully implemented. There is, however, a move towards implementation and a recognition of the goals Myanmar hopes to achieve:
Protection of the property from impacts which endanger the long-term safeguarding of its heritage values and the attributes.
Communication of the property’s importance as a primary knowledge resource for education, research and better experiencing the property to national and international audiences, both among the scientific community and among the general public.
Integration of the property into the contemporary life of the local community, including an economically beneficial and environmentally sustainable ways insofar as these activities do not endanger the property’s heritage values.
Assurance of the legal, technical, administrative, and financial mechanisms necessary to accomplish the above mentioned goals.35
In each goal, according to the master plan, there are supposed to be objectives that the Pyu Ancient Cities coordinating committee seeks to put into practice. Those objectives that relate to the goals are supposed to change every five years in hopes that the previous objectives will be completed.
Economic
Cultural heritage sites are often used as a catalyst for economic growth. While the idealism of saving cultural heritage for future generations maybe the first priority when nominating a World Heritage site, there is a good chance that economic gain is also a key goal. A well-known feature of heritage investment is the bi-product of tourism
35 “Pyu Ancient Cities: Halin, Beikhanto, and Sri Ksetra,” Nomination of Properties for Inscription on the World Heritage List, pp. 457.
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development. Tourism development then provides more income opportunities for the city’s poor.36 The following chart presented by the World Bank suggests there is a positive relationship between the specialization of tourism and long-term GDP growth
(Figure 4-6).37
The two basic questions of economics in heritage development remain: where does the money come from and where is the money going? This section looks at the economic impact of the development and status of Angkor and Ayutthaya. Pyu, however, has very little data concerning their economic status, so the focus instead will be on the investments put into the site and Myanmar’s hope for its economic status.
Each site is broken up into the money earned from the site, money received for the site in terms of aid, and distribution of funds. The actual earnings of each of these sites are constantly in question because of the corrupt nature of the political entities involved.
According to Transparency International Annual Corruptions Ranking, which measures perceived levels of corruption within the public sector, Thailand is ranked at eighty-five while Cambodia and Myanmar are both ranked at one-fifty-six out of a total ranking of one-seventy-five.38 The numbers and statistics presented in this section come from the nation’s most recent information that is available to the public.
36 Licciardi, The Economics of Uniqueness, pp. 25.
37 IBID, 184.
38 “Corruption Perceptions Index 2014: Results,” Transparency International, http://www.transparency.org/cpi2014/results
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Angkor
Determining the money earned through admission to the Angkor Archaeological
Site is problematic. The amount of money generated is difficult to discern, specifically revenue generated through ticket sales. The situation stems in part from a severe lack of communication between ASPARA, Sokimex, and the Cambodian Government. 39 The most recent allegations prompted some clarifications by authorities in an article presented by The Economist:
For its part, the government-created authority responsible for protecting the park, APSARA, which contracted out ticketing sales to Sokimex back in 1999, has defended the status quo. APSARA released a statement on November 25th [2014], outlining where the revenue from ticket sales goes: 20% in value-added tax, 15% towards the conservation of the park, 15% to Sokimex and 50% straight to the government.40
The latest data from 2013, ASPARA claims that there was an annual revenue of fifty-seven million USD from ticket sales at Angkor Archaeological Park. This includes tickets for access to entrances to individual temples and locations throughout the park.
There is a great amount of money being generated from Angkor, however, it seems as though it is not being utilized optimally.41 Some Cambodian officials believe that Angkor has generated double the amount of the fifty-seven million USD, and that ASPARA is giving false reports. Whether these accusations are true or not, the fifty-seven million
39 There are numerous news stories that bemoan the lack of clarity when it comes to the money that is earned through ticket sales at Angkor particularly within the last fiscal year of 2014. One of the most recent articles is “Angkor Wat Authority Defends Reported Ticket Revenues,” Radio Free Asia, December 29, 2014, http://www.rfa.org/english/news/cambodia/tickets-12292014143913.html
40 “Angkor Revenue Under the Spotlight Again,” The Economist: Intelligence Unit, January 27, 2015. http://country.eiu.com/article.aspx?articleid=1692752553&Country=Cambodia&topic=Politics#
41 IBID
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USD that is received and accounted for “for either 29% of the government's education budget in 2014, 34% of its defense spending or 39% of its spending on healthcare.”42
Angkor Archaeological Park has been one of the most collaborative international projects in the protection and conservation of World Heritage Sites. Many countries have completed conservation works on the temples under the authority of ASPARA.
UNESCO and the UN has been heavily involved with Angkor. From UNESCO World
Heritage Centre, Angkor has officially been given 113,595USD over six years for mapping, conservation, protection, and preparations. Funds have also been raised from international NGOs that originate from the USA, Japan, and France, who are considered to be the most generous contributors to the development of Angkor; but in total there have been sixteen countries that have worked toward the conservation of
Angkor.43
Ayutthaya
Management of the Historic City of Ayutthaya is funded through ticket sales and a budget set by the Ministry of Culture and disbursed through the Fine Arts Department.
The original budget set aside by the government in 1993 for the implementation of the
Master Plan was 2,946.78 million baht (910,000USD). In the document it was not clarified if this was a yearly budget or only for the implementation of the Master Plan.44
Also when researching the revenue of the park, two different numbers were available.
42 IBID
43 UNESCO, “Angkor,”
44 Phengtako, “Laws And Regulations To Support Conservation And Development Of Ayutthaya Historic City.”
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The first one came from the Periodic Reporting stating that the entrance fees raised
25.81 million baht (772,261USD) through entrance fee though no year is specified.45
The second one is from the International Journal of Academic Research in Business and Social Sciences stating that the revenue from 2007 is 6,549.53 million baht (2 million USD).46 The third one comes from the Thai newspaper The Bangkok Post stating that Ayutthaya generated around 12 billion baht (370 million USD) in 2014.47
The discrepancies between the figures could be a result of the unknown number of years which passed between the data or what exactly is considered to be the revenue: just admission to the park or the whole tourism industry surrounding the historic site. Unlike Angkor and Pyu, Ayutthaya has the least amount of stakeholders involved with the preservation and upkeep of the city. Their most recent joint efforts is the preparation for the flood risk assessment. While UNESCO World Heritage Center has not contributed money to the cause according to their assistance website, it works in partnership with the main funder, the Asian Development Bank.48 This continuing project is a partnership between the Asian Development Bank, the Fine Arts
Department of Thailand, and UNESCO Institute for Water Education.
45 Thailand National Periodic Report, “Section II: State of Conservation of Specific World Heritage Sites”
46 Suwakhon Somphaiphithak, Gamon Savatsomboon, and Donruetai Kovathanakul, "The Impacts of Service Quality in Tourism on the Visitor’s Behavioral Intention at the Historic City of Ayutthaya, Thailand," International Journal of Academic Research in Business & Social Sciences 1, no. 3 (2011), pp. 468
47 Chadamas Chinmaneevong, “History-Rich Ayutthaya seeks Resurgence,” Bangkok Post, February 6, 2015, http://www.bangkokpost.com/business/tourism/468193/history-rich-ayutthaya-seeks-resurgence.
48 UNESCO, “Historic City of Ayutthaya.”
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Pyu
Currently there is no economic information for the Pyu Sites, however, there is hope for future economic benefit due to its new inscription has a World Heritage Site. In a study completed by the European Institute for Asian Studies, the author states the possible benefits of the Pyu cities World Heritage Status:
Cultural heritage also contributes as a driving force for economic development of peripheral or rural regions since management and restoration projects also impact displays of intangible cultural heritage such as traditional manifestations and cultural events. The dynamics generated by heritage-related activities and events would be greatly beneficial for Myanmar, and particularly for the Upper Burma region where the Bagan archaeological site and the Pyu Ancient Cities are located, a traditionally rural and economically backward area among the country’s poorest.49
The hope for a positive economic impact as a result of Pyu’s status as a World Heritage
Site is one of the main factors for its nomination. The Pyu Ancient Cities have a long road ahead of them in order to become a sustainable site.
Tourism
Tourism is one of the main factors driving World Heritage Site inscription.50 As seen in Figure 4-6, there is an overall positive relationship between specialized tourism growth and increased GDP. The tangible heritage that creates these World Heritage
Sites is the most bankable element due to lucrative tourism. Out of all the impacts tourism is the one that acts as the catalyst for economic and infrastructure development.
49 Stefano Facchinetti, “Cultural Heritage Management in Myanmar A Gateway to Sustainable Development,” European Institute for Asian Studies Briefing Paper 2014:6, October 2014, retrieved from http://eias.org/sites/default/files/EIAS_Briefing_Paper_2014-6_Facchinetti.pdf, pp.13.
50 Arthur Penderson, “Managing Tourism at World Heritage Sites: a Practical Manual for World Heritage Site Managers,” World Heritage Manuals 1, 2002, http://whc.unesco.org/uploads/activities/documents/activity-113-2.pdf
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According to a study funded by the European Union, the desire to experience the cultural heritage of a particular region drives thirty-seven percent of global tourism.51
Tourism in Southeast Asia is one of the fastest growing markets. While most tourism relations in the cultural center only provide a 0.5% increase in the GDP per year, it has been estimated that within the Asian countries there has been a 6% increase GDP per year.52
Angkor
In the 2008 Annual Forum of the Pacific Rim Council on Urban Development it was recognized that:
Siem Reap is growing extremely rapidly and with very few development controls. The center is expanding and ribbon development is spreading rapidly across the region. Tourism is a major driver of this urban expansion. If this form of development is allowed to proceed in this fashion then—within the next five years—the heritage and environmental assets of Siem Reap/Angkor will be irreparably damaged.53
The development of Siem Reap is a direct result of the tourist and international attraction towards Angkor. The tourism business is booming in Cambodia due to the increased number of resorts available to foreigners coming in. When Angkor first became safe to travel to in the late nineties it was closer to stepping back in time.
There were maybe one or two nice, established hotels, but then tourists were mainly
51 Pugliese, T., and Da Sacco, M.G, “Cultural Heritage as a socio-economic development factor,” Med- Pact Project, 2007, http://www.medpact.com/Download/Archimedes/11%20Introduction%20Paper%20Cultural%20Heritage% 20 and%20Ec%20Dvlpmt.pdf.
52 Economics of Uniqueness
53 Paul Rabé, "Siem Reap: Urban development in the shadow of Angkor," 2008 Annual Forum of the Pacific Rim Council on Urban Development, Siem Reap/Angkor, Kingdom of Cambodia. 2008.
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backpackers. Fast forward to today and the heritage tourist has a plethora of options from five star resorts and restaurants to professionally planned golf courses.
Angkor archaeological park was given the nickname the Temple of Boom by
World Archeology for the major increase in tourism over the past ten years. Tourism in
Cambodia increased by four thousand percent since 1993. Around twenty eight percent of all international tourist arrivals arrive in Siem Reap, with an estimated four million people hoping to visit Angkor in 2014.54 The increase in tourism is a huge economic booster to the economy of the Siem Reap province. By the year 2020, it is projected that Cambodia will receive seven million tourists with a majority of them going to see
Angkor Archaeological Park.55
There are two types of tourists visiting Angkor are domestic and foreign. The reasons behind each groups motivation stems from their connection to the site.
Domestic tourist visit Angkor to remember their cultural past. Angkor is a living, breathing site that is home to the cultural events of the Khmer people and a religious home for Buddhist monks. The international tourist, conversely, are there to see a great lost empire and the authentic temples that grace the park.56 Each group recognizes the importance of the conservation of the temples, and the negative conservation aspects of the increased tourism to Angkor.
54 The Ministry of Tourism CAmbodia
55 Vannarith Chang, “Tourism and Regional Integration in Southeast Asia,” Institute of Developing Economies, Japan External Trade Organization No. 481, May 2013, http://www.ide.go.jp/English/Publish/Download/Vrf/pdf/481.pdf pp. 31.
56 Tim Winter, “Landscape, Memory, Hertiage: New Year’s Celebrations at Angkor, Cambodia,” The Politics of World Heritage: Negotiating Tourism and Conservation (Channel View Publications, 2005) pp. 54-56.
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A 1995 UNESCO report stated that Angkor could sustain visitor traffic of 700,000 people per year without it having a huge negative impact on the site’s temples.57
Considering that the most recent numbers from ASPARA declare that two million tourists visited the site, the concept of the site “being loved to death” is becoming more and more possible each year. Due to Angkor status as a living heritage site, every tourist that comes has the ability to touch the monuments and interact with the site.
While this makes the site accessible and enjoyable it wreaks havoc on the conservation capabilities of the sandstone and reliefs. Some of the techniques being used to help with the conservation include putting wood planks over heavy trafficked areas and closing off certain areas to give them a rest from the constant exposure of people.58
Ayutthaya
Thailand is considered to be the “mature tourist destination in Southeast Asia and a touristically developed country in the developing world.” 59 The country attracted twenty-six million tourists in 2013.60After World War II, the Thai government became focused on making Thailand a tourist destination. Since 1977, the country was created and implemented six tourism development plans that were implemented over a five year period. The government, instead of private companies, is very involved with the
57 “Angkor Wat: Temple of Boom,” Current World Archeaology, November 7, 2011, http://www.world- archaeology.com/features/angkor-wat-temple-of-boom.htm
58 Guy De Launey, “Are there too many Tourists at Angkor Temples,” BBC News, June 8, 2012, http://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-18363636
59 Chang, “Tourism and Regional Integration in Southeast Asia,” pp. 39
60 “Thailand welcomed 26.7 million visitor arrivals in 2013, exceeding target,” TatNews January 14, 2014, http://www.tatnews.org/thailand-welcomed-26-7-million-visitor-arrivals-in-2013-exceeding- target/#sthash.WzbuzBaC.dpuf
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creation of tourism policy and the promotion and development of tourism activities.61
Tourism is one of the main industries in Thailand and represents sixteen percent of the
GDP and has created about four million jobs in 2011.62
While the Historic City of Ayutthaya is a tourist site, the modern city of Ayutthaya is not a large tourist destination. They City of Ayutthaya receives about six million tourists per year, yet only two million of those tourist are international. Because the city is a modern industrial city it does not hold the same interest to tourist as the larger city of Bangkok or the beautiful beaches. Because of its close proximity to Bangkok and a majority of the visitors being domestic, most tourists visiting Ayutthaya are day-trippers.
Only ten percent of the tourists spend the evening in Ayutthaya, and the average occupancy of the hotels is never over fifty percent.63
Pyu
The tourism activities at Pyu are limited because of its recent nomination and
Myanmar’s re-entrance into global affairs. In 2012, Myanmar had one million visitors enter their country for tourism.64 The Pyu cities, even with one million tourist in
Myanmar, are not receiving the benefit of increased tourism currently. Beikthano and Sri
Ksetra have small on-site museums and some interpretative signage next to the more important monuments. The excavated artifacts that were found on the sites are located in the National Museum in Yangon. Currently the tourism surrounding the Ancient Pyu
61 IBID, pp. 41.
62 IBID, pp. 41.
63 Chinmaneevong, “History-rich Ayutthaya Seeks Resurgence.”
64 Frances Cha, “Myanmar records one million tourists, surge in tourism income,” CNN International, January 21, 2013, http://travel.cnn.com/myanmar-records-one-million-tourists-67-percent-increase- tourism-income-037441
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Cities is not large. In the nomination file the Department of Culture laid out the amount of visitors in 2013 in Table 4-7.65
The arena of tourism in Myanmar is expected to grow exponentially in the next five years. By the continuation of infrastructure development, the Ancient Pyu Cities site has the potential to become a large cultural heritage tourist destination in Myanmar.
Before worrying about tourism, however, there is a need to develop the infrastructure so that tourists have easier access to the sites.66
Identity
The identity impact looks at how the local people respond and interact with their heritage site. As these sites are World Heritage sites they are considered to have outstanding universal value that is appreciated by the world. These sites, however, are also supposed to represent the nation, and the parts of the national history that they would like to share with the world. This identity promotion impact is best characterized in Stefano Facchinetti’s paper about cultural heritage management in Myanmar:
This particular characteristic of cultural heritage is well described in the words of the Charter for the Conservation of Unprotected Heritage and Sites in India, adopted by the Indian National Trust for Art and Cultural Heritage, which states that “conserving the architectural heritage and sites ensures the survival of a country’s sense of place and character in a globalizing environment,” offering the community “the opportunity not only to conserve the past, but also to define the future.” If preserved and promoted, cultural heritage contributes indeed to strengthening the identity and sense of belonging to a group, and promotes diversity, intercultural and interfaith dialogue creating social cohesion through better understanding and respect between peoples. The promotion of local cultures, traditions, identities, as well as differences and commonalities, through safeguarding cultural heritage, could act as a factor to enrich
65 Pyu Nomination File, pp. 244.
66 IBID, 244.
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communities, fortify mutual understanding and trust, and contribute to a complete and balanced human and socio-political development.67
This impact is the most similar between the case studies. The concept of identity in conjunction with Cambodia, Thailand, and Myanmar’s World Heritage sites are inter- related because each site represents their cultures pre-colonization. The timeline of each of these sites ends one right after the other with Ayutthaya being abandoned in the
1700s around the height of colonization. Each site has a religious connotation surrounding it, whether Buddhist or Hindu. The monks are active at the temples that are included in each site, and are considered to be separate stakeholders in the site’s plan and development.68
Angkor
Angkor is considered the national symbol for Cambodia. The temple is graced on the Cambodian flag and on numerous pamphlets promoting Cambodian culture. The site is recognized by Cambodians as so much more than just a site of the Khmer
Kingdom. Tim Winter concluded in his writings about the celebration of the New Year at
Angkor that:
Despite the various political appropriations of Angkor since independence, the site has retained its widespread populist appeal and iconic status as national, ethnic, and cultural symbol. Indeed for a country composed of over 90% Khmers, it is hard to overestimate the deeply symbolic significance of Angkor within Cambodia today, not least because of the suffering endured in recent decades.69
67 Facchinetti, “Cultural Heritage Management in Myanmar A Gateway to Sustainable Development,” pp. 14.
68 As seen in Pyu’s Nomination File, Ayutthaya’s Periodic Reporting 2003, and ASPARA
69 Winter, “Landscape, Memory, Hertiage: New Year’s Celebrations at Angkor, Cambodia,” pp.54
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In his writings, Winter went on to interview Cambodians participating in the New
Year’s festivities within Angkor Archaeological Park about their reasons for being there.
A common theme in their answers was they wanted to see their heritage as it was meant to be without all the pain endured through Pol Pot’s reign; also that they were free to travel and celebrate and be surrounded by people in a place built by their ancestors.70
The utilization of Angkor has a healing identity to the tragic modern history of
Cambodia is something that is unique and differentiates it. The site allows Cambodians to focus on the great kingdom of their long ago past, rather than the political pain of their recent past. The focus of Angkor as a World Heritage site project helped propel
Cambodia into globalization faster than any of its other entities.71
Ayutthaya
Thailand is one of the few Asian countries to escape colonization. The development of identity for the Thai in relation to cultural heritage is about giving meaning to their nationality. Thai history starts as the History of Siam. The two great historic cities that existed before the creation of Bangkok: Sukothai and Ayutthaya.
These city kingdoms represent the past of a nation that was not officially created until
1939. The new government and subsequent ones after, needed to bring the people together through cultural heritage by creating a shared past identity.
The trend started in the late 1970s to create an authorized history of Thai nationality. This is about the same time that Ayutthaya became a state park. It was
70 IBID, pp. 54-57.
71 Tim Winter, “The Political Economies of Heritage,” Heritage Memory and Identity, (London: SAGE, 2011), pp. 75.
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also utilized in the creation of branding the idea of Thai-ness to the rest of the world for the creation of tourism. Marc Askew in his chapter in Heritage and Globalization, goes on to state that, “the packaging of Thailand’s identity for tourism promotions has been a nationally important official objective…being validated as a place of world cultural significance by UNESCO, Thailand’s image could be reconfigured away from its dominant association with sex-tourism and towards respectability.”72
From school age, Thai’s are taught their history through a scope that includes
Ayutthaya as one of their great cities in history. The coursework links the history of the city with the current notion of Thai identity. As a result of tourist who visit, over 50%, are domestic. The site is also used for school outings just as an American school child would take a field trip to see the city of St. Augustine. The inclusion of Ayutthaya within
Thai education and the valorization of the site by UNESCO helped propel it into the common identity of the Thai people through the concept of a collective remembered past.73
Pyu
Pyu is Myanmar’s first World Heritage Site and represents Myanmar’s inclusion in the United Nations and UNESCO and larger, global network. The civilization of Pyu is very important in the history of the Burmese people. Their early civilization set the roots for the creation of Bagan and subsequently Burma, now known as Myanmar. The ancient ruins are a reflection on the development of Myanmar as a modern day country.
While Pyu is an important site in the history of Myanmar, it is not the main site that the
72 Marc Askew, “UNESCO, World Heritage and the Agendas of States,” Heritage and Globalization (New York: Routledge, 2010) pp. 36.
73 Harrington, “Being There,” pp. 241.
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people of Myanmar associate as constituting the best representation of their history.
The use of the Pyu cities to assist in the building of a positive Myanmar identity is represented as follows:
As Thein’s government seeks to regain people’s trust and support, the conservation and effective management of the country’s heritage must be regarded as core elements in order to further proceed with the nation- building process and the creation of a pluralistic multicultural democracy. To respect and promote the multicultural aspects of cultural heritage would be an extremely meaningful signal and a powerful tool to reinforce the newly launched democratic attitude of the government. In turn this could increase popular support and enhance the stability of the country.74
The site they believe best represents them is Bagan. Pyu is authentic, historically significant, and a World Heritage site. All of those qualities, however, do not make the more revered site. The identity surrounding the people of Myanmar today is complicated. The country is on the verge of huge growth and is using their cultural heritage as a catalyst for tourism and economic growth. Therefore, why did the ruling party decide to utilize Pyu as their first World Heritage Site? It is spartially explained in this article for The Myanmar Times, “As Mr Makino suggests, ‘Because Bagan is such a large scale [site], perhaps the government thought it more practical to focus on the Pyu cities first. The timeframe depends on the scale of a site, the data available and the quality of its condition.”75
74 Facchinetti, “Cultural Heritage Management in Myanmar,” pp. 16.
75 Jessica Muddit, “Putting Bagan on the World Heritage Map,” Myanmar Times, October 22, 2012, http://www.mmtimes.com/index.php/special-features/148-property-myanmar/2794-putting-bagan-on-the- world-heritage-map.html?limitstart=0
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Conclusion
All of the impacts presented are fully interconnected in the development of a
World Heritage Site. By looking at them through individual lenses, the paper focuses on themes that were forming to create the lessons learned. While the impacts are directly related to the World Heritage Site, the World Heritage Site is directly related to the politics of the nation. This phenomenon can be seen particularly in the management plans for each country.
Infrastructure is a broader impact that looks at the development of the site and the surrounding city. While Angkor is separated from Siem Reap, Ayutthaya and Pyu are juxtaposed to the modern cities that grew up around it. Angkor is located within the mountains of Cambodia making the need for good roads important for transportation to and from Siem Reap. Whereas, Ayutthaya and Pyu, are located in river valleys that are susceptible to extreme flooding. The utilization of a master plan that addresses concerns of infrastructure development to the site and the surrounding area is helpful in the conservation process.
Economic impact is following where the money goes for each site. There is no denying that there is an economic benefit to becoming a World Heritage site. These sites each utilize the economics benefits received from being a World Heritage site including specialized funds from UNESCO, partnerships with international entities, and tourism sales. Each site, however, underuses their local resources and the money flows between governments, the site, and powerful private companies rather than directly benefitting the local communities.
The tourism impact justifies the sites value economically as a World Heritage
Site. Increased tourism to the site is the catalyst that drives economic gain and the
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development of infrastructure. The increased tourism to the Southeast Asian countries are beneficial to the upkeep of World Heritage Sites, yet detrimental to the conservation of the sites. The balance of tourism and conservation is a teetering see-saw that needs to be perfectly balanced by the management of the site. Angkor relies the most on tourism, and the development of the Siem Reap is a direct result of the tourists going to see Angkor. Will there be the same cause for development at the Pyu cities? Only time will tell. In contrast, tourists at Thailand have numerous choices of places to go visit besides Ayutthaya such as Bangkok, Sukothai, or the coastal areas. The modern city of
Ayutthaya does not rely on tourism as a catalyst for economic development has Siem
Reap does.
Out of all of the impacts, identity, resonates not with the development of a World
Heritage site, but with the creation of one. In order to put forth the nomination, the site must be known throughout the country as an important location for the people. If the site does not resonate with the people in their collective memory, then the site most likely does not have outstanding universal significance. The concept of identity, has nothing to do with the authenticity or integrity of the site. It is the one impact that has the most developed relationship between the local people and the heritage site. Angkor is seen as the pride and joy of Cambodia, a positive look into the past that helps ease the recent memories of pain. Ayutthaya is that national symbol, and gives a history to what it means to be Thai. In contrast, Pyu, while important does not capture the hearts of the Burmese people as Bagan does.
All of these impacts come together to look at the development of a World
Heritage Site within the Southeast Asian countries of Cambodia, Thailand, and
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Myanmar. These impacts reflect how heritage sites are utilized at the international, national, and local level through UNESCO, the government and the community. By looking at each impact separately, it provides the opportunity to see how each site deals with infrastructure, economic benefit, tourism, and identity. When all of these impacts are pulled apart the correlation between them becomes much clearer. Angkor and
Ayutthaya are considered successful cases of World Heritage because they are able to bring together these four impacts to create a heritage site that is not only important to the local people, but also the traveling tourist.
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Summary Tables
Table 4-1. Infrastructure Comparison Summary Case Studies Infrastructure
Urban Borders/Buffer Conservation Development Zones Management Plan Angkor Siem Reap = Park is 400km2 Controlled by Archaeological resort town and Contains 5 zones ASPARA Park airport that emphasis Work actually Separate entity important areas carried out by from urban Creation of a foreign NGOs and development yet specific hotel plan governments still easy access and zone area Well documented New road that relates constructions specifically with conservation provided by the site process International entities Historic City of Located within the There is a natural Run by the Ayutthaya modern city of border provided Department of Ayutthaya by the river Fine Arts Constant risk of The World Newest overdevelopment Heritage Site is a management plan and flooding specific area not focuses on flood the whole park A day-trip from mitigation Modern Conservation Bangkok by tour development in bus, not a resort same location as documents not town old – no real easily accessible buffer
Ancient Cities of Little infrastructure Each site is given Main Goals are to Pyu to get people to a proposed safeguard, the cities boundary and promote and Cities far apart extra buffer zone communicate, from each other area contribute to the Villages surround Sites are very local community the areas _ not isolated Recognition of much urban challenges and development implement responses
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Table 4-2. Economics Comparison Summary
Case Studies Economics
Money Earned Money Received Money Spent Angkor 57million USD Over 2 million Conservation of Angkor Archaeological from ticket USD in aid comes from international Park sales from other aid and private according to countries investments with only 15% ASPARA from looking to of ticket sales going back 2013 preserve (no towards conservation of exact number the site found) UNESCO Aid – 300,000 USD
Historic City of 6,549.53 Budget Goes toward the Ayutthaya million baht provided by the conservation of the earned in 2007 Ministry of property and more from tourism, Culture, though specifically towards the no recent professionals damage incurred by the reports given have 2011 floods expressed it is Full tourism not enough revenue Received 12billionbaht assistance for (2014) flood risk plan from the Asian Development Bank
Ancient Cities of Unknown 30,000USD Money budgeted towards Pyu from UNESCO infrastructure/interpretation to prepare plans nomination
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Table 4-3. Tourism Comparison Summary
Case Studies Tourism
Numbers Concerns Angkor Expected 4million in Conservation of temples and the Archaeological 2014 wear/tear of extreme tourist numbers Park Actual 2million Lack of authenticity in Siem Reap (2013) Foreigners/local relationships 28% of international More international visitors than domestic arrivals landed in Siem Reap (2013) Tourism growth 4000% from 1993
Historic City of 3.7million visitors in Local community not benefiting from Ayutthaya 2007 tourism potential 6.2million visitors to Lack of overnight guests to see the Ayutthaya (2million temples – just day trips from Bangkok – International) from More domestic visitors than international 2014 Tourism Growth in Thailand – 285% from 1995 to 2014 Ancient Cities of Halin – 1,472 Lack of infrastructure to house tourists Pyu (46 - International) Location Beikthano – 3,147 Integration with local community ( 5 – International) Sri Ksetra – 7,432 (2,834 – International) Tourism Growth in Myanmar – 3500% increase from 1995 to 2014
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Table 4-4. Identity Comparison Summary Case Studies Identity
Type of Site Local Community Angkor Cultural Site Numerous villages within the borders of Archaeological Religious Site the World Heritage Site Park Represents Khmer Intangible Culture promoted culture Pre-colonial Site represents positive history of Cambodia accepted by citizens; provides a healing history
Historic City of Cultural Site Government interpretation of the site Ayutthaya Religious Site and creating a Thai National Identity Represents 2nd Domestic visitors higher than Great City of Siam; international visitors powerful trade post Local involvement in the site during colonialization Ancient Cities of Religious Site Concept of Authenticity Pyu Pre-Colonial Not fully represents past of Burmese Civilization and Pre- people Bagan Tensions between the state and the monks
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Figure 4-1. Land Use Map of Siem Reap. Reprinted from Chanvoleak Ourng and Daniel Souto Rodrigues. "Urban growth pattern identification: a case study in Siem Reap, Cambodia." (2012).
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Figure 4-2. Map of Villages located within Angkor Archaeological Park. Reprinted from UNESCO, http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/668/.
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Figure 4-3. Boundary Map of the Historic City of Ayutthaya. Reprinted from UNESCO, http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/576.
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Figure 4-4. Map of Historical Monument Sites within Ayutthaya Historical Park. Reprinted from Daungthima, Wittaya, and Kazunori Hokao, "Analysing the Possible Physical Impact of Flood Disasters on Cultural Heritage in Ayutthaya, Thailand," International Journal of Sustainable Future for Human Security Vol. 1, No. 1 (2013) pp. 35-39.
Table 4-5. Table of Historical Monument Sites within Ayutthaya Historical Park Historical Monument Sites Registered Listed Zone 1 30 75 Zone 2 30 64 Zone 3 18 90 Zone 4 5 26 Zone 5 27 79 Zone 6 5 40 Total 115 374
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Table 4-6. Number of People living within the Site and Buffer Zone of Pyu Ancient Cities Site Number of Number of Total Persons/Villages Persons/Villages with area of within area of Nominated proposed buffer Property zone Halin 0 5,526 people 5,526 people 1 village 1 village Beikthano 604 people 10,428 people 11,032 people 1 village 10 villages 11 villages Sri Ksetra 8,935 people 677 people 9,612 people 17 villages 1 village 18 villages
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Figure 4-5. Distance between Pyu Ancient Cities. Reprinted from UNESCO, http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1444.
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Figure 4-6. Economic and Tourism Relationship. Reprinted from Licciardi, Guido, and R. Eds Amirtahmasebi. "The Economics of Uniqueness." Investing In Historic City Cores and Cultural Heritage Assets for Sustainable Development. Washington, DC: World Bank (2012), pp. 25.
Table 4-7. Number of Visitors to Pyu Ancient Cities Site Domestic International Museum Visitor Site Visitor Halin 1,426 46 452 1,472 Beikthano 3,142 5 3,147 3,147 Sri Ksetra 6,533 2,834 8,477 7,432
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CHAPTER 5 CONCLUSIONS
Globalization is a rising force in the world today. Each year countries are globally interconnecting more and more thanks to technology, ease of travel, and economic benefits, among other factors. The globalization of heritage is represented and managed through UNESCO and their World Heritage Centre. There are currently one thousand and seven properties listed as having natural and cultural significance on the roster of World Heritage Sites. This paper exams three of those sites in a specific locale of Southeast Asia. While this paper sheds some light on the impacts of the development of World Heritage Sites it does not represent the whole picture of world heritage, but instead a smaller microcosm, whose broader elements can be related to other heritage sites around the world.
The impacts presented in Chapter 4 of infrastructure, economics, tourism, and identity all relate to the process of building a World Heritage Site. From researching these impacts it can be determined that years of preparation and research are necessary for a country to nominate and have a site inscribed on the World Heritage
List. It also showed that a country does not have to be economically wealthy, however, to nominate their site. While UNESCO’s demands can be considered at times overbearing; it is important to recognize that they work extensively with the state’s parties to assist in the development of the nomination dossier and subsequent education on conservation. This is especially true in Myanmar and Cambodia.
When looking at heritage through the lens of the impacts affecting the sites, there are themes that begin develop across each impact in each location. The most important development is the realizations of how important it is to have a solid master
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plan for the management and conservation of each site and to incorporate that site into the identity and cultural memory of the people. Each site has its own interpretation of what it means to be a World Heritage site, and each country uses that to their advantage.
Angkor represents the idealized form of World Heritage: the whole world coming together to save it. The work of UNESCO, international entities, and the Cambodian government led Angkor to be one of the fastest growing heritage tourism destinations in the world. While the Cambodians hold Angkor has one of their great national symbols there is still an air of corruption and mystery that surrounds the site. However, the country struggles in keeping Angkor accountable as an economic entity, and the level of transparency surrounding the ownership and management of Angkor is very low.
Ayutthaya represents a classic World Heritage Site. It is imbued with history for the Thai people, but does not hold huge international appeal. The management of the site is a very straight forward top down government approach, which leads it to be a stable environment for the conservation of the site. Unlike Angkor, the people of
Thailand do not seem to have as much of a national pride attachment to the site. That could also be because Thailand has had a less turbulent history.
Pyu represents Myanmar’s entrance on the World Heritage stage. Myanmar’s first nomination and subsequent listing was very calculated and politically charged. As
Myanmar entered the global scene it only seemed proper that a World Heritage site was an important priority to the government. Pyu was used as a test run to understand the process and eventually let Myanmar nominate the more important sites to them such as
Bagan. After a failed attempt to have Bagan listed, UNESCO and Myanmar remain in
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talks to start a successful nomination process for the religious city. This nomination will be an international effort with assistance from Italy, Japan, and China.
Considerations
Each case study presents a series of lessons learned from their experience with the development of a World Heritage site. Good lessons were related to increased economic opportunity thru increased tourism, international partnerships created to solve heritage problems, and the use of heritage as a healing aspect to nations recovering from civil war or political conflict. Bad lessons stem from a lack of infrastructure and strong leadership and too much reliance on tourism as economic gain. Through these lessons a list of considerations has been created:
1. World Heritage Sites should have a strong connection with the local people in relation to their national identity;
2. A strong management plan with support from local, national, and international bodies is necessary;
3. A fully developed management plan that has been tested through Participatory Action Research that fully involves stakeholder engagement in the development;
4. Tourism should not be the number one goal for a heritage site, but instead their integration with the local community through education and partnership building; and
5. Recognition of infrastructure development around the site.
These considerations stem from the conclusion that a World Heritage Site must first be locally important then globally important. Lately, there is a rush to get sites on the list for the economic gains of tourism rather than the main goal to preserve their history. Bagan is a perfect example of this dichotomy: the people of Myanmar believe
Bagan represents their cultural identity and UNESCO deemed it inauthentic due to bad restorations. Does that mean Bagan is any less important to the people of Myanmar?
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Of course not. So, why this push for World Heritage Status? The economic and political gains associated with World Heritage status give Myanmar the opportunity to valorize their history on an international scale and receive assistance for the documentation and preservation of their most important city.
Successful management plans are key to the development of a World Heritage site. In the World Heritage Toolkit provided for assistance in preparing nominations. A successful nomination takes on average five years to put together. If there was not a rush to nomination, then states parties would be able to take the time and engage eligible stakeholders through participatory action research. Participatory action research seeks to engage the community and their thoughts on the significance of the site. The site cannot be isolated from the community that surrounds it, and by rushing the development of a management plan that only focuses on the site leads to that isolation.
By utilizing a collaborative nomination file, instead of a top-down approach, heritage sites are able to create a beneficial economic plan that does not rely fully on tourism. With many heritage sites under threat from natural and man-made disasters it is important that the local communities do not rely on tourism as their main source of income. For example, if Angkor were destroyed, would Siem Reap still be a viable town? The master plan has to be all encompassing, and all stakeholders need to be involved in the process. In an ideal situation this would lead to local job creation, increased awareness, sense of pride, and better communication efforts between stakeholders in the preservation of the site.
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Future Research
This paper provides a framework for future research in looking at the development of World Heritage Sites. The current issues addressed in this paper help set the stage for looking at other emerging nations around the world and their impact within the World Heritage scope. These impacts are internationally friendly, and are easily moveable from one case study to another case study. This framework also provides a start to the use of heritage development in Myanmar and what can be learned from its close neighbors in ASEAN.
This thesis developed a series of questions that remain to be answered about
World Heritage and its future including;
What is the exact importance of World Heritage Sites?
How much is a site based on its political power compared to its authentic heritage value?
What is the future for World Heritage, with more and more sites joining, is the honor becoming less of an honor?
Does the creation of a World Heritage Site isolate the community or bring them together?
With over one thousand heritage sites on the World Heritage list, the future of World
Heritage status is at a complex crossroad.
World Heritage sites work to make national heritage sites universally significance in order to bring the world closer together through past accomplishments of civilizations and natural beauty. While each World Heritage site represents a country, it is really an international effort to preserve these sites. As stated by UNESCO, “Places as unique and diverse as the wilds of East Africa’s Serengeti, the Pyramids of Egypt, the Great
Barrier Reef in Australia and the Baroque cathedrals of Latin America make up our
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world’s heritage. What makes the concept of World Heritage exceptional is its universal application. World Heritage sites belong to all the peoples of the world, irrespective of the territory on which they are located.”1
1 UNESCO, “World Heritage.”
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121 BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH
Katie Jacob earned her bachelor’s in art history from Emory University in 2010.
After taking a few years off from school to teach, she choose to get her Master in
Historic Preservation from the University of Florida. She was the US/ICOMOS intern in
2014 where she worked with the International National Trust Organization in London,
England. This experience helped spurn her interest in international preservation work and the organizations that surround it. After graduation, she will be going to
Preservation Institute Nantucket, and hopes to have a job working to advocate historic preservation as a catalyst for development.
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