Recent Progress of Human Geography in China : Retrospect and Prospect

Japanese Journal of Human Geography 59-6（2007）

Yanwei CHAI, Shangyi ZHOU, Yunlong CAI, Yan ZHANG, Liping WU and Guilan WENG

I Introduction

After the economic reform in the late 1970s, there were a great socio-economic transition and rapid urbanization in China, which have profoundly influenced human geography studies in China. China’s urban socio-economic transition started with the building of a market economy system, and has been promoted by the internal force of social-economic transition and the external influences of globalization and regionalization. Therefore, the socio-economic and institutional transitions work together and construct new forms of urban space1）. However, the urban transition towards a market economic system is not final ; it is an ongoing process, in which new and old mechanisms, internal and external forces interact with each other, which continually forms new urban spaces2）. Gradually, Chinese scholars realized the limitations of traditionally empirical, scientific geography. Human geography, which paid most regard to the interaction of the ‘human’ and the ‘physical environment’ in the past, began to pay more attention to the interaction between the ‘human’ and the ‘social environment3）’. Similar to the transition of human geography in Western countries in the 1970s, human geography in China gradually joined the trend in Western countries after decades of exploration4）. However, different from its Western counterpart, human geography in China has its special characteristics : it is ‘project-oriented’, that is, the primary goal and driving force of the discipline’ 5） s development is to meet the demands of national social-economic development. Therefore, human geography in China emphasizes addressing the major issues in national social-economic development, providing national urbanization strategies, coordinating regional and urban-rural relationships in the process of urbanization, and contributing to the building of a harmonious society. In the context of globalization and socio-economic transition, human geographers in China, especially urban geographers and economic geographers, paid more attention to the sustainable development of cities and regions, and have achieved great progress. Recently, with the trend of ‘cultural turn’, the importance of studies on cultural factors and cultural globalization has gradually been recognized. Meanwhile, with more concerns about the quality of life, more and more tourism geography research has been launched, and lots of progress has been achieved. Accordingly, in this paper the authors provide a review of human geography in China from the following perspectives : urban and regional development, cultural globalization and ‘cultural turn’, improvement of quality of life, and tourism development. Review of Chinese economic geography can be found in earlier literature6）, so it is not included in this paper. In the following section the authors summarize the progresses of urbanization studies in Chinese human geography in the

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context of globalization and socio-economic transition, with regards to urbanization, urban spatial restructuring, and urban social problems. China’s urbanization has entered into an accelerating period in which it takes on new characteristics, has new mechanisms, and forms new spatial patterns. Studies of urban space have shifted their perspectives from physical to social and behavioral space. Meanwhile, the object of study has also emphasized much more the social significance of improving daily life instead of economic growth7）. In the third section, progress on cultural geography against the background of cultural globalization and cultural turn is reviewed, including the expansion of cultural landscape studies with symbolism analysis, the deeper analysis of cultural realm or region, and study of cultural spaces affected by the ‘new cultural geography’. In the fourth section, summaries of tourism geography in China are closely related with its application from a spatial perspective. In the last section, several future research directions are highlighted and some suggestions are advanced for the discipline’s development.

II Urbanization studies in the context of globalization and socio-economic transition

（1） Diversiﬁed and in-depth research on urbanization China’s urbanization has a more complicated background and experienced more pressure of transition than other countries due to its more rapid urbanization process8）. As a result, both opportunities and challenges exist in Chinese urban studies. First, Chinese geographers should strengthen research on theory and methodology. Second, we need to solve problems confronted in the process of urbanization with updated theories and methodologies. Urbanization studies in China fall into four categories : new characteristics of urbanization, dynamic mechanisms of urbanization, urbanization policy, and the spatial pattern of urbanization.

（a） New characteristics of Chinese urbanization ① Fast development and regional diversity of urbanization In 1990s, the process of China’s urbanization accelerated. While the levels of regional urbanization still follow an order of decreasing from the Eastern to Middle and Western regions, the gap between the Eastern and Western regions was increasingly widening. In addition, the pattern of urbanization was ‘high speed in the Eastern and low speed in the Western region’ in the 1980s and it changed to ‘high in the South and low in the North’ in the 1990s. Although the urbanization process is synchronous throughout provinces, there are differences in development speed, which was caused by two reasons : the accumulative effect of national strategies and policies on urbanization, and the differences in mechanism and geographical conditions for urban development9）. ② New spatial forms of urbanization Along with the growing number and scale of cities and constructing of inter-city rapid transit, new spatial forms of cities and regions have come into being. Metropolitan areas, urban agglomerations, and urban belts will gradually take the place of single cities as major forms of urban spatial patterns. Recently, scholars have paid more attention to urban agglomeration areas in the context of globalization and in the world system. Accordingly, some new terms, such as 10） 11） 12） ‘Extended Metropolitan Regions’, ‘Global City-Region’, ‘Mega-city Region’, and ‘Megalopolis Corridor13）’ have been coined. ③ Sustaining suburbanization In recent years, large cities in China have experienced a continuing suburbanization in terms of

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form, scale and intensity. ‘Forced’ suburbanization has weakened while ‘voluntary’ suburbanization has increased Residential suburbanization and industrial suburbanization are increasingly apparent, while commercial and seasonal suburbanization is just appearing. With the differentiation of social classes, villas and townhouses are distributed geographically adjacent 14） to the ‘economical and comfortable housing’ mainly for low-income people. In addition, new commercial spaces such as shopping malls have emerged in suburbs15）. ④ New problems of urbanization In recent years, due to the excessive construction of development zones, university towns and occupation of low-cost farming land, the urban built-up area has rapidlysprawled in some large cities. Since reform and opening up, together with foreign direct investment（ FDI）, the dispersion of large cities and rural industrialization （the development of township and village enterprises, TVEs） and constrained by the rural-urban dichotomy of the management system, a new kind of transitional region, known as a ‘peri-urbanization region’, has emerged in some rural areas with good location or development basis, which is characterized by mixed rural and urban land uses and rapid change of social and economic structure16）. After China entered the rapid urbanization stage, due to the fast spatial expansion of large cities, the adjustment of administrative divisions, the construction of some large projects, etc., some other problems of urbanization began to emerge, which resulted in the disintegration of most rural communities in suburbs, the emergence of a new group of poor farmers who lost their land, and the increase of urban villages17）.

（b） Dynamic mechanisms of urbanization In 1980s, the driving force of China’s urbanization included changes of industry structure, developments in the improvement of science and technology, the impact of regional or national economic development, institutional and policy restructuring, national planned investment, initiative development and decentralization of large cities, rural urbanization, foreign investment, etc. Ning has put forward the idea that diversified mechanisms of urbanization have taken the place of the single or dual mechanisms since the 1990s18）. Moreover, a more concentrated urban development model took the place of the decentralized town-and-village-enterprises-initiated development model. Based on different dynamic mechanisms, three modes can be identified : 19） bottom-up urbanization ; top-down urbanization ; foreign investment-initiated urbanization. Based on international comparisons of economic development and urbanization level, most Chinese urban geographers argued that the urbanization level in China was lagging behind and discussed the reasons for the delays from economic, institutional, and other viewpoints20）. However, Xu and Zhou suggested that the level of urbanization is not far behind that of industrialization21）.

（c） Urbanization policies ① Urbanization strategies Urbanization has been a fundamental national development strategy, and a major issue related to the overall economic and social development. Zhou22） projected that in 2010 the urban population of China could reach 46.5%, and suggested that an appropriate urbanization rate should be 0.8 percentage per year in the future. Urban geography and urban planning academic groups in China have heatedly debated the policy of urban development, the focus of which has always been urban size. Zhou23） argued that

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this misses the key point by just attempting to control urban development and construction by their sizes. Therefore, the existing urban development policy should be paid less attention. In recent years, Yao insisted that China’s urbanization should not follow the same path all across the country24）. Zhou pointed out that Chinese urbanization should be characterized by balanced development between urban and rural areas, high quality urbanization with appropriate speed and size, diversified urbanization modes according to local conditions, by the construction of resource-saving and environment-friendly cities, and by the combination of market forces and government regulations25）. In short, China’s urbanization policy has seen a significant shift from passive intervention to active guidance, from government-led to government-guided. ② Sustainable urban development The process of industrialization and urbanization in arid areas in Northwest China is constrained by many factors such as water resources, ecological environment, etc. Regional urbanization and ecological environment are mutually antagonistic to some extent. Therefore, the urbanization process and its ecological effects have become the focus of Chinese urban studies26）. The rapid urbanization process in China challenges the planning methodologies. The traditional urban planning model which evolved during the planned economy in past decades has proven invalid in dealing with the current urban development issues, and may be responsible for the degrading ecological systems across the nation, and the chaos in the form and function of cities in China. In this context, Yu and his colleagues27） proposed a ‘negative’ urban planning approach which emphasizes ecological infrastructure planning and security patterns. The importance of urban sustainable development has been widely recognized. Urban geographers have mostly focused on constructing an index system of sustainable development, the comprehensive evaluation of urban sustainable development, and exploration of the impact corporations have on the sustainable development of cities28）. In addition, with a stronger sense of 29） 30） quality of life, some new concepts such as ‘eco-cities ’ and ‘livable cities ’ have become hot topics.

（d） Spatial patterns of urbanization In the context of economic globalization and urban internationalization, foreign economic linkages have become an important factor in stimulating domestic economic interactions and the formation of a new spatial economic pattern. Zhou summarizes the characteristics of domestic and international hinterlands of the economic core and has studied the spatial pattern of economic linkage directions in the context of China’s opening-up which have definitely shaped region development31）. The process of globalization has profoundly influenced China’s urbanization, economy, society, culture and institutions, reconstructing China’s national urban system. Gu attempted to reconstruct the national urban system, and take a scientific perspective in terms of the scale structure of the national urban system, functional reorganization, spatial structure and support systems, etc32）.. Otherwise, urban agglomerations have become new basic geographical units for countries to participate in global competition and the international division of work. Fang divided China’s urban agglomerations system into 28 types with different sizes, scales, and degree of diversified development33）. The research on China’s urban agglomerations mostly focus on their structure, stages and types, the mechanisms of spatial evolution, developing trends, and economic integration of urban agglomeration areas, etc34）.. With the rapid development of the economy, urban agglomerations

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grew rapidly in the coastal areas of China. Accordingly, Yao et al. proposed a strategic vision to construct a ‘city belt’ in China’s coastal cities35）. Meanwhile, some active research about MIRs was 36） conducted on the Beijing-Tianjin-Tangshan metropolitan area, the Pearl River Delta metropolitan area37）, the Yangtze River Delta metropolitan area38） and other coastal MIRs39）.

（2） Increasing research on urban restructuring The focus of urban internal structure research in Chinese human geography has changed from physical space to social and behavioral space. Much attention has been paid to understanding and interpreting spatial patterns from the perspective of human behavior, and to dig up the underlying causes behind the spatial transition from the perspective of institutional changes.

（a） Restructuring urban physical space ① Urban land use Recently, new technologies and methods such as remote sensing, cellular automata, etc. have been fully applied in studying the dynamic changes of urban land use and in simulating the extension of land use and evolution of urban form40）, the causal factors and mechanisms of which have become hot topics41）. Since the 1990s, Chinese scholars have paid attention to the influence of the urban traffic system on urban spatial structure. Technological innovation in urban traffic plays an important role in urban spatial structure, and the adjustment of the road traffic system, especially highways and rail transportation, greatly influenced urban spatial structure, the size of cities, and urban development42）. On one hand, the urban transport system guides the development of land use, which causes the changes of the city layout and affects urban spatial structure. On the other hand, urban land use also influences the transportation demand. Therefore, a compatible urban transport system is needed43）. ② Industrial space Chinese scholars have carried out a body of empirical research on the influence of the information industry on urban spatial structure, the spatial patterns of tertiary industry, the changing characteristics of the spatial pattern of office activities, etc44）.. In addition, the spatial structure of employment, which is closely related to urban industrial space, has also been the subject of attention45）. With the process of economic globalization, new industrial spaces such as development zones, industrial parks, and economic-technological development areas promoted by both foreign investment and local governments have emerged and developed at the edge of cities. They have increasingly affected and transformed socio-economic activities and spatial structures of those 46） cities. Meanwhile, as a new urban space, the hi-tech industrial zones promote the formation of the city’s new affluent class and middle-income groups, which has greatly influenced urban socio 47） -spatial differentiation. ③ Residential space The housing reform, which began in the late 1980s, caused the restructuring of urban housing space. As a result, research on the changes of urban land policy, the commercialization of housing, urban renewal, and suburbanization have substantially increased48）. Residential location selection and residential mobility have become hot topics49）. The history of residential mobility of the urban elderly has become one of the most important perspectives in understanding social changes and space restructuring50）. The differentiation of residential space is both a spatial process and a spatial result of the interaction of different social classes, the differentiation of housing

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space, and individual house selection51）. The suburbanization of population and industry resulted in residential suburbanization, which causes extension of residential land and formation of residential areas in the suburbs52）. During the transition period, the differentiation of urban residents’ incomes and occupations intensified. As a consequence, social polarization and spatial differentiation have emerged53）. After the 1990s, the suburbs in large Chinese cities became new social spaces in which the trend towards socio-economic unbalance and differentiation was enhanced. In addition, with the increasing fragmentation of ‘social-space’, suburbs became the zones with the fastest changes, the most social issues, and the most obvious social isolation54）. ④ Commercial space The early research on urban commercial space in China mainly focused on urban commercial centers55）. Since the 1990s, a series of research projects have been launched around Central Business Districts （CBD）, including the mechanisms of their development, the laws of their spatial evolution, traffic organization, etc. Scholars began to undertake empirical studies of Beijing, Shanghai, Guangzhou and other large cities56）. With the development of a market economy and the entry of foreign enterprises into the domestic market, research has begun to focus on the location of commercial facilities57）, changes in the hierarchical system and distribution pattern of retail centers58）, the evolution of new commercial types and their spatial structure59）, the 60） mechanism of new commercial space in China and the locations of foreign-invested retailing enterprises61）. In addition, consumer behavior and commercial activities shaped the main content of urban commercial space structure62）. Recently, research has appeared and been done widely on the characteristics of consumer behavior and the hierarchies of shopping spaces63） and urban commercial space structure64）. Against the background of rapid urbanization, suburbanization, and the development of new commercial forms, new commercial spaces including large supermarkets, shopping malls, storage supermarkets, and specialty markets have opened in the suburbs, exerting much influence on urban structure and usually turning into the core of a new town65）.

（b） Restructuring of urban social space ① Social space Early studies on social space focused on social area analysis based on the method of factorial ecological analysis, and mostly studied Beijing, Shanghai, Guangzhou and other large cities in China. Recently, factorial ecological research has been extended into mountainous area cities66）, the spatial scale of metropolitan areas67）, social space research based on neighborhood committees as 68） 69） the basic unit and comparative studies of changes in social area patterns. With the socio- economic transition, research on urban social space gradually shifted its focus from description to explanation of phenomena which resulted in the mechanisms of change in social space structure and the trend of social differentiation in transition becoming new research topics. ② Social life space and activity space In the context of the socio-cultural turn in human geography, the interrelationship of individual life space and urban space became a most important aspect in understanding the development of urban society, improving the quality of life, and building a harmonious society. Wang made a series studies around daily life space from the viewpoints of place, community, and assessment of 70） quality of life. Chai et al. studied the time-use budget and the time-space structure of citizens’ daily activities, including travel activities, commuting activities, shopping activities, and

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recreation activities from the perspective of the interrelationship of behavior, time, and space71）. Recently, there is a trend towards diversification of studies on urban social behavior space, including the interpretation of urban commuting behavior72）, and urban image space73）.

（3） New studies on urban social problems （a） Population migration Since the 1990s, urban and social geographers have studied the issues related to the floating population in large cities such as the characteristics of the floating population, the migration laws, the reasons for increasing migration, its spatial effect, and related policies and organizations74）. Large cities, such as Beijing, Shanghai, Nanjing, and Chongqing become the research focus75）.

（b） Urban poverty Against the background of socio-economic transition in China, new forms of urban poverty, such as urban laid-off workers and migrant workers, have emerged and become of interest to urban social geographers76）. Urban geographers usually combine the analysis of characteristics and evolution of urban social spatial structure with that of urban poverty, concerning migrant workers, laid-off workers, and the unemployed, and their daily activities spaces, cognitive spaces, the gap between the rich and poor, social divisions and the changes in social spatial structure. They also tend to focus on the main large cities such as Beijing, Guangzhou, Shenzhen, and Nanjing77）.

（c） Aging society Approaches of time geography and behavioral geography have been applied in the study of time -space and daily activity of elderly people, which have provided recommendations for improving 78） 79） the quality of life of the urban elderly. Chai introduced a time-geographical approach into the study of the urban aging problem and put forward an integrated research framework ; Zhou80） studied the outdoor activities space of the elderly, built the design principles of outdoor activities spaces for the elderly, and provided scientific guidance for their outdoor activities’ spaces distribution and construction. Zhou81） also analyzed the accessibility and transportation feasibility of sheltered housing for the urban elderly.

（d） Urban crime The development of criminal geography in China can be broadly divided into three stages : before the 1980s, criminal geography was first introduced into China. In the 1980s, the definition of criminal geography was widely discussed in China. Since the 1990s, the discipline has developed quickly. Research includes the nature of the discipline of criminal geography, its theory and application, and the spatial prevention of urban crime82）.

III Research in cultural geography in the trend towards cultural globalization and cultural turn

Globalization has been influencing economic, social, political, cultural, and other relevant fields. With the spreading of a market economy and information technology, culture is also globalizing. Cultural globalization is cross-cultural communication in which various cultures stay alive, while not as a unification of all national cultures. In this context, Chinese traditional

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culture, local cultural identity, cultural conflict, and cultural differences have inevitably become important topics. How does one maintain cultural identities for the nation and regions in the process of globalization ? How do national culture and regional culture face the challenge of cultural globalization ? How do we preseerve the local cultural characteristics ? Facing these questions and affected by the ‘cultural turn’ of Western theories, Chinese human geographers have started paying more attention to cultural phenomena and studying the distribution of human activities from a cultural perspective. Most cultural geography research falls into one of two categories : The first is traditional research considering culture as a study object. The second is the new research affected by the ‘cultural turn’, which gives priority to spatial characteristics of human activities and cultural interpretation of spatial process, using cultural evolution theory as an analysis tool. Regarding methods and methodologies, much Chinese research still uses statistical methods based on empirical epistemology. Scholars collect data from historical documents and materials, field investigations, and observation. The representations of spatial data are maps（ sometimes supported by GIS technique） and formulas. In fact, cultural geographical study mainly depends on qualitative research rather than quantitative research. But cultural geography, especially the new cultural geography, prefers study in depth of small communities rather than discovering universal laws or models. In addition, cause-effect analysis based on statistical methods（ e. g., correlation, regression, principal components analysis） does not accord with the characteristics of a cultural super- organism, which would exist in some cases. Comparably, qualitative research needs hermeneutics. It is hoped that cultural geography studies will diversify their methods and methodologies in the future. Theoretical exploration of cultural geography concentrates on two facets. First, scholars use the theory of semiotics to reveal the symbolic meaning of cultural landscapes. Second, theoretical exploration in cultural geography focuses on globalization and sense of place. Besides traditional research themes, such core concepts as cultural identity, place and sense of place, have been introduced into Chinese cultural geography and closely related to social practices（ e. g., local identity in local development and cultural heritage protection in a time of globalization）. However, cultural geographers in China do not adequately study sociological culture and ideological culture because most geographers in China have a background in science and engineering. Among the five themes of traditional cultural geography（ the cultural landscape, culture hearths, cultural diffusion, cultural realms, and cultural integration）, cultural diffusion and cultural integration have not been studied enough. The content of cultural geography in China concentrates on the cultural landscape, cultural realms or regions, and cultural space.

（1） Expansion of research on cultural landscapes The cultural landscape is a traditional theme in Chinese cultural geography, including settlement, architecture, etc83）.. Recently, more researchers began to put importance on the intangible cultural landscape such as language, religion, music, art, and calligraphy. In addition, research on calligraphy geography has been extended to the cultural landscape84）. Scholars not only focus on the morphological features of the cultural landscape （or cultural traits） but also pay attention to the symbolic meaning of landscape and to the relationship between symbolic meaning and locality or sense of place. To analyze cultural landscapes, scholars could reveal the principles of regional cultural evolution. Landscape research is a common means that is used in regional cultural analysis

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which can help local governments to learn the cultural characteristics of their region. Regional planning or urban planning could also benefit from cultural landscape studies85）. The concept of the cultural landscape is also applied in cultural heritage protection86）.

（2） Deeper research on cultural realms or cultural regions Traditional researchers did a lot of work on regional cultures and comparison of cultural regions in China87）. Recently, more research has shifted to a deeper analysis of regional culture, namely the cultural diversity within a province, the diffusion and integration of regional cultures, and cultural factors affecting regional development. For example, there are the series of studies of regional culture on Hainan Island88）, cultural integration and diffusion studies in Guangdong, Hong Kong and Macao89） and the West Corridor Area of the Yellow River90）, and the cultures in the habitat areas of minority ethnic groups91） in mainland China. This research has given people a sense of their local culture in different regions. First, they tend to make the people conscious of the meaning of their local culture. Second, they enhance local cultural identity and regional cohesive force. In addition, regional culture studies help improve mutual respect among different cultural regions. In fact all the research provides a basis for decision-making of local government on the development of local culture-based business.

（3） Emergence of research on cultural space Cultural space research is more affected by the ‘new cultural geography’ than traditional research. Different from the research on cultural realms or regions revealing the characteristics of local culture, cultural space research explores the spatial foundation of local culture. Zhou focuses on the space of local cultural accumulation and cultural production, and summarized the 92） spatial integration pattern of urban socio-cultural space and physical space. Some studies cite the characteristics of public space in harmonious communities. Taking the sample villages of Tangshan City in Hebei Province as research areas, the relationship between rural public space 93） and social organization during social transformation has been explored within structuralism. In urban areas, urban public squares as an important kind of open space for city culture production has attracted Chinese cultural geographers’ interest. Some scholars have put forward suggestions on city square construction94）. The space of cultural industries and creative industries is regarded as a space of culture 95） production. From the critical view of the new cultural geography, Li et al. described and analyzed a Fordist and post-Fordist cultural industrial production mode at a theme park in Shenzhen. Due to the differences in the production process, location factors of cultural industries and creative industries obviously differ from those of traditional industries96）. Such research can help local governments to develop local cultural industries, which are growing rapidly in China in recent years. On the basis of the local cultural differences, characteristics, and the spatial basis of local culture, local cultural identity can help people integrate different cultures in a certain region and take advantage of different cultures, protect cultural heritage, and face the challenge of cultural globalization while China marches to its modernization.

IV Th riving of tourism geography with high concern for quality of life

With the improvement of living standards, traveling has become a principal leisure activity for

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many Chinese. Therefore, tourism as a tertiary industry greatly has increased in importance in regional economic development and improvement of quality of life. Accordingly, tourism geographers in China have paid more attention to tourist resources assessment and exploitation, tourism market analysis, the impacts of tourism, and the environmental capacity of tourism97）, which are closely related to social practices. However, more tourism geographers are beginning to work on the differences between tourism geography, tourism management, and tourism economics. Through self-examination, tourism geographers came to strengthen their spatial studies（ e. g., spatial structure of tourism destinations and attractions, spatial interaction of tourism flow, tour routes, etc.）.

（1） Intensive study of the spatial features Tourism geography theories concentrate upon basic spatial analysis in order to construct the tourism spatial structure, including the spatial structure of tourism, spatial rules of tourist flows, and spatial interaction of different tourism areas98）. Studies on spatial patterns of tourism contain integrated analyses of spatial structure and location characteristics in tourism regions, such as the study of spatial structure of tourism destinations99）. Many studies concentrated on urban tourism areas or tourism areas around 100） metropolises, for instance the study of the spatial form of RBDs（ Recreational Business Districts）, and 101） study of ReBAMs（ Recreational Belt around Metropolises）. Fractal theory was also used in analysis of the optimal grade structure of urban tourism systems102）. Research on spatial rules of tourist flows analyzed the supply and demand of tourism markets from a spatial approach to master the tourism flow rate and direction. For instance, Yang and Ma103） used statistical data from different periods to calculate different periods in radii of tourism attraction and an index of spatial proximity to generalize a rule of attenuation with distance of domestic tourism source markets and the trends of domestic tourist attraction to Xi’an. Ding104） analyzed temporal and distributed characteristics of domestic tourism flows to Nanjing. Studies on tourism spatial interaction focused on spatial relationships of different tourism destinations and the spatial relationship of tourist destinations and markets. Wang and Bao 106） analyzed the spatial competition of different tourist destinations105）. Zhang et al. offered an analysis model of spatial competition among tourism regions based on the theory of tourism fields, explored the general characteristics of tourism fields（ e. g. core, potential, hierarchical structure）, and revealed the basic rules of tourism spatial competition. With the theory of spatial interaction, 107） Wang et al. set up a tourism area model with the support of GIS technology.

（2） Extensive study of tourism planning and management Tourism geography plays a vital role in regional tourist resource development and spatial planning. Social practices within tourism geography in China fall into two categories. The first are studies on regional characteristics, such as the characteristics of regional tourism resources, the basis of decision-making for local authorities. The second are spatial analysis approaches, such as the spatial organization tools of tourist routes for administration. Through the hard work of two generations of Chinese geographers, a national standard for the classification, investigation, and evaluation of tourist resources drafted by IGSNRR（ Institute of Geographic Sciences and Natural Resources Research） of CAS （Chinese Academy of Sciences）, has been published and was implemented on May 1, 2003. Various evaluation methods of tourist resources provided by geographers are used widely at different levels of regional planning. All of these can

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help in the exploitation of tourism scenic regions. In recent years, tourism management has emphasized sustainable development of tourism in scenic regions108）. More attention has been paid to the sustainable use of the tourism resources, for 109） example research on EIAs（ i. e. environmental impact assessments） of tourism areas, studies on the physical and social environmental impacts of the tourism industry and the psychological responses of the residents of tourism destinations110）, and approaches to a development model for ecological tourism111）. The methods of resource and environmental economics and landscape ecology have been used in tourism exploration112）. Recently, more and more Chinese geographers are participating in planning projects of regional tourism development and tourism sites. On the basis of comprehensive studies of tourism resource heritage, geographical location, economic background, and regional tourism spatial patterns, they have scientifically planned tour routes, designated the development sequence for the whole regional tourist resource, and constructed spatial structures of tourist resources113）. Studies have favored regional tourism construction and development, especially the spatial planning of the regional tourism industry.

V Prospect

（1） Research trends （a） Urbanization studies in the context of globalization The process of globalization and development of telecommunications both have profoundly influenced and restructured the pattern of urbanization in China. Subsequently, national urbanization strategy and restructuring of the national urban system in the process of globalization became new hot topics114）. China’s urban and regional research has gradually shifted to the role of the state, to the formation of local space, to the influence of foreign investment on local regions, to new enterprise networks, and to the development of a new urban system. Furthermore, the future key point of theoretical research of China’s urbanization process is to explore the urbanization mechanisms at different development stages, and to probe into their characteristics, causes, directions and paths, as well as their regional differences115）.

（b） Urban and regional planning under the national urbanization strategy The national urbanization strategy as a general guideline for national and regional development will be implemented all over the country. Along with the promulgation of the national and local ‘11th Five-Year Plan’ and the completion of regional planning and the national urban system planning, regional strategy planning and a new round of urban system planning and urban planning will be launched. Planning at different scales will effectively guide the process of urbanization. Urbanization and urban development were first listed in the ‘Essentials of National Medium and Long-Term Science and Technology Plan’ as one of the most important areas. This plan emphasizes the rational distribution and scientific development of urban and rural areas, and advocates modern planning technology such as dynamic monitoring technology to achieve a mutually harmonious development among cities as well as regions.

（c） Urban space restructuring in the transitional period During the transitional period, together with the trend of socio-cultural globalization, Chinese human geographers are facing some new themes, such as the global communications network

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and urban industry restructuring, social structure changes, and their spatial interaction. Urban spatial research in China should focus on the interaction mechanisms between urban space and society regarding population relocation and social area differentiation, as well as residents’ spatial behavior and daily activities.

（d） Urban socio ― cultural construction With economic development and the improvement of living standards, urban residents are paying much more attention to their quality of life and environment. Meanwhile, urban social problems have gradually become important issues in urban development. Consequently, urban socio-cultural construction and a human-oriented environment have become the core of urban development rather than urban economic construction. Thus social geography research will be a hot topic. Accordingly, under the systematical research framework of ‘pattern-process- mechanism’, Chinese human geographers should emphasize the role of new economic, socio- cultural, and political factors on human processes and emphasize studies of human-environment interaction and the human adaptability to environmental changes from the perspective of human demand and spatial behavior. In addition, with the goal of ‘building a harmonious society’, Chinese geographers should speed up exploring theories and approaches in social geography, cultural geography, and behavior geography116）.

（2） Suggestions （a） Strengthen innovation in theories and methodologies At present, innovation in human geography in China is still limited, both in theory and in methodology. Therefore, in order to strengthen theoretical research and build models and theories with Chinese characteristics, Chinese geographers should do a systematic review of traditional Chinese human geography research and comprehensive review on the frontier theories and methods of Western human geography. On the one hand, human geography in China should be guided by systems science, target the human process, and explore comprehensive and integrative theories and methods. On the other hand, it should learn from other related disciplines, and build and develop research methodologies. Chinese geographers should also promote the diversification of methodologies117）, that is to review and integrate with the empirical approaches, to abstract and build models with the logical positivist approaches, and to explain the phenomena of human geography from the perspective of humanism and structuralism, etc.

（b） Conducting comprehensive regional studies The complexity of human geographical phenomena calls for conducting comprehensive regional studies addressing a number of major issues around some key cities and regions. The key points are the synthesis among the interaction of factors, interaction of process, interaction of scales, interaction of data, interaction of methods, and interaction of disciplines118）. Chinese human geographers should deepen comprehensive research on urbanization and regional development in the Beijing-Tianjin-Tangshan Triangle, the Yangtze River Delta, and the Pearl River Delta metropolitan areas. Regional comprehensive studies on urban agglomeration and metropolitan areas in western China should also be strengthened.

To sum up, Chinese human geography is still relatively weak in theoretical and methodology

― 13 ― 484 人文地理第59巻第 6 号（2007） research. The applications of high technology in observation and information-processing are also limited. Therefore, Chinese human geographers should strengthen basic research, tracing the development trends of the overall discipline, participate in international academic communication, and develop a unique Chinese human geography discipline.

This paper is revised and translated from a part of Report on Advances in Geographical Science, China（ in Chinese）, Science and Technology Press, Beijing, March 2007, by the same authors. The authors are grateful for support from the China Association for Science and Technology, and The Ministry of Science and Technology of the People’s Republic of China.

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115） Leng Shuying, Song Changqing, ‘Challenges and opportunities of Chinese geography’, Acta Geographica Sinica, 60 -4, 2005, pp. 546-552. 116） Song Changqing, Leng Shuying, ‘Some important scientiﬁ c problems of integrative study of Chinese geography in 5 to 10 years’, Acta Geographica Sinica, 60-4, 2005, pp. 546-552. 117） Song Changqing, Leng Shuying, ‘Characteristics and trend of modern geography and progresses of geographical research in China’, Advance in Earth Sciences, 20-6, 2005, pp. 595-599. 118） Song and Leng, op. cit., footnote 116）.

Recent Progress of Human Geography in China : Retrospect and Prospect

Yanwei CHAI College of Urban and Environmental Sciences, Pekin University Shangyi ZHOU School of Remote Sensing and Geography, Beijing Normal Universtity Yunlong CAI College of Urban and Environmental Sciences, Pekin University Yan ZHANG College of Urban and Environmental Sciences, Pekin University Liping WU School of Remote Sensing and Geography, Beijing Normal Universtity Guilan WENG Department of Geography, University of Washington

Th e great socio-economic transition and the process of globalization have profoundly infl u- enced human geography studies in China. During the transitional period, a large volume of research in Chinese human geography was launched and great progress has been achieved. In this paper, the authors provide a review of recent progress achieved in Chinese human geography mainly in the following fields : urban and regional development, cultural globalization and the 'cultural turn', improvement of quality of life and tourism development. As for urban and regional development, urbanization studies during the process of globalization and socio -economic transitional period are of great importance, with the main features of urbanization, urban spatial restructuring and urban social problems. At the same time, this paper summarizes progress in cultural geography against the background of cultural globalization and the trend towards a cultural turn, concerning the expansion of cultural landscape studies, deeper analysis of cultural realms or regions and study of cultural space influenced by the ‘new cultural geography’. In addition, recent progress in tourism geography in China is closely related to its application from a spatial perspective. Finally, several future research directions are highlighted and some suggestions are advanced for the future development of Chinese human geography. To sum up, although considerable progress has been achieved in applied research in recent years, human geography studies in China are still relatively inadequate in theoretical and methodological exploration.

Key words : recent progress, human geography, prospect, China

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中国における人文地理学の近年の進展 ―回顧と展望―

柴彦威（北京大学都市与環境学院）周尚意（北京師範大学地理与遙感学院）蔡運龍（北京大学城市与環境学院）張艶（北京大学城市与環境学院）呉莉萍（北京師範大学地理与遙感学院）翁桂蘭（ワシントン大学地理学部）

社会経済の変化とグローバル化が中国の人文地理学研究に大きな影響を与えている。この移行期に中国の人文地理学においては多くの研究が行われ，大きな進展を獲得してきた。本論文は中国の人文地理学の近年の展開を展望するが，おもに以下の分野について述べている。それらは都市と地域の発展，文化のグローバル化と「文化的転回」，生活の質の向上とツーリズムの発展である。都市と地域の発展については，グローバル化と社会経済変化の下での都市化の研究が大きな位置を占めており，都市化の特徴，都市空間の再編成，都市の社会問題が考察されている。また本論文では文化のグローバル化と文化的転回の動向を背景とする文化地理学の進展について，文化景観研究の発展，文化的領域あるいは地域の深い分析，「新しい文化地理学」の影響をうけた文化空間の研究を紹介している。そして中国における観光地理学の近年の進展は，空間的視点の導入が深く関わっている。最後にいくつかの将来的な研究の方向性を述べ，中国の人文地理学の将来的な発展についていくつかの提案を行っている。要約して言えば，近年，応用的な研究についてはかなりの進展がみられたものの，中国の人文地理学研究は理論あるいは方法についての探求についてなお相対的に不十分である。

キーワード：近年の進展，人文地理学，展望，中国

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