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longifolia

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Leguminosae , Ecology,

A. longifolia e.g. A. longifolia

A. longifolia A. longifolia A. longifolia e.g.

A. longifolia vs. A. longifolia A. longifolia A. longifolia A. longifolia

acaciaelongifoliae A. longifolia, T. acaciaelongifoliae A. longifolia T. acaciaelongifoliae

Synthesis A. longifolia

A. longifolia A. longifolia

e.g. Acacia Acacia longifolia A. longifolia A. longifolia A. longifolia Trichilogaster acaciaelongifoliae A. longifolia

A. longifolia

i.e. e.g. A. longifolia e.g. A. longifolia

A. longifolia A. longifolia i.e.

e.g. e.g. A. longifolia vs. % A. longifolia

A. longifolia ; A. longifolia A. longifolia

A. longifolia A. longifolia

A. longifolia Aphalara itadori Fallopia japonica A. longifolia Trichilogaster acaciaelongifoliae i.e. A. longifolia A. longifolia Trichilogaster acaciaelongifoliae T. acaciaelongifoliae A. longifolia i.e., A. longifolia

A. longifolia

Síntese: A. longifolia A. longifolia A. longifolia T. acaciaelongifoliae

Sozinha nunca teria sido capaz de fazer este trabalho!

Há muitas pessoas às quais quero expressar os meus sinceros agradecimentos:

Trichilogaster acaciaelongifoliae

Aphalara itadori

PART I 1 Chapter 1 - General Introduction 3 Acacia longifolia PART II 41 Chapter 2 - Long term changes in vegetation structure of a Mediterranean coastal invaded for different durations by Acacia longifolia 43 A. longifolia A. longifolia

Chapter 3 - ecology of an invasive alien , Acacia longifolia ( ), in Portuguese dune ecosystems 67 Chapter 4 - The potential role of seed-banks in the recovery of dune ecosystems after removal of invasive species 91 A. longifolia A. longifolia Chapter 5 - Post-clearing recovery of coastal invaded by Acacia longifolia : is duration of invasion relevant for management success? 117

Chapter 6 - Assessing the suitability and safety of a well-known bud-galling wasp, Trichilogaster acaciaelongifoliae , for biological control of Acacia longifolia in 139 T. acaciaelongifoliae T. acaciaelongifoliae T. acaciaelongifoliae T. acaciaelongifoliae T. acaciaelongifoliae T. acaciaelongifoliae A. longifolia PART III 169 Chapter 7 - General Discussion and Conclusions 171 Acacia Acacia longifolia

Trichilogaster acaciaelongifoliae

Figure 1.1 Figure 1.2 Figure 1.3 I Figure 1.4 Figure 1.5 Figure 1.6 I Acacia lato Figure 1.7 Acacia longifolia Figure 1.8 Figure 1.9 vs. Figure 2.1 A. longifolia A. longifolia A. longifolia, Figure 2.2 A. longifolia, A. longifolia Figure 2.3 A. longifolia Figure 2.4 A. longifolia Figure 2.5 A. longifolia Figure 2.6 A. longifolia Figure 3.1 Figure 3.2 A. longifolia Figure 3.3 Figure 3.4 A. longifolia Figure 3.5 A. longifolia Figure 3.6 A. longifolia Figure 3.7 A. longifolia

Figure 3.8 A. longifolia Figure 3.9 A. longifolia Figure 3.10 Acacia longifolia Figure 3.11 A. longifolia Figure 4.1 A. longifolia A. longifolia. Figure 4.2 A. longifolia A. longifolia, A. longifolia A. longifolia Figure 4.3 A. longifolia, Figure 5.1 Acacia longifolia A. longifolia A. longifolia A. longifolia Figure 5.2 Acacia longifolia. Figure 5.3 Acacia longifolia Figure 5.4 Figure 5.5 Acacia longifolia Figure 5.6 A. longifolia Figure 6.1 T. acaciaelongifoliae A. longifolia Figure 6.2 Acacia longifolia Vitis vinifera T. acaciaelongifoliae A. longifolia V. vinifera Figure 6.3 T. acaciaelongifoliae A. longifolia. Figure 6.4 Acacia longifolia

Figure 6.5 Trichilogaster acaciaelongifoliae Figure 6.6 Trichilogaster acaciaelongifoliae A. longifolia Figure 6.7 Trichilogaster acaciaelongifoliae Figure 6.8 Trichilogaster acaciaelongifoliae Acacia longifolia Figure 6.9 Trichilogaster acaciaelongifoliae Figure 6.10 Trichilogaster acaciaelongifoliae Acacia longifolia, Vitis vinifera striatus

Table 1.1 Table 1.2 Table 1.3 Table 1.4 Table 1.5 A. longifolia longifolia A. longifolia sophorae Table 1.6 Table 2.1 Table 2.2 Table 2.3 A. longifolia, Table 4.1 Table 5.1 Acacia longifolia. Table 5.2 Table 6.1 Trichilogaster acaciaelongifoliae Table 6.2 Trichilogaster acaciaelongifoliae Table 6.3 Trichilogaster acaciaelongifoliae

Appendix 2.1 A. longifolia. Appendix 2.2 A. longifolia Appendix 4. 1 Appendix 4. 2 A. longifolia A. longifolia Appendix 5.1 A. longifolia A. longifolia Appendix 6.1 Appendix 6.2 Appendix 6.3

Box 1.1 Box 7.1 Box 7.2 Box 7.3 Box 7.4 Trichilogaster acaciaelongifoliae: Box 7.5 A. longifolia

Conservation Biology

Acacia longifolia

Acacia longifolia American Journal of Botany 97(11)

Applied Vegetation Science

Journal of Applied Ecology

Acacia longifolia

Trichilogaster acaciaelongifoliae Acacia longifolia Biological Control,

Part I

e.g.

State of the art

et al. et al. et al. et al. et al. e.g. e.g. e.g. e.g. et al. e.g.

et al.

i.e. i.e. Leguminosae Acacia longifolia

Table 1.1 et al. Concept Definition Exotic, alien, aloctonous, non-native, non- indigenous

Casual, occasional escape, transient Naturalized, sub- spontaneous Invasive, environmental weed Transformer Weeds, plant pests, harmful species

et al.

e.g. et al.

e.g. e.g. i.e. et al. et al.

et al.

e.g.

et al.

i.e. i.e. i.e.

Invasive alien species in - where do we stand?

Invasive alien species are currently among the most urgent conservation issues to be faced in the European Union and many important steps are being undertaken to develop an adequate strategy to deal with this problem

et al.

et al. et al. et al.

e.g. e.g. et al.

e.g. ponticum

Portugal in more detail

et al. et al. et al. et al. e.g. Paspalum

Table 1.2 Terrestrial Aquatic Terrestrial Terrestrial Terrestrial Total of exotic fungi inland invertebrates vertebrates species

Aves Araneae Reptilia Reptilia Mammalia Fungi Chromista Crustacea Magnoliophyta Magnoliophyta Bryophyta Other Nematoda Insecta 827

Procambarus clarkii Bursaphelenchus xylophilus

Corbicula fluminea et al. et al. et al.

Acacia Hakea Pittosporum undulatum

Figure 1.1

e.g. Oxalidaceae, Proteaceae, Pittosporaceae , Fabaceae

et al., unpublished data et al. et al. et al.

Table 1.3 et al, unpublished data EUNIS code description No. of species

Figure 1.2

et al. unpublished data

Figure 1.3

e.g. , Ailanthus altissima Carpobrotus edulis Eichhornia crassipes Hakea sericea e.g. Cortaderia selloana Opuntia maxima

Acacia dealbata Acacia melanoxylon Acacia retinodes

Acacia longifolia Carpobrotus edulis Cortaderia selloana

Robinia pseudoacacia Conyza . Azolla filiculoides Opuntia maxima

Tradescantia fluminensis Ipomoea acuminata Myriophyllum aquaticum Pittosporum undulatum

Hakea salicifolia Hakea sericea Ailanthus altissima Eichhornia crassipes Figure 1.4

How to manage biological invasions?

e.g. e.g. vs. e.g. e.g.

e.g.        

Figure 1. 5 e.g.

Prevention

e.g. et al.

e.g. e.g. et al. et al.

e.g.

Early detection and rapid response (EDRR)

et al. e.g.

e.g. e.g.

Eradication

e.g.

e.g.

e.g.

Containment

e.g.

e.g.

Control

e.g.

Restoration and Mitigation

e.g.

“Do nothing” as an option

Box 1 .1 “Novel ecosystems” instead

et al. et al. et al i.e.

Monitoring and evaluation

Public Awareness and Education

e.g. e.g. e.g. et al.

Biological control: the most sustainable option?

et al.

i.e.

Opuntia Cactoblastis cactorum et al.

ACACIA LONGIFOLIA

Acacia sensu lato Leguminosae, e.g. et al. et al. et al. Acacia Diversity and Distributions

Acacia sensu lato Acacia Phyllodineae Aculeiferum Acacia

Figure 1. 6 Acacia sensu lato

Acacia A. penninervis A. nilotica Acacia sensu lato Acacia Phyllodineae et al.

Table 1. 4 Acacia sensu lato

Post-IBC names ( A. penninervis - Pre-IBC names (A. ); treated as: No. of Indicative distribution nilotica – type) species a single multiple genera Acacia Subgenus ‘nilotica Vachellia 163 group’ Aculeiferum Aculeiferum Senegalia 203 Spiciflorae Filicinae 15 Filicinae Acacia coulteri 13

Phyllodineae Acacia Acacia 987 Total number of species 1381

Acacia longifolia Phyllodineae et al.

a b c d Figure 1. 7Acacia longifolia

A. longifolia longifolia A. longifolia sophorae A. longifolia A. sophorae

Table 1. 5 A. longifolia longifolia A. longifolia sophorae . A. longifolia A. longifolia longifolia

A. sophorae A. longifolia sophorae

A. longifolia sophorae longifolia unpublished data Acacia floribunda A. longifolia

et al. et al.

et al. et al. et al. et al. et al.

et al.

et al. Pinus Juniperus

Figure 1. 8

et al. et al. A. longifolia et al. Acacia saligna Carpobrotus edulis Cortaderia selloana

Acacia longifolia, A. longifolia

São Jacinto Dunes Nature Reserve

et al.

e.g. Antirrhinum majus cirrhigerum , Corema album , Iberis

procumbens procumbens, Juniperus phoenicea phoenicea, Stauracanthus genistoides , Tuberaria guttata , europaeus latebracteatus Vulpia alopecuros

Table 1. 6 et al. et al. Dune zone Plant Communities / Some of the plant species more common associations

Euphorbio paraliae- Calystegia soldanella, Elymus farctus boreo- elytrigietum atlanticus, Eryngium maritimum, Euphorbia paralias

boreoatlanticae Otantho maritimi- Aetheorhiza bulbosa bulbosa, Ammophila ammophiletum australis arenaria arundinacea, Artemisia campestris maritima C. soldanella, E.maritimum E. paralias Otanthus maritimus marina Pancratium maritimum Iberidetum procumbentis Antirrhinum majus cirrhigerum, A.campestris sedetosum sediformis marítima, Corema album, Crucianella maritima,

------OCEAN OCEAN ------* Helichrysum italicum picardi, Malcomia littorea, Medicago marina, P. maritimum, , Sedum sediforme, Seseli tortuosum, Vulpia alopecuros Sedo sediformis- Corynephorus canescens maritimus, corynephoretum S. sediforme,V. alopecuros maritimi * Stauracantho Cistus salviifolius, C. album, H. italicum picardi, genistoidis- Stauracanthus genistoides, Ulex europaeus corematetum albi * latebracteatus INLAND ------INLAND

Pinus pinaster Myrica faya Acacia

A. longifolia Carpobrotus edulis Cytisus Ulex A. longifolia

Figure 1. 9 vs.

A. longifolia

Ecology,

Acacia longifolia vs.

A. longifolia,

i.e.

vs.

A. longifolia

A. longifolia Trichilogaster acaciaelongifoliae

A. longifolia

. Plant Ecology, Aquatic Conservation: Marine and Freshwater Ecosystems International Workshop on Invasive Plants in Mediterranean Type Regions of the World Flora exótica subespontânea de Portugal continental (plantas vasculares). Catálogo das plantas vasculares exóticas que ocorrem subespontâneas em Portugal continental e compilação de informações sobre estas plantas. MSc. Portugaliae Acta Biol. Botanica Complutensis Botanica Complutensis naturais e seminaturais de Portugal Continental. Freshwater Biology Environmental Management Microbial Ecology, Ammophila arenaria Ecology, Journal of Ecology, In CRC for

Australian Weed Management: Improving the selection, testing and evaluation of weed biological control agents BioScience 14th Australian Weeds Conference: Weed managment: balacing people, planet and profit Wattle control. Estudo da invasão dos ecossistemas dunares portugueses por Carpobrotus edulis MSc. Silva Lusitana Acacia Transactions of the Royal Society of South Coastal environments: an introduction to the physical, ecological, and cultural systems of coastlines Ecology, Diversity and Distributions Towards an EU strategy on - Communication from the Commission to the Council European Invasive Alien Species Gateway Acacia lophanta Fabaceae African Entomology Memoir . Biological Invasions, Fallopia japonica Outlooks on Pest Management Atlas de las plantas alóctonas invasoras en España. The ecology of invasions by and plants.

PNAS Recuperação ecológica de áreas invadidas por Acacia dealbata Link. no Vale do Rio Gerês: um trabalho de sísifo MSc. Acacia longifolia In ESA/SER Joint Meeting globulus Acacia mearnsii Canadian Journal of Forest Research Acacia Fabaceae Austral Ecology, Progress in Physical Geography Plant Protection Quarterly Diversity and Distributions Principles of containment and control of invasive species Acacia mellifera detinens Journal of Arid Environments Biological control of weeds: a handbook for practitioners and students. Acacia Acta Oecologica Global Ecology and Biogeography Trends in Ecology and Evolution

Trichilogaster . Biological Control, Invasive species management: a handbook of principles and techniques Aspects of Applied Biology . Plant Ecology, Vegetatio Silva Lusitana Journal of Applied Ecology, SCIENCE Melanterius servulus. Biological Control, Invasive Species Specialist Group, Species Survival Commission ( Journal of Ecology, Acacia cyclops A. cyanophylla South African Journal of Science Biological control of weeds: a world catalogue of agents and their target weeds. Trends in Ecology and Evolution Estuarine Coastal and Shelf Science Rosa rugosa . Biological Invasions, Australian Weeds Conference: Managing weeds in a Changing Climate Acacia saligna Journal of Plant Sciences

Annual Review of Entomology . Conservation Biology, International Journal of Plant Sciences Guia prático para a identificação de plantas invasoras de Portugal Continental. Acacia longifolia Soil Biology & Biochemistry Acacia longifolia Applied Soil Ecology, Acacia longifolia . Biological Invasions, International Workshop on Invasive Plants in Mediterranean Type Regions of the World Invasão dos ecossistemas dunares portugueses por Acacia: uma ameaça para a biodiversidade nativa MSc. Acacia longifolia Plant Invasion: Ecological Threats and Management Solutions WATTLE: of Acacia Muelleria . Biological Conservation, . Biological Invasions, Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment Ecosystems and Human Well-being: Biodiversity Synthesis Trends in Ecology and Evolution

Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society . Taxon, Ecossistemas Aquáticos e Ribeirinhos. Ecologia, Gestão e Conservação Acacia Muelleria Invasive species management: a handbook of principles and tecnhiques Bursaphelenchus xylophilus Monochamus galloprovincialis Entomologia Generalis Finisterra Acacia Flora Iberica-Plantas Vasculares de la Península Iberica e Islas Baleares Leguminosae Invasive species management: a handbook of principles and techniques Bioinvasions & globalization: Ecology, economics, management, and policy Acacia Functional Plant Biology Bioinvasions & globalization: Ecology, economics, management, and policy . Environmental Conservation, Ecological Economics Bioinvasions & globalization: Ecology, economics, management, and policy

PNAS Annual Review of Environment and Resources, Pinhais e dunas de Mira. Subsídios para a sua história: 1919-1924 Turning the tide: the eradication of invasive species Invasive Alien Species: A New Synthesis Diversity and Distributions Diversity and Distributions Diversity and Distributions Acacia longifolia Applied and Environmental Microbiology Esboço de uma Carta de Solos da Região de Aveiro Invasive species: vectors and management Strategies. Hakea 1º Encontro sobre Invasoras Lenhosas ? Biological Invasions, Alien species and nature conservation in the EU: The role of the LIFE program. Weed Research, Padrões Fitogeográficos em Sistemas Dunares do Noroeste de Portugal Continental MSc. ? Biological Invasions,

Acacia nilotica South African Journal of Botany Vegetatio Journal of Vegetation Science Corbicula fluminea Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science PLoS ONE Invasive species management: a handbook of principles and techniques Risk Analysis Ammophila arenaria Journal of coastal Conservation Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment . Biological Invasions, Acacia karroo A. nilotica Journal of Ecology, Trends in Ecology and Evolution Acacias of BioScience Diversity and Distributions

Invasive alien species: a toolkit of best prevention and management practices Invasive Alien Species. A New Systhesis tepperianum Acacia saligna . Biological Control, Acacia saligna . Restoration Ecology, . Biological Invasions, Trends in Ecology and Evolution

Part II

Acacia longifolia

Acacia longifolia

A. longifolia

Synthesis A. longifolia

Keywords Ecology, vs.

et al. et al. et al. et al. et al. et al. et al. et al. e.g. et al. et al. et al.

e.g. e.g. e.g.

et al. et al. et al.

et al. et al. et al. Acacia longifolia et al. et al.

A. longifolia et al et al. et al. et al.

A. longifolia. A. longifolia A. longifolia A. longifolia

Study site et al. Pinus pinaster A. longifolia Acacia longifolia A. longifolia, Carpobrotus edulis Cortaderia selloana

A. longifolia A. longifolia A. longifolia A. longifolia

Experimental design A. longifolia A. longifolia et al. A. longifolia.

Table 2.1 et al. Long-invaded Recently invaded Non-invaded -2 -1 light at soil level (µmol.m .s ) 170.2 ± 6.3 283.6 ± 9.5 1198.2 ± 28.0 -2 litter (kg m ) 2.05 ± 0.24 1.43 ± 0.14 0.55 ± 0.09

A. longifolia

Data analysis A. longifolia, A. longifolia A. longifolia

A. longifolia A. longifolia

Table 2.2

Trait Attribute * Source

Biological trait

Biological trait

Ecological trait:

Ecological trait: et al unpublished data. * #

Presence of A. longifolia

A. longifolia A. longifolia

(a) (b)

100 -2 d b b b 80 a a a 80 60 60

cover(%) 40 40 c bc 20 seedlingsm 20 ab ab a 0 0 2003 2006 2008 2003 2006 2008 2003 2006 2008 2003 2006 2008 A. longifolia A. Long-invaded Recently-invaded Long-invaded Recently-invaded longifolia A. Figure 2.1 A. longifolia A. longifolia A. longifolia,

Impacts in species richness, plant cover and diversity

A. longifolia, Cistus salvifolius Cytisus grandiflorus Carex arenaria Artemisia campestre maritima Helichrysum italicum picardi

A. longifolia A. longifolia

(a) f (b) 100 16 e d d 12 d 80 c 60 8 bc c 40 abc a ab b b 4 a a % cover % 20 a a a

no.ofspecies 0 0 2003 2006 2008 2003 2006 2008 2003 2006 2008 2003 2006 2008 2003 2006 2008 2003 2006 2008 Long- Recently- Non- Long- Recently- Non- invaded invaded invaded invaded invaded invaded Figure 2.2 A. longifolia, A. longifolia.

Table 2.3 A. longifolia, areas sampling year Pielou Evenness Shannon Diversity Long-invaded 2003 2006 2008 Recently-invaded 2003 2006 2008 Non-invaded 2003 2006 2008

Impacts on biological and ecological plant traits

Figure 2.3 A. longifolia

A. longifolia, A. longifolia A. longifolia,

Figure 2. 4 A. longifolia

A. longifolia,

Figure 2.5 A. longifolia

Figure 2.6 A. longifolia

Similarity amongst areas

Species turnover rates

A. longifolia A. longifolia.

How do impacts of invasion on plant communities intensify with time?

A. longifolia et al. et al.

e.g. Crepis capillaris Sonchus Cardamine hirsute Gamochaeta pensylvanica Conyza et al

et al.

What do median/long-term studies reveal about impacts of invasive plants?

A. longifolia A. longifolia A. longifolia A. longifolia A. longifolia

Do single-measure parameters conceal information about impacts of invasive species?

A. longifolia A. longifolia e.g. Malcolmia littorea Medicago marina Crucianella maritima Herniaria ciliolata robusta Iberis procumbens procumbens A. longifolia

G. pensylvanica Oxalis pes-caprae Conyza e.g. Sonchus asper Fumaria muralis muralis Lactuca virosa Artemisia campestre maritima C. maritima M. littorea et al. et al. A. longifolia

unpublished data

Further consequences of the impacts promoted by A. longifolia invasion

et al. A. longifolia A. longifolia, et al. et al. A. longifolia Acacia Acacia et al. e.g. A. longifolia e.g. et al. e.g. e.g.

e.g. et al.

A. longifolia A. longifolia

Habitats naturais e seminaturais de Portugal Continental. Impatiens glandulifera Journal of Ecology, . Conservation Biology, Ammophila arenaria Ecology,

. Biological Invasions, : the ecology of regeneration in plant communities Estudo da invasão dos ecossistemas dunares portugueses por Carpobrotus edulis MSc. . Biological Invasions, Coastal environments: an introduction to the physical, ecological, and cultural systems of coastlines Ecology, Carpobrotus edulis . Biological Invasions, Trends in Ecology and Evolution Ecosystems Weed Technology Atlas de las plantas alóctonas invasoras en España. The Botanical Review The ecology of seeds. Nova Flora de Portugal (Continente e Açores). I Lycopodiaceae-Umbelliferae Nova Flora de Portugal (Continente e Açores). II Clethraceae-Compositae Nova Flora de Portugal (Continente e Açores). III.1 Alismataceae-Iridaceae. Nova Flora de Portugal (Continente e Açores). III.2 Gramineae. Nova Flora de Portugal (Continente e Açores). III.3. Progress in Physical Geography

. Conservation Biology, Annales Zoologici Fennici Avaliação do estado fitossanitário do Samouco (Myrica faya Aiton) e estudo da situação de seca de acacial em manchas na Reserva Natural das Dunas de S. Jacinto Impatiens glandulifera Biological Conservation, Journal of Ecology, . Conservation Biology, Acacia Acta Oecologica Bothalia Biodiversity Conservation, The electronic comparative plant ecology. Acacia South African Journal of Botany Acacia saligna Journal of Applied Ecology, Silva Lusitana SCIENCE The Handbook of European Alien Species Journal of Ecology, Bioeconomics of invasive species: integrating

Ecology, economics, policy, and management Ecological diversity and its measurement Acacia longifolia Guia prático para a identificação de plantas invasoras de Portugal Continental. Acacia longifolia Soil Biology & Biochemistry Acacia longifolia Applied Soil Ecology, Invasão dos ecossistemas dunares portugueses por Acacia: uma ameaça para a biodiversidade nativa MSc. Vegetatio Acacia longifolia Fabaceae American Journal of Botany Acacia longifolia Plant Invasion: Ecological Threats and Management Solutions Ecology, . Biological Conservation, Journal of Applied Ecology, Ecosystems and Human Well-being: Biodiversity Synthesis Finisterra Acacia longifolia South African Journal of Botany Pinhais e dunas de Mira. Subsídios para a sua história: 1919-1924 Diversity and Distributions

Progress in Human Geography Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences Sixth meeting of the Subsidiary Body on Scientific, Technical and Technological Advice A guide to designing legal and institutional frameworks on alien invasive species Padrões Fitogeográficos em Sistemas Dunares do Noroeste de Portugal Continental MSc. Acacia nilotica South African Journal of Botany Vegetatio Trends in Ecology and Evolution Trends in Ecology and Evolution Journal of Environmental Management Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment Myrica faya Theoretical Ecology, Invasive plant species of the world - a reference guide to environmental weeds

Appendix 2.1 A. longifolia species family non-invaded recently-invaded long-invaded Acacia longifolia Fabaceae -- 0.8084 0.9280 Carpobrotus edulis Aizoaceae -- 0.0084 -- Eryngium maritimum Apiaceae 0.0001 -- -- Pseudorlaya minuscula Apiaceae 0.0018 -- -- Aetheorhiza bulbosa bulbosa Asteraceae 0.0014 -- -- Andryala integrifolia Asteraceae 0.0020 0.0027 -- Artemisia campestris maritima Asteraceae 0.0606 -- -- Asteraceae Asteraceae 0.0003 -- 0.0003 Conyza Asteraceae 0.0007 0.0010 0.0004 Crepis capillaris Asteraceae -- 0.0001 -- Gamochaeta pensylvanica Asteraceae -- 0.0001 -- Helichrysum italicum picardi Asteraceae 0.0706 -- -- Hypochaeris glabra Asteraceae 0.0043 -- 0.0001 Lactuca virosa Asteraceae 0.0027 -- 0.0001 Logfia minima Asteraceae 0.0108 -- -- Picris echioides Asteraceae 0.0008 0.0004 -- lividus Asteraceae 0.0001 0.0028 0.0010 Senecio vulgaris Asteraceae 0.0021 0.0026 0.0018 Senecio gallicus Asteraceae 0.0176 -- -- Sonchus asper Asteraceae -- 0.0013 -- Sonchus oleraceus Asteraceae 0.0004 0.0049 0.0009 Sonchus tenerrimus Asteraceae -- 0.0001 -- Sonchus Asteraceae -- 0.0008 -- Urospermum picroides Asteraceae -- 0.0048 -- Cardamine hirsuta Brassicaceae -- 0.0030 0.0023 Hirschfeldia incana Brassicaceae ------Iberis procumbens procumbens Brassicaceae 0.0088 -- -- Malcolmia littorea Brassicaceae 0.0029 -- -- Lonicera periclymenum Caprifoliaceae -- 0.0001 -- Cerastium diffusum diffusum Caryophyllaceae 0.0073 0.0001 -- Herniaria ciliolata robusta Caryophyllaceae 0.0086 -- -- Polycarpon tetraphyllum Caryophyllaceae 0.0091 0.0009 -- Cistus salvifolius Cistaceae 0.2779 0.0025 0.0055 Tuberaria guttata Cistaceae 0.0028 -- -- Sedum sediforme Crassulaceae 0.0347 -- -- Juniperus phoenicea Cupressaceae -- -- 0.0002 Carex arenaria Cyperaceae 0.1855 -- 0.0015 Cyperus capitatus Cyperaceae 0.0043 -- -- Cyperaceae 0.0005 -- -- Corema album Empetraceae 0.0018 -- 0.0006 Cytisus grandiflorus Fabaceae 0.1278 0.0003 -- Lupinus angustifolius Fabaceae 0.0042 -- -- Medicago littoralis Fabaceae 0.0017 -- -- Medicago marina Fabaceae 0.0005 -- -- Ornithopus pinnatus Fabaceae 0.0064 -- -- Stauracanthus genistoides genistoides Fabaceae 0.0259 -- -- Trifolium arvense arvense Fabaceae 0.0006 -- -- Ulex europaeus latebracteatus Fabaceae 0.0056 0.0277 0.0208 Erodium cicutarium bipinnatum Geraniaceae 0.0015 -- -- Geranium purpureum Geraniaceae -- 0.0030 0.0003 Juncus acutus Juncaceae 0.0029 -- -- Pancratium maritimum Liliaceae 0.0043 -- -- Myrica faya Myricaceae -- -- 0.0006 Fumaria muralis muralis Papaveraceae -- 0.0001 0.0067 Pinus pinaster Pinaceae 0.0065 0.0001 0.0070 Plantago Plantaginaceae 0.0002 -- -- Agrostis stolonifera . pseudopungens Poaceae 0.0007 -- -- Aira praecox Poaceae 0.0006 0.0041 -- Ammophila arenaria arundinacea Poaceae 0.0087 -- -- Briza maxima Poaceae -- 0.0685 0.0043 Bromus diandrus Poaceae 0.0002 -- -- Bromus rigidus Poaceae -- 0.0008 0.0035 Cortaderia selloana Poaceae -- 0.0003 0.0002 Corynephorus canescens Poaceae 0.0403 -- -- Dactylis glomerata hispanica Poaceae -- -- 0.0071 Lagurus ovatus Poaceae 0.0035 0.0001 -- Poaceae Poaceae 0.0014 0.0003 0.0002 Poaceae Poaceae 0.0031 0.0002 -- Vulpia bromoides Poaceae -- 0.0488 0.0009 Vulpia membranacea Poaceae 0.0010 -- -- Crucianella maritima Rubiaceae 0.0134 -- -- Galium minutulum Rubiaceae -- -- 0.0057 Antirrhinum majus cirrhigerum Scrophulariaceae 0.0179 -- -- Solanum nigrum nigrum Solanaceae -- 0.0001 -- Centranthus calcitrapae calcitrapae Valerianaceae 0.0004 0.0003 -- Magnoliopsida -- -- 0.0002 -- total species richness 53 35 25

Appendix 2.2

A. longifolia

Acacia longifolia Fabaceae

Premise of the study Acacia longifolia,

Methods

Key results .

Conclusions Acacia longifolia

Key words:

et al. et al. et al. et al. et al.

i.e.

Acacia Acacia et al. et al. et al. Acacia longifolia et al. Acacia longifolia

et al. Acacia A. longifolia Acacia

et al. et al. et al. et al. et al. et al. et al. et al. et al. et al.

A. longifolia et al. et al. A. longifolia,

Study site et al. A. longifolia A. longifolia

A. longifolia Acacia longifolia A. longifolia Pinus pinaster A. longifolia A. longifolia et al.

Figure 3.1 Experiment 1. Seed production and dispersal Acacia A. longifolia. A. longifolia A. longifolia

et al.

Figure 3.2 A. longifolia

Experiment 2. Survival of seeds in soil seed bank – A. longifolia A. longifolia A. longifolia

A. longifolia

Experiment 3. Dimension of soil seed bank

Figure 3.3

A. longifolia. A. longifolia

Germinability and viability determination

Statistical analyses –

log (x + 2)

x + 5.0 %

Seed production and dispersal

20000 c 16000 -2 12000

8000

no.of seeds no.of m b ab 4000 ab a 0 0m 0m -3m -2m -1m -3m -2m -1m +1m +2m +3m +4m +5m +6m +7m +8m +9m +1m +2m +3m +4m +5m +6m +7m +8m +9m +10m +10m -1,5m -0,5m -1,5m -0,5m +0.5m +1.5m +0.5m +1.5m Leew ard Windw ard Figure 3.4 A. longifolia

20000 d d d 16000 -2 cd 12000 cd 8000

no.of seeds no.of m bc 4000 ab ab a 0 0m 0m -3m -2m -1m -3m -2m -1m +1m +2m +3m +4m +5m +6m +7m +8m +9m +1m +2m +3m +4m +5m +6m +7m +8m +9m +10m +10m -1,5m -0,5m -1,5m -0,5m +0.5m +1.5m +0.5m +1.5m Long-invaded Recently-invaded Figure 3.5 A. longifolia

A. longifolia

A100 B 100 C100 D 100

80 80 80 80

60 60 60 60

40 40 40 40 20 20 20 20 germinable seeds (%) germinable viable seeds (%) viable

viable seeds(%) viable 0 0 germinable seeds (%) germinable 0 0 Long- Recently- Long- Recently- Leew ard Windw ard Leew ard Windw ard invaded invaded invaded invaded A. longifolia

Survival of seeds in soil seed bank

A. longifolia

A 100 B 100

80 c c 80 b 60 b 60 ab a a 40 a 40 a 20 20 seeds recovered (%) 0 seeds recovered (%) 0 4 months 10 months 18 months 31 months 55 months 75 months 1-2cm 4-5cm 8-9cm Figure 3.7 A. longifolia

A. longifolia

B 100 A 100 80 80 60 60

40 40

20 20 n.d. germinable seeds (% ) (% seeds germinable

germinable seeds (%) germinable 0 0 4 months 10 months 18 months 31 months 55 months 75 months 1-2cm 4-5cm 8-9cm Figure 3.8 A. longifolia

A. longifolia i.e. %

A B

100 100

80 80

60 60 40 40

20 20 viable seeds (%) viable 0 seeds (%) viable 0 4 months 10 months 18 months 31 months 55 months 75 months 1-2cm 4-5cm 8-9cm Figure 3.9 A. longifolia

Dimension of soil seed bank

A. longifolia

2500 de e

2000 cde cde

1500 -2 1000 bcde abcde abcd abc 500 ab abc a a a ab a ab a ab a no.of seedsm no.of 0 0m 0m 0m 0m -3m -2m -1m -3m -2m -1m -3m -2m -1m -3m -2m -1m +1m +2m +3m +4m +5m +6m +7m +1m +2m +3m +4m +5m +6m +7m +1m +2m +3m +4m +5m +6m +7m +1m +2m +3m +4m +5m +6m +7m Leew ard Windw ard Leew ard Windw ard

Long-invaded Recently-invaded Figure 3.10 Acacia longifolia

A. longifolia

A b 100 B 100 a 80 b 80

60 60

40 40

20 20 a viable seeds viable (%) germinable seeds (%) germinable 0 0 Long-invaded Recently-invaded Long-invaded Recently-invaded Figure 3.11 A. longifolia

A. longifolia en masse

Seed production and dispersal A. longifolia Acacia A. longifolia

Acacia longifolia Streptopelia decaocto , personal observation A. longifolia i.e. , personal observation

et al.

Survival of seeds in soil seed bank A. longifolia Acacia saligna Acacia cyclops A. saligna A. cyclops Acacia longifolia A. saligna et al. et al.

A. longifolia et al. A. saligna A. cyclops A. longifolia A. longifolia A. longifolia et al.

et al.

Acacia et al. Acacia et al.

A. saligna A. cyclops A. longifolia

et al.

The resulting soil seed bank Acacia longifolia A. longifolia personal communication

et al. A. cyclops A. saligna A. longifolia Apodemus sylvaticus , personal observation A. longifolia A. longifolia unpublished data

A. saligna

A. longifolia et al.

Acacia A. cyclops Acacia A. longifolia, i.e.

A. longifolia

unpublished data et al. Acacia

A. longifolia

i.e. et al. A. longifolia

Habitats naturais e seminaturais de Portugal Continental Psychotria hoffmansegiana Palicourea marcagravii Rubiaceae Brazilian Journal of Biology Seeds: Ecology, biogeography, and evolution of dormancy and germination Ammophila arenaria Ecology Functional Ecology Biological invasions Oecologia Plant Ecology Rehabilitation recommendations after alien plant control. Proceedings of the Royal Society of Journal of Ecosystems and Management Leucospermum Seed Science Research Fabaceae American Journal of Botany Acacia Paraserianthes lophanta Fabaceae African Entomology Memoir

Atlas de las plantas alóctonas invasoras en España The ecology of seeds Progress in Physical Geography Ambrosia artemisiifolia Asteraceae Molecular Ecology Notes Annales Zoologici Fennici Avaliação do estado fitossanitário do Samouco (Myrica faya Aiton) e estudo da situação de seca de acacial em manchas na Reserva Natural das Dunas de S. Jacinto Seeds: the ecology of regeneration in plant communities Plant invaders of Southern Africa Seeds: the ecology of regeneration in plant communities Vaccinium Journal of Ecology Acacia South African Journal of Botany Acacia South African Journal of Botany Austral Ecology Zulubius acaciaphagus Acacia cyclops South African Journal of Botany Acacia saligna Acacia cyclops South African Journal of Ecology Acacia saligna Journal of Applied Ecology

Progress in Physical Geography Estuarine Coastal and Shelf Science Flora Rosa rugosa Biological Invasions Acacia nilotica Ecological Modelling Acacia saligna Israel Journal of Plant Sciences Vegetatio Landscape and Urban Planning Functional Ecology Bioeconomics of invasive species: integrating Ecology, economics, policy, and management pigra Journal of Applied Ecology Themeda triandra Australian Journal of International Journal of Plant Sciences Acacia longifolia Acacia longifolia Applied Soil Ecology Invasão dos ecossistemas dunares portugueses por Acacia: uma ameaça para a biodiversidade nativa MSc. Acacia longifolia Plant Invasion: Ecological Threats and Management Solutions,

Applied Vegetation Science Acacia Acacia longifolia Weed Technology Journal of Ecology Biological Conservation Transactions of the Royal Society of Journal of Applied Ecology The ecology of regeneration in plant communities A. longifolia Australian Journal of Botany The distribution of some significant invasive plants in Australia 2007 Acacia longifolia South African Journal of Botany Acacia longifolia Fabaceae South African Forestry Journal Evolutionary Ecology Acacia Perspectives in Plant Ecology, Evolution and Systematics Progress in Human Geography Acacia longifolia Applied and Environmental Microbiology

Esboço de uma Carta de Solos da Região de Aveiro Botanical Review Ecology A guide to designing legal and institutional frameworks on alien invasive species Reserva Natural das Dunas de S. Jacinto: considerações sobre a alteração, ordenamento e gestão da mata Plano de reconversão da mata da Reserva Natural das Dunas de S. Jacinto Journal of Vegetation Science Journal of the Department of Agriculture of Southern Australia Acacia karroo A. nilotica African Journal of Ecology Invasive plant species of the world - a reference guide to environmental weeds Seeds: the ecology of regeneration in plant communities Kochia scoparia Weed Science

Question

Location Acacia longifolia,

Methods A. longifolia

Results Acacia longifolia A. longifolia

Conclusions

Key-words: Acacia longifolia;

et al. et al. et al. et al. et al. et al. et al.

et al. et al.

et al.

et al. e.g. et al. et al. Acacia longifolia et al. et al.

A. longifolia et al. et al. A. longifolia A. longifolia

Study area A. longifolia et al. et al. A. longifolia, Carpobrotus edulis Cortaderia selloana

Acacia longifolia A. longifolia A. longifolia A. longifolia Pinus pinaster

A. longifolia et al. et al. et al. A. longifolia

et al.

Experimental design A. longifolia

Effect of invasion status on the seed banks A. longifolia A. longifolia A. longifolia.

Effect of A. longifolia and litter removal on the seed banks A. longifolia A. longifolia

e.g.

Data analysis

Species richness, seedlings density and quantity of A. longifolia seedlings % log (x +1)

Seedlings diversity and similarity between seed banks t

´ QS = 2C /(A + B)

Functional traits Acacia longifolia

Table 4.1

Trait Attribute * Source

Raunkiær life form

Growth form

Longevity

Main dispersal agent #

Origin & habitat

Taxonomy

et al. et al.

Species richness, seedlings abundance and quantity of A. longifolia seedlings

Salix atrocinerea

Asteraceae Caryophyllaceae Poaceae Juncaceae Conyza Gamochaeta pensylvanica A. longifolia

Effect of invasion status on the seed banks

A. longifolia

(a) (b) (c) 2

2 120 12 14 b b b 2 100 10 12 ab 10 80 b 8 a 8 60 6 6 a 40 4 a 4 a

20 2 cm seedlings/133 2 no.of species/133 cm no.of 0 0 0 no.of seedlings/133 cm seedlings/133 no.of Long- Recently- Non- Long- Recently- Non- Long- Recently- Non- invaded invaded invaded invaded invaded invaded invaded invaded invaded A.longifolia Figure 4.1 A. longifolia A. longifolia. Acacia longifolia

Effect of A. longifolia and litter removal on the seed banks

A. longifolia

A. longifolia

(a) (b) (c) 120 12 14 b b 2 2 2 b 100 b 10 12 a 10 80 8 a a 8 a 60 a 6 6 4 40 a 4 a a 20 2 2

0 0 cm seedlings/133 0 A ALR A ALR A ALR A ALR A ALR A ALR no. of species/133 cm of no.

no. of seedlings/133 cm seedlings/133 of no. Long- Recently- Long- Recently- Long- Recently- invaded invaded invaded invaded invaded invaded

A. longifolia longifolia A. Figure 4.2 A. longifolia A. longifolia, A. longifolia A. longifolia Acacia longifolia

Seedlings diversity and similarity between seed banks

Seedlings diversity A. longifolia

Similarity between seed banks A. longifolia A. longifolia

Seed bank functional and other traits

% %

% A. longifolia Conyza Gamochaeta pensylvanica Carpobrotus edulis Cortaderia selloana %

A. longifolia Myrica faya

(a) (b) 1.0 1.0 0.8 0.8 0.6 0.6 0.4 0.4 0.2 0.2 0.0 0.0

proportion of seedlings seedlings of proportion A ALR A ALR proportion of seedlings of proportion A ALR A ALR Non- Non- Long-invaded Recently-invadedinvaded . Long-invaded Recently-invadedinvaded .

native & dune specific native & dune/generalist therophytes hemicryptophyte chamaephyte cryptophyte native & generalists exotic & invasive nanophanerophyte microphanerophyte A. longifolia undetermined A.longifolia undetermined

(c) (d) 1.0 1.0 0.8 0.8 0.6 0.6 0.4 0.4 0.2 0.2 0.0 0.0 proportion of seedlings of proportion proportion of seedlings of proportion A ALR A ALR A ALR A ALR Non- Non- Long-invaded Recently-invadedinvaded . Long-invaded Recently-invadedinvaded .

graminoids short lived perenniall A. longifolia undetermined A. longifolia undetermined

(e) (f) 1.0 1.0 0.8 0.8 0.6 0.6 0.4 0.4 0.2 0.2 0.0 0.0 proportion of seedlings of proportion A ALR A ALR Non- A ALR A ALR Long-invaded Recently-invadedinvaded . seedlings of proportion Non- Long-invaded Recently-invadedinvaded . w ind animals Brassicaceae Cistaceae Asteraceae no obvious agent A. longifolia Poaceae Juncaceae Caryophyllac. undetermined other families A.longifolia undetermined Figure 4.3 A. longifolia, .

A. longifolia A. longifolia

A. longifolia

Asteraceae A. longifolia Poaceae Caryophyllaceae Juncaceae Aizoaceae, Rubiaceae, Chenopodiaceae, Scrophulariaceae Myricaceae Primulaceae Onagraceae Fabaceae A. longifolia

e.g. et al.

Effects of invasion status on the seed bank

Conyza Gamochaeta pensylvanica et al. A. longifolia Carpobrotus edulis Acacia et al. A. longifolia

A. longifolia Caryophyllaceae Poaceae Cerastium diffusum Caryophyllaceae Vulpia fasciculata Poaceae Acacia

A. longifolia

e.g. A. longifolia A. longifolia % % A. longifolia e.g. Antirrhinum majus cirrhigerum et al.

et al. et al. A. longifolia A. longifolia et al. et al. et al.

%

Corema album Cytisus grandiflorus Herniaria ciliolata robusta Iberis procumbens procumbens Crucianela maritima Helichrysum italicum picardi et al. et al. Cistus salvifolius Ulex europaeus latebracteatus A. longifolia A. longifolia Juncus Carex arenaria A. longifolia Juncus Carex et al.

A. longifolia et al.

Effect of A. longifolia and litter removal on the seed banks

A. longifolia A. longifolia A. longifolia

A. longifolia A. longifolia A. longifolia e.g. Cyperaceae, Rubiaceae, Myricaceae Asteraceae A. longifolia

A. longifolia

et al. A. longifolia,

A. longifolia A. longifolia A. longifolia A. longifolia

A. longifolia A. longifolia

Aquatic Conservation: Marine and Freshwater Ecosystems Habitats Naturais e Seminaturais de Portugal Continental Journal of Vegetation Science Corema album Empetraceae Acta Oecologica Coastal environments: an introduction to the physical, ecological, and cultural systems of coastlines Proceedings of the Royal Society of Victoria nnals of the Missouri Botanical Garden Conservation Biology Finisterra

Journal of Ecosystems and Management Biological Conservation Trends in Ecology and Evolution Atlas y Libro Rojo de la Flora Vascular Amenazada de España Leucospermum Seed Science Research Acta Botanica Neerlandica Journal of Ecology Atlas de las Plantas Alóctonas Invasoras en España Monitoring plant and populations The Botanical Review The Ecology of Seeds Conservation Biology Nova Flora de Portugal (Continente e Açores). I Lycopodiaceae-Umbelliferae Nova Flora de Portugal (Continente e Açores). II Clethraceae-Compositae Nova Flora de Portugal (Continente e Açores). III.1 Alismataceae-Iridaceae Nova Flora de Portugal (Continente e Açores). III.2 Gramineae. Nova Flora de Portugal (Continente e Açores). III.3 Typha x glauca Canadian Journal of Botany Ambio Plant Invaders of Southern Africa

The electronic comparative plant ecology Austral Ecology Plant Ecology Acacia saligna Journal of Applied Ecology Vegetatio Silva Lusitana Journal of Theoretical Biology Cerastium atrovirens Journal of Ecology Ecological diversity and its measurement Guia prático para a identificação de plantas invasoras de Portugal Continental Acacia longifolia. Plant Invasions: Human Perception, Ecological Impacts and Management, Acacia longifolia Applied Soil Ecology Acacia longifolia Biological Invasions Acacia longifolia Soil Biology & Biochemistry Acacia longifolia Plant Invasion: Ecological Threats and Management Solutions, Acacia Acacia longifolia Weed Technology Finisterra

Journal of Biogeography Acacia Functional Plant Biology Journal of Vegetation Science Ecological Economics Ecology Plant Ecology Acacia Perspectives in Plant Ecology, Evolution and Systematics Diversity and Distributions Biological Reviews Crotalaria saltiana Journal of Bio-Science A Guide to Designing Legal and Institutional Frameworks on Alien Invasive Species Reserva Natural das Dunas de S. Jacinto: Considerações sobre a alteração, ordenamento e gestão da mata Padrões Fitogeográficos em Sistemas Dunares do Noroeste de Portugal Continental. MSc. Ecology of soil seed banks Journal of Vegetation Science Functional Ecology Ammophila arenaria Journal of coastal Conservation Myrica faya Ecological Monographs Vulpia fasciculata Journal of Ecology

Invasive plant species of the world - a reference guide to environmental weeds Biostatistical analysis.

Appendix 4. 1

N

BBB

RI NI

NR

LI

Appendix 4.2

A. longifolia, A. longifolia

Long- Recently - Raunkiær life Non- Family Species Invaded Invaded form A ALR A ALR Invaded Aizoaceae Carpobrotus edulis Asteraceae Andryala integrifolia Asteraceae Conyza Asteraceae Gamochaeta pensylvanica Asteraceae Hypochaeris glabra Asteraceae Logfia minima Asteraceae Picris echioides Asteraceae Pseudognaphalium luteum album Asteraceae Senecio vulgaris Asteraceae Sonchus oleraceus Brassicaceae Cardamine hirsuta Brassicaceae Hirschfeldia incana Caryophyllaceae Cerastium diffusum diffusum Caryophyllaceae Polycarpon tetraphyllum Caryophyllaceae Sagina apetala recta Caryophyllaceae Silene gallica Chenopodiaceae Chenopodium album Cistaceae Cistus salvifolius Cistaceae Tuberaria guttata Cyperaceae Carex arenaria Fabaceae Acacia longifolia Fabaceae Ulex europaeus latebracteatus Juncaceae Juncus bufonius Juncaceae Juncus capitatus Juncaceae Juncus pygmaeus Juncaceae Juncus Myricaceae Myrica faya Onagraceae Epilobium tetragonum Poaceae Agrostis stolonifera pseudopungens Poaceae Aira praecox Poaceae Briza maxima Poaceae Cortaderia selloana Poaceae Dactylis glomerata hispanica Poaceae Vulpia alopecuros alopecuros Poaceae Vulpia membranaceae Poaceae Poaceae Primulaceae Anagallis arvensis Primulaceae Asterolinum linum-stellatum Rubiaceae Galium minutulum Scrophulariaceae Antirrhinum majus cirrhigerum Solanaceae Solanum nigrum nigrum Thyphaceae Typha latifolia total number of species per invasion status / age 18 15 27 15 18 total seedling abundance per invasion status / age 147 186 398 315 276 e/n

Acacia longifolia

Acacia longifolia

A. longifolia

A. longifolia A. longifolia

A. longifolia

Synthesis and applications e.g.

Keywords Fabaceae/Leguminosae

et al. et al. et al. et al.

et al.

Acacia longifolia et al. A. saligna Carpobrotus edulis Cortaderia selloana Acacia longifolia Fabaceae/ Leguminosae et al. Acacia A. longifolia

et al. A. longifolia

Study site

et al.

Acacia longifolia, et al. A. longifolia Carpobrotus edulis Cortaderia selloana A. longifolia A. longifolia A. longifolia Pinus pinaster A. longifolia et al. et al. et al. et al.

Experimental design A. longifolia A. longifolia A. longifolia A. longifolia

A. longifolia

Table 5.1 Acacia longifolia. A. longifolia A. longifolia A. longifolia + A. longifolia et al.

Data analysis Recovery of plant communities post-clearing A. longifolia A. longifolia

Species traits and turnover rate in plant communities post-clearing

Table 5.2

Trait Attribute Source

Biological trait *

Ecological trait

Acacia longifolia

Species turnover rate

Susceptibility to (re)invasion post-clearing A. longifolia A. longifolia

Recovery of plant communities post-clearing A. longifolia A. longifolia

e.g. A. longifolia

140

120 s s r 100 m m q p o n m m n n l 80 j p o n n o o i f l e i m d j 60 g g f i j e h b a a d h h g d Plantcover(%) 40 f c c d c c b e b a d a d d d a e d c 20 b a c b a b 0 a Jan-04 Jan-04 Jan-04 Jan-04 Jan-04 Jan-04 Feb-03 Feb-03 Feb-03 Feb-03 Feb-03 Feb-03 Dec-02 Dec-02 Dec-02 Dec-02 Dec-02 Dec-02 May-03 May-04 May-06 May-08 May-03 May-04 May-06 May-08 May-03 May-04 May-06 May-08 May-03 May-04 May-06 May-08 May-03 May-04 May-06 May-08 May-03 May-04 May-06 May-08 A AR ALR A AR ALR Long-invaded Recently-invaded Figure 5.1 Acacia longifolia A. longifolia A. longifolia A. longifolia A. longifolia

p p q 20 p m q r r q r l j o 18 n n l n r q m l r 16 o o m p j n o i m n 14 l h j h 12 g i g i a a f h 10 a e h h b b a d d b a g 8 a b f c c c c c b e e c b no. of species of no. b c d a d d 6 d d c c d d b c 4 a 2 0 Jan-04 Jan-04 Jan-04 Jan-04 Jan-04 Jan-04 Feb-03 Feb-03 Feb-03 Feb-03 Feb-03 Feb-03 Dec-02 Dec-02 Dec-02 Dec-02 Dec-02 Dec-02 May-03 May-04 May-06 May-08 May-03 May-04 May-06 May-08 May-03 May-04 May-06 May-08 May-03 May-04 May-06 May-08 May-03 May-04 May-06 May-08 May-03 May-04 May-06 May-08 A AR ALR A AR ALR

Long-invaded Recently-invaded Figure 5.2 Acacia longifolia. A. longifolia.

Shannon’s diversity and Pielou’s evenness A. longifolia

(a) 3.0 (b) 1.0 i i hi 2.5 efgh efgh fgh 0.8 ghi h fgh ef def 2.0 gh fgh def de 0.6 ef efg d 1.5 ef d de 0.4 bc 1.0 c Pielouindex Shannonindex c bc 0.2 a ab 0.5 a ab ab ab a a 0.0 0.0 May 03 May 06 May 08 May 03 May 06 May 08 Long-inv. A Long-inv. AR Long-inv. ALR Long-inv. A Long-inv. AR Long-inv. ALR Recent-inv. A Recent-inv. AR Recent-inv. ALR Recent-inv. A Recent-inv. AR Recent-inv. ALR Figure 5.3 Acacia longifolia. ) A. longifolia

Species traits and turnover rate in plant communities after clearing A. longifolia

A. longifolia

(a) (b)

1.0 1.0 0.8 0.8 0.6 0.6 0.4 0.4 0.2 0.2

relative abundance 03 abundance relative 0.0 relative abundance 03 abundance relative 0.0 A AR ALR A AR ALR 1.0 1.0 A AR ALR A AR ALR 0.8 LI RI 0.8 LI RI 0.6 0.6 0.4 0.4 0.2 0.2

relative abundance 06 abundance relative 0.0

relative abundance 06 abundance relative 0.0 A AR ALR A AR ALR 1.0 1.0 A AR ALR A AR ALR LI RI 0.8 0.8 LI RI 0.6 0.6 0.4 0.4 0.2 0.2 relative abundance 08 abundance relative

0.0 08 abundance relative 0.0 A AR ALR A AR ALR A AR ALR A AR ALR

Long-invaded Recently-invaded Long-invaded Recently-invaded A. longifolia therophytes native & dune specific native & dune/generalist chamaephyte geophyte hemicryptophyte phanerophyte native & generalists exotic & invasive nanophanerophyte undetermined A.longifolia undetermined

Figure 5.4

A. longifolia

vs. vs. vs.

Susceptibility to (re)invasion post-clearing.

A. longifolia

A. longifolia A. longifolia

90 h 80

-2 -2 70

60 g 50 seedlings.m 40 a 30 b a a f a f a e b e a b e b d b a c a a e b c f a d b a a 20 f c c e c A. longifolia longifolia A. d b c d b a b c d d b e c a b a b d a a a d d 10 b c d c a d c c c a b b a b c no. of no. a a b b a 0 Jan-04 Jan-04 Jan-04 Jan-04 Jan-04 Jan-04 Feb-03 Feb-03 Feb-03 Feb-03 Feb-03 Feb-03 Dec-02 Dec-02 Dec-02 Dec-02 Dec-02 Dec-02 May-03 May-04 May-06 May-08 May-03 May-04 May-06 May-08 May-03 May-04 May-06 May-08 May-03 May-04 May-06 May-08 May-03 May-04 May-06 May-08 May-03 May-04 May-06 May-08 A AR ALR A AR ALR Long-Invaded Recently-Invaded Figure 5.5 Acacia longifolia

A. longifolia A. longifolia A. longifolia

100 h i l i i h j j j j 80 h i h h

60 cover (% )

40 f b e a a g g d c c f b c b 20 a e a e d d c A. longifolia d c a a b a a b 0 Jan-04 Jan-04 Jan-04 Jan-04 Jan-04 Jan-04 Feb-03 Feb-03 Feb-03 Feb-03 Feb-03 Feb-03 Dec-02 Dec-02 Dec-02 Dec-02 Dec-02 Dec-02 May-03 May-04 May-06 May-08 May-03 May-04 May-06 May-08 May-03 May-04 May-06 May-08 May-03 May-04 May-06 May-08 May-03 May-04 May-06 May-08 May-03 May-04 May-06 May-08 A AR ALR A AR ALR Long-Invaded Recently-Invaded Figure 5.6 A. longifolia

How resilient are dune plant communities after invasion for short and long periods?

Acacia longifolia et al. et al. et al.

et al. e.g. Corema album Iberis procumbens procumbens Pseudorlaya minuscule

Acacia

et al. et al.

e.g., Cistus salvifolius Cytisus grandiflorus A. longifolia Poaceae Asteraceae

Is this system susceptible to (re)invasion after clearing?

A. longifolia

A. longifolia A. longifolia A. longifolia et al.

Carpobrotus edulis A. longifolia et al. C. edulis Gamochaeta pensylvanica Conyza Cortaderia selloana

What are the implications of this study for dune ecosystems’ management?

A. longifolia et al. et al.

Crucianella maritima Artemisia campestre maritima Helichrysum italicum picardi

et al. et al. Myrica faya C. album A. longifolia

A. longifolia A. longifolia %A. longifolia

e.g., Trichilogaster acaciaelongifoliae et al.

Habitats naturais e seminaturais de Portugal Continental. . Restoration Ecology, Ecological Applications . Biological Invasions, Rehabilitation recommendations after alien plant control

Estudo da invasão dos ecossistemas dunares portugueses por Carpobrotus edulis MSc. . Restoration Ecology, Acacia Paraserianthes lophanta Fabaceae African Entomology Memoir Pinus ponderosa Journal of Applied Ecology, Ecosystems The Botanical Review The ecology of seeds Nova Flora de Portugal (Continente e Açores). Progress in Physical Geography . Biological Conservation, Avaliação do estado fitossanitário do Samouco (Myrica faya Aiton) e estudo da situação de seca de acacial em manchas na Reserva Natural das Dunas de S. Jacinto Lonicera maackii . Restoration Ecology, Impatiens glandulifera Biological Conservation Biodiversity Conservation . Conservation Biology, . Plant Ecology, Acacia saligna Journal of Applied Ecology, Austral Ecology,

Vegetatio Silva Lusitana Journal of Applied Ecology, Impatiens glandulifera Journal of Applied Ecology, E.G. . Restoration Ecology, Lonicera maackii . Restoration Ecology, Turning the tide: the eradication of island invasives Ecological diversity and its measurement Invasion of Portuguese coastal dunes by Acacia longifolia: impacts on soil ecology. Guia prático para a identificação de plantas invasoras de Portugal Continental Acacia longifolia Soil Biology & Biochemistry Acacia longifolia Applied Soil Ecology, Acacia longifolia . Biological Invasions, Acacia MSc. Trichilogaster acaciaelongifoliae Acacia longifolia . Biological Control, Applied Vegetation Science Acacia longifolia American Journal of Botany Acacia longifolia Plant Invasion: Ecological Threats and Management Solutions

Acacia longifolia 3rd International Conference on Biological Invasions NEOBIOTA - From Ecology to Control Ecological Applications Acacia Journal of South African Botany Finisterra Foeniculum vulgare . Biological Conservation, Pedobiologia Acacia longifolia South African Journal of Botany Diversity and Distributions Progress in Human Geography Acacia longifolia Applied and Environmental Microbiology Carpobrotus edulis. Biological Invasions, Biological Reviews A guide to designing legal and institutional frameworks on alien invasive species Reserva Natural das Dunas de S. Jacinto: considerações sobre a alteração, ordenamento e gestão da mata Trends in Ecology and Evolution Ammophila arenaria Journal of coastal Conservation

Oikos Invasive Alien Species. A New Systhesis Journal of Ecology, Trends in Ecology and Evolution

Appendix 5. 1

A. longifolia A. longifolia Recently-Invaded areas Long-Invaded areas Species Treatments: Species detected exclusively in recently-invaded areas (27): Pseudorlaya minuscula Apiaceae Chamaemelum mixtum Asteraceae Coleostephus myconis Asteraceae Hirschfeldia incana Brassicaceae Iberis procumbens procumbens Brassicaceae Malcolmia ramosissima Brassicaceae Teesdalia nudicaulis Brassicaceae Cerastium glomeratum Caryophyllaceae Corrigiola litoralis Caryophyllaceae Sagina apetala erecta Caryophyllaceae Scleranthus annuus Caryophyllaceae Silene gallica Caryophyllaceae Spergula arvensis Caryophyllaceae Stellaria media Caryophyllaceae Cytisus grandiflorus Fabaceae Ornithopus pinnatus Fabaceae Vicia sativa Fabaceae Geranium molle Geraniaceae Juncus capitatus Juncaceae Stachys arvensis Lamiaceae Epilobium tetragonum Onagraceae Oxalis pes-caprae Oxalidaceae Catapodium marinum Poaceae Anagallis arvensis Primulaceae Asterolinum linum-stellatum Primulaceae Lonicera periclymenum Caprifoliaceae 1 Trifolium arvense L. var. arvense Fabaceae

Species detected exclusively in long-invaded areas (6): Juniperus phoenicea Cupressaceae Corema album Empetraceae Quercus robur - - - - 1 ------ Juncus acutus Juncaceae Polypodium vulgare Polypodiaceae Antirrhinum majus cirrhigerum Scrophulariaceae

Recently-Invaded areas Long-Invaded areas Species Treatments: Species detected in long- and recently-invaded areas (50): Carpobrotus edulis Aizoaceae Andryala integrifolia Asteraceae Conyza Asteraceae Crepis capillaris Asteraceae Gamochaeta pensylvanica Asteraceae Hypochaeris glabra L. Asteraceae Lactuca virosa Asteraceae Logfia minima Asteraceae Picris echioides Asteraceae Pseudognaphalium luteo-album Asteraceae Senecio lividus Asteraceae Senecio vulgaris Asteraceae Sonchus asper Asteraceae Sonchus oleraceus Asteraceae Sonchus tenerrimus Asteraceae Urospermum picroides Asteraceae Cardamine hirsuta Brassicaceae Cerastium diffusum diffusum Caryophyllaceae Polycarpon tetraphyllum Caryophyllaceae Silene longicaulis Caryophyllaceae Silene micropetala Caryophyllaceae Cistus psilosepalus Cistaceae Cistus salvifolius Cistaceae Tuberaria guttata Cistaceae Carex arenaria L. * Cyperaceae Acacia longifolia Fabaceae Ulex europaeus latebracteatus Fabaceae Geranium purpureum Geraniaceae Myrica faya Myricaceae Fumaria muralis muralis Papaveraceae Pinus pinaster Pinaceae Agrostis stolonifera . pseudopungens Poaceae Aira praecox L. Poaceae Avena barbata barbata Poaceae Briza maxima L. Poaceae Briza minor Poaceae Bromus diandrus Poaceae Bromus rigidus Roth Poaceae Cortaderia selloana Poaceae Corynephorus canescens Poaceae Dactylis glomerata hispanica Poaceae Lagurus ovatus Poaceae Lolium sp. Poaceae Vulpia alopecuros alopecuros Poaceae Vulpia bromoides (L.) S.F. Gray Poaceae Vulpia membranacea (L.) Dumort. Poaceae bucephalophorus Galium minutulum Rubiaceae Solanum nigrum nigrum Solanaceae Centranthus calcitrapa calcitrapa Valerianaceae

Sonchus Asteraceae Poaceae Poaceae Asteraceae number of species per treatment/invasion age: 36 22 64 40 74 42 26 18 48 36 49 36 number of species per invasion age: 81 61 * at bold

Trichilogaster acaciaelongifoliae Acacia longifolia

Acacia longifolia Trichilogaster acaciaelongifoliae T. acaciaelongifoliae T. acaciaelongifoliae A. longifolia. A. melanoxylon Vitis vinifera A. longifolia V. vinifera C. striatus A. melanoxylon A. longifolia. A. longifolia T. acaciaelongifoliae T. acaciaelongifoliae

Key words: Acacia longifolia, Trichilogaster acaciaelongifoliae

Acacia longifolia

et al. A. longifolia longifolia A. longifolia sophorae A. longifolia A. sophorae Acacia floribunda A. longifolia, A. longifolia

Acacia longifolia A. longifolia et al. en masse Acacia longifolia A. longifolia et al.

A. longifolia

A. longifolia Trichilogaster acaciaelongifoliae Melanterius ventralis ;

T. acaciaelongifoliae A. longifolia A. floribunda

et al. T. acaciaelongifoliae et al. A. longifolia

T. acaciaelongifoliae A. longifolia. T. acaciaelongifoliae T. acaciaelongifoliae A. longifolia A. floribunda Acacia A. longifolia T. acaciaelongifoliae

Aphalara itadori Fallopia japonica T. acaciaelongifoliae T. acaciaelongifoliae

T. acaciaelongifoliae T. acaciaelongifoliae

Biology of agent and host plant T. acaciaelongifoliae A. longifolia T. acaciaelongifoliae personal communication Months J F M A M J J A S O N D A. longifolia T. a A. longifolia T. a (

Figure 6.1 T. acaciaelongifoliae A. longifolia

A. longifolia A. longifolia.

A. longifolia T. acaciaelongifoliae A. longifolia unpublished data

Specificity test plant list A. longifolia e.g. i.e. A. longifolia e.g. Quercus faginea e.g. Stauracanthus genistoides A. longifolia et al.

Table 6.1 Trichilogaster acaciaelongifoliae Family Non-target species criteria Anacardiaceae Pistacia lentiscus Caprifoliaceae Viburnum tinnus Cistaceae Cistus psilosepalus Empetraceae Corema album Ericaceae Arbutus unedo Erica scoparia Fabaceae Caesalpinioideae - Ceratonia siliqua (=Leguminosae) - Cytisus striatus Faboideae - falcata Faboideae Medicago marina Faboideae - Phaseolus vulgaris Faboideae - Pisum sativum subfam. Faboideae - Stauracanthus genistoides enistoides Faboideae - Ulex parviflorus Faboideae - Mimosoideae - Acacia melanoxylon Fagaceae Quercus faginea Quercus robur Quercus x coutinhoi Lamiaceae Lavandula luisieri Lauraceae Laurus nobilis Myricaceae Myrica faya Myrtaceae Oleaceae Phillyrea angustifolia Pinaceae Pinus pinaster Pseudotsuga menziesii Polygalaceae Polygala vulgaris Rhamnaceae Rhamnus alaternus Rosaceae Pyrus communis Prunus persica Prunus lusitanica Malus domestica Rutaceae Citrus sinensis Salicaceae Salix atrocinerea Ulmaceae Ulmus procera Vitaceae Vitis vinifera

i.e.

A. melanoxylon Mimosoideae Acacia Acacia A. baileyana A. cyclops A. dealbata A. decurrens A. floribunda A. mearnsii A. melanoxylon A. saligna A. floribunda T. acaciaelongifoliae A. longifolia.Acacia melanoxylon

A. longifolia, Acacia Fabaceae Polygalaceae Rosidae Fabaceae Rosaceae, Salicaceae, Rhamnaceae, Ulmaceae, Fagaceae Myricaceae et al. Fabales Fabaceae et al. Polygalaceae

Vicia faba Pisum sativum Phaseolus vulgaris A. longifolia

Host specificity testing Trichilogaster acaciaelongifoliae Acacia longifolia

No-choice tests - T. acaciaelongifoliae A. longifolia Erica scoparia Corema album Ceratonia siliqua Pinus pinaster

Paired-choice tests T. acaciaelongifoliae A. longifolia

Observations of the behavior of T. acaciaelongifoliae

Dissection of buds to detect T. acaciaelongifoliae eggs T. acaciaelongifoliae T. acaciaelongifoliae

Figure 6.2 Acacia longifolia Vitis vinifera T. acaciaelongifoliae A. longifolia V. vinifera

Gall induction on potted plants A. melanoxylon i.e., T. acaciaelongifoliae

Surveys in South Africa and Australia A. longifolia Vitis vinifera A. melanoxylon Cytisus striatus Cytisus C. monspessulanus Teline monspessulana junceum A. longifolia Acacia

longifolia, A. melanoxylon, T. monspessulana V. vinifera A. melanoxylon A. longifolia

A. longifolia T. acaciaelongifoliae

Statistical analyses

No-choice tests – observations of the oviposition behavior of T. acaciaelongifoliae

A. longifolia A. longifolia,A. melanoxylon C. striatus,

A. longifolia,A. melanoxylon C. striatus

Table 6.2 Trichilogaster acaciaelongifoliae Active on Stationary Active on Stationary species Off Plant plant on plant buds on bud Probing Acacia longifolia 644 148.2 191.6 36.4 115.4 64.3 Acacia melanoxylon 574 115.9 162.8 105.1 231.1 10.9 Arbutus unedo 634 45.4 521.0 -- -- -- Ceratonia siliqua 547 125.4 527.8 -- -- -- Cistus psilosepalus 612 236.5 351.8 -- -- -- Citrus sinensis 557 168.4 475.0 -- -- -- Corema album 450 253.7 481.0 -- 15.5 -- Cytisus striatus 718 67.8 47.1 -- 270.6 96.7 Erica scoparia 782 121.3 254.0 -- -- 42.8 Eucalyptus globulus 599 131.3 470.2 -- -- -- Genista falcata 821 95.5 279.2 4.7 -- -- Laurus nobilis 417 83.3 596.0 46.2 -- 57.4 Lavandula luisierii 646 66.4 487.1 -- -- -- Malus domestica 702 280.6 118.5 -- 99.0 -- Medicago marina 1062 118.6 16.9 2.1 -- -- Myrica faya 543 58.1 577.6 21.3 -- -- Phaseolus vulgaris 636 69.7 494.5 -- -- -- Phillyrea angustifolia 783 119.1 213.8 84.2 -- -- Pinus pinaster 431 239.6 522.9 3.8 2.3 -- Pistacia lentiscus 704 117.6 378.8 -- -- -- Pisum sativum 615 214.0 371.4 -- -- -- Polygala vulgaris 904 40.1 255.9 -- -- -- Prunus lusitanica 925 104.7 170.2 -- -- -- Prunus persica 517 192.1 491.2 -- -- -- Pseudotsuga menziesii 286 220.5 693.8 -- -- -- Pyrus communis 1168 16.3 6.8 9.0 -- -- Quercus faginea 394 118.4 672.0 6.3 6.6 3.2 Quercus lusitanica 741 55.6 403.1 -- -- -- Quercus pyrenaica 379 55.3 766.2 -- -- -- Quercus robur 654 370.5 175.4 -- -- -- Quercus rotundifolia 671 109.5 420.0 -- -- -- Quercus suber 625 95.6 479.4 -- -- -- Quercus x coutinhoi 773 212.0 214.7 -- -- -- Rhamnus alaternus 604 133.7 449.7 12.9 -- -- Salix atrocinerea 586 99.3 515.3 -- -- -- Stauracanthus genistoides 755 160.5 284.1 -- -- -- Ulex parviflorus 425 142.0 558.6 -- 74.3 -- Ulmus procera 367 201.4 583.8 -- 47.4 -- Viburnum tinus 621 333.3 244.7 -- -- -- Vicia faba 469 228.8 502.1 -- -- -- Vitis vinifera 572 63.6 544.1 17.5 -- 2.5 mean time (sec.) 632.0 142.2 389.5 29.1 95.8 39.7 total time (sec.) 25910.4 5829.3 15969.9 349.4 862.2 277.7 % time spent/behaviour* 52.7 11.8 32.5 0.7 1.8 0.6 no. species/behaviour 41.0 41.0 41.0 12.0 9.0 7.0 Active on plant/buds Stationary on plant/ buds Probing Off plant —

Acacia longifolia Fabales

Fabaceae Acacia melanoxylon Mimosoidea

Angiosperms Vicia faba Tracheophytes

Ulex parviflorus Rosidae (Eurosids Rosidae I)

Tricolpate Tricolpate () Stauracanthus genistoides

Pisum sativum

Phaseolus vulgaris

Medicago marina

Genista falcata

Cytisus striatus

Ceratonia siliqua

Polygala vulgaris

Pyrus communis

Prunus persica

Prunus lusitanica

Malus domestica

Ulmus procera

Rhamnus alaternus

Salix atrocinerea

Myrica faya

Quercus x coutinhoi

Quercus suber

Quercus rotundifolia

Quercus robur

Quercus pyrenaica

Quercus lusitanica

Quercus faginea

Eucalyptus globulus

Cistus psilosepalus

Citrus sinensis

Pistacia lentiscus

(Eurosids II) Vitis vinifera

Erica scoparia

Arbutus unedo

Corema album

Lavandula luisierii

Phyllirea angustifolia

Viburnum tinus

Laurus nobilis

Pseudotsuga menziesii

Pinus pinaster

Figure 6.3 T. acaciaelongifoliae A. longifolia.

No-choice tests – dissection of plant species buds to detect T. acaciaelongifoliae eggs

Erica scoparia Quercus faginea Laurus nobilis Fabales A. longifolia, A. melanoxylon C. striatus V. vinifera C. striatus A. melanoxylon V. vinifera A. longifolia C. striatus A. melanoxylon A. longifolia A. longifolia. V. vinifera

A. longifolia V. vinifera A. melanoxylon C. striatus A. longifolia

ab 25 b 20 15 10 5 a a

nº. eggs/nº. branch 0 A. longifolia C. striatus A. melanoxylon V. vinifera Figure 6.4 Acacia longifolia

Trichilogaster acaciaelongifoliae

100 80 60 40 20 0 < 1 1 1.5 2 > 3 < 1 1 1.5 2 > 3 < 1 1 1.5 2 > 3 < 1 1 1.5 2 > 3 mm mm mm mm mm mm mm mm mm mm mm mm mm mm mm mm mm mm mm mm % of dissectedof % buds witheggs A. longifolia A. melanoxylon C. striatus V. vinifera

Figure 6.5 Trichilogaster acaciaelongifoliae

C. striatus V. vinifera A. longifolia A. melanoxylon

10 e 8 de bcde 6 cde 4 abcd abcd 2 abcd abc a ab a a no. of eggsof no. per bud 0 < 1 1 1,5 2 > 3 < 1 1 1,5 2 > 3 < 1 1 1,5 2 > 3 < 1 1 1,5 2 > 3 mm mm mm mm mm mm mm mm mm mm mm mm mm mm mm mm mm mm mm mm

A. longifolia A. melanoxylon C. striatus V. vinifera

Figure 6.6 Trichilogaster acaciaelongifoliae A. longifolia

Paired-choice tests – observations of T. acaciaelongifoliae behavior

T. acaciaelongifoliae A. longifolia C. striatus A. melanoxylon

Table 6.3 Trichilogaster acaciaelongifoliae

Active on Stationary Active on Stationary Total Time n df Off plants pair of species plant on plant buds on buds on plant A. longifolia 81.3 (18.8) 299.2 (151.2) 9.6 (6.6) 306.0 (146.3) 696.8 (175.3) 9 1,16 320.1 (130.8) C. striatus 69.0 (48.1) 58.0 (38.9) 0.0 56.1 (39.4) 183.1 (100.5) F = 0.06; F = 3.30; F = 2.1; F = 2.73; F = 6.46; p = 0.81 p = 0.09 p = 0.17 * p = 0.12 p = 0.02

A. longifolia 122.9 (39.0) 201.2 (109.4) 0.0 124.4 (88.2) 448.6 (146.3) 9 1,16 427.0 (111.5) V. vinifera 39.8 (30.7) 284.7 (97.2) 0.0 0.0 324.4 (107.4) F = 2.80; F = 0.32; F = 1.99; F = 0.47; p = 0.11 p = 0.58 p = 0.18 * p = 0.50

A. longifolia 71.1 (17.9) 261.1 (113.7) 0.0 408.1 (165.5) 740.3 (181.6) 9 1,16 405.1 (165.0) A. melanoxylon 27.0 (25.3) 26.8 (26.8) 0.0 0.8 (0.8) 54.6 (52.8) F = 12.17; F = 18.76; F = 5.26; F = 13.14; p = 0.003 p = 0.0005 p = 0.04 p = 0.002 in bold.

A. longifolia A. melanoxylon A. longifolia

Paired-choice tests - dissection of plant buds to detect T. acaciaelongifoliae eggs

A. longifolia C. striatus, A. longifolia, C. striatus V. vinifera A. longifolia C. striatus A. melanoxylon A. longifolia C. striatus, A. melanoxylon V. vinifera

A. melanoxylon A. longifolia ------C. striatus A. longifolia ------V. vinifera A. longifolia

0 20 40 60 80 100 % of branches w ith eggs Figure 6.7 Trichilogaster acaciaelongifoliae

T. acaciaelongifoliae A. longifolia

V. vinifera

C. striatus A. melanoxylon

A. longifolia A. longifolia

A. melanoxylon a A. longifolia b ------

C. striatus A A. longifolia B

------

V. vinifera y

A. longifolia z

0 5 10 15 20 no. of eggs/branch Figure 6.8 Trichilogaster acaciaelongifoliae Acacia longifolia

100

80

60

40

20

0 % dissected% buds with eggs 1mm 2mm 1mm 2mm 1mm 2mm 1mm 2mm 1mm 2mm 1mm 2mm < 1mm < 1,5mm 3mm > 1mm < 1,5mm 3mm > 1mm < 1,5mm 3mm > 1mm < 1,5mm 3mm > 1mm < 1,5mm 3mm > 1mm < 1,5mm 3mm > A. longifolia V. vinifera A. longifolia C. striatus A. longifolia A.melanoxylon Figure 6.9 Trichilogaster acaciaelongifoliae

Gall induction on potted plants

T. acaciaelongifoliae A. longifolia A. longifolia i.e.,

Surveys in South Africa and Australia

T. acaciaelongifoliae A. longifolia T. acaciaelongifoliae

20

15 10

5 0 no. /70 cm branch galls/70 no. A. longifolia SA A. longifolia A T.monspessulana S. junceum V. vinifera A. melanoxylon Figure 6.10 Trichilogaster acaciaelongifoliae Acacia longifolia, Vitis vinifera Acacia melanoxylon Cytisus striatus (T. monspessulana S. junceum) Spartium junceum

A. longifolia A. longifolia et al. et al. T. acaciaelongifoliae A. longifolia.

What are the chances that T. acaciaelongifoliae will “attack” non-target species?

T. acaciaelongifoliae , C. striatus A. melanoxylon A. longifolia A. longifolia. V. vinifera

i.e.

A. melanoxylon A. longifolia,T. acaciaelongifoliae T. acaciaelongifoliae A. melanoxylon A. longifolia A. melanoxylon T. acaciaelongifoliae

T. acaciaelongifoliae C. striatus V. vinifera Cytisus striatus V. vinifera V. vinifera T. acaciaelongifoliae C. striatus V. vinifera T. acaciaelongifoliae V. vinifera V. vinifera A. longifolia Cytisus Genista A. longifolia T. acaciaelongifoliae

T. acaciaelongifoliae V. vinifera C. striatus V. vinifera

C. striatus Aphalara itadori Fallopia japonica Evippe

Parasitism of galls, unsuitable climate and crossing hemispheres – are there reasons to be concerned?

T. acaciaelongifoliae A. longifolia,

A. longifolia T. acaciaelongifoliae T. acaciaelongifoliae T. acaciaelongifoliae i.e., T. acaciaelongifoliae et al.

T. acaciaelongifoliae et al.

i.e., T. acaciaelongifoliae et al. A. longifolia T. acaciaelongifoliae

T. acaciaelongifoliae T. acaciaelongifoliae T. acaciaelongifoliae personal communication A. longifolia A. longifolia

Should T. acaciaelongifoliae be used as part of a management strategy to control A. longifolia in Portugal?

T. acaciaelongifoliae A. longifolia A. longifolia, A. longifolia

Further steps to be taken before release….

T. acaciaelongifoliae T. acaciaelongifoliae A. longifolia Acacia longifolia et al. et al. T. acaciaelongifoliae

Aphalara itadori

Flora exótica subespontânea de Portugal continental (plantas vasculares). MSc. Biology of gall CRC for Australian Weed Management: Improving the selection, testing and evaluation of weed biological control agents Deuterocampta quadrijuga . Biological Control, Plant Biosystems Trichilogaster acaciaelongifoliae Acacia longifolia. Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment

The biological control of the weed Acacia longifolia by the gall wasp Trichilogaster acaciaelongifoliae: a study of a plant- interaction Trichilogaster acaciaelongifoliae Acacia longifolia.Ecological Entomology Trichilogaster acaciaelongifoliae Acacia longifolia.Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment Acacia longifolia Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment Trichilogaster acaciaelongifoliae Acacia longifolia Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment Acacia Paraserianthes lophanta Fabaceae African Entomology Memoir Fallopia japonica Outlooks on Pest Management Atlas de las plantas alóctonas invasoras en España Jumping the Garden Fence: Invasive Garden Plants in Australia and their environmental and agricultural impacts X International Symposium on Biological Control of Weeds: Host Specificity Testing of Exotic Biological Agents - The Biological Basis for Improvement in Safety Plant invaders of Southern Africa Flowering plants of the world

. Biological Control, Acacia pycnantha Trichilogaster . Biological Control, Aspects of Applied Biology Melanterius XI International Symposium on Biological Control of Weeds Botânica Plant Systematics: A phylogenetic approach Meteorologische Zeitschrift to Diversity and Distributions Trichilogaster acaciaelongifoliae Acacia longifolia African entomology, Guia prático para a identificação de plantas invasoras de Portugal Continental Acacia longifolia Soil Biology & Biochemistry Acacia longifolia Applied Soil Ecology,

Acacia longifolia . Biological Invasions, Invasão dos ecossistemas dunares portugueses por Acacia: uma ameaça para a biodiversidade nativa. MSc. Applied Vegetation Science Acacia longifolia American Journal of Botany

Acacia longifolia Plant Invasion: Ecological Threats and Management Solutions Acacia longifolia 3rd International Conference on Biological Invasions NEOBIOTA - From Ecology to Control Biocontrol News and Information WATTLE - Acacias of Australia Trichilogaster acaciaelongifoliae African entomology Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society Acacia longifolia NEOBIOTA: Towards a Synthesis. 5th European Conference on Biological Invasions Trichilogaster acaciaelongifoliae Acacia longifolia Sixth International Symposium on Biological Control of Weeds Finisterra Trichilosgaster acaciae-longifoliae Acacia longifolia A. floribunda A. sophorae Transactions of the Royal Entomological Society of London Chalcidoidea Flora Iberica-Plantas Vasculares de la Península Iberica e Islas Baleares Leguminosae Journal of Applied Ecology, Acacia longifolia Fabaceae South African Forestry Journal Acacia longifolia Applied and Environmental Microbiology

Austral Ecology, Aphalara itadori . Biological Control, Weed Research, . Biological Control, Trichilogaster acaciaelongifoliae Acacia longifolia X International Symposium on Biological Control of Weeds: Host Specificity Testing of Exotic Arthropod Biological Agents - The Biological Basis for Improvement in Safety Leguminosae Biocontrol Science and Technology Acacias of South Australia X International Symposium on Biological Control of Weeds: Host Specificity Testing of Exotic Arthropod Biological Agents - The Biological Basis for Improvement in Safety

Appendix 6. 1

Appendix 6. 2

Section A: Pest categorization no Identity: single taxonomic entity or produce STOP consistent symptoms and is transmissible

yes no

Known pest or likely to become a pest? STOP

yes

Occurs in PRA area?

yes yes

no Widely distributed? STOP

no

no Does a host or suitable habitat STOP occur in PRA area ?

yes no If a vector is the only means of spread STOP is it present in the PRA area?

yes no Ecoclimatic conditions suitable? STOP (consider also protected conditions)

yes Area suitable for establishment

no Will have economic STOP Importance ?

yes

could be a risk to the PRA area

Section B: Assessment of the probability of introduction and spread and of potential economic conequences

Evaluate Evaluate Evaluate probability of probability of probability of entry establishment spread

PROBABILITY OF INTRODUCTION Go to stage 3 Pest presents ECONOMIC IMPACT yes Pest Risk a risk? Management

Assess potential economic consequences no (including environmental impact) in the PRA area

STOP

Appendix 6. 3

All major pathways. (information from Pest Risk Assessment)

Analyse Pathway 1 Analyse Pathway 2 Analyse Pathway n

3.1 Analyse next major yes Is risk acceptable pathway

no

What type of pathway?

3.3 3.9 3.10 3.2 Commodity of plants natural spread human travellers transport other pathways or plant products

3.4 3.11 entry now or very possible specific possible specific If the pest is a plant is it the soon? measure(s) measure(s) commodity itself ? no no yes Listing of existing measures (3.12) 3.5 and consideration of possible Natural spread measures (3.13-3.29) = major pathway inspection/testing possible specific 3.13-3.15 no 3.7 of consignment measure(s) 3.6 yes control in country eradication after removal from possible specific of origin possible? entry possible? 3.16-3.18 consignment measure(s) 3.8 If 'yes' to one or limiting use of possible specific both 3.19 consignment measure(s) If 'no' to both 3.20-3.24 prevent infestation possible specific of commodity measure(s)

crop / place of possible specific 3.25-3.28 production / area measure(s) freedom

3.29 possible specific internal measures measure(s) 3.30-3.36 Assess suitability of measures or combination of measures

Are there any suitable measures 3.36 (or combinations) for this pathway?

no yes 3.37

Envisage prohibiting the pathway

3.38 Have all major pathways been considered

yes no Have suitable Analyse next major measures been pathway 3.43 identified? 3.42 May be impossible to prevent All measures for pathways should be introduction; reconsider no yes considered for phyto. regulations quarantine status. and regulations published

Part III

A. longifolia A. longifolia A. longifolia A. longifolia

ACACIA LONGIFOLIA

Acacia longifolia et al

i.e., i.e., A. longifolia

A. longifolia

et al. et al. et al. et al.

Box 7.1 Seed banks (chapter 4) and plant recovery in the field (chapter 5): did these studies rea ch the same conclusions?

A. longifolia e.g. vs.% e.g. Conyza et al. Carpobrotus edulis and A. longifolia A. longifolia C. edulis C. edulis et al. A. longifolia C. edulis A. longifolia

, personal observation

Box 7.2 Methodology (I): were median/long -term studies worthwhile? Ecology,

A. longifolia et al. A. longifolia Vegetatio i.e.,

et al.

et al.

A. longifolia A. longifolia

Box 7.3. Methodology (II): was it relevant to analyse diverse vegetation parameters?

e.g. e.g., vs. vs. vs.

ACACIA LONGIFOLIA

A. longifolia

Acacia longifolia

A. longifolia

Acacia longifolia et al. A. longifolia et al. .

Acacia longifolia i.e. vs. et al A. longifolia et al.

A. longifolia

A. longifolia

TRICHILOGASTER ACACIAELONGIFOLIAE

et al. T. acaciaelongifoliae A. longifolia et al. T. acaciaelongifoliae A. longifolia T. acaciaelongifoliae Box 7.4 Biocontrol further steps to release Trichilogaster A. longifolia acaciaelongifoliae *: brief guidelines T. acaciaelongifoliae A. longifolia T. acaciaelongifoliae T. acaciaelongifoliae i.e., T. acaciae- longifoliae

T. acaciaelongifoliae e.g. A. longifolia A. longifolia A. longifolia et al unpublished data

et al. A. longifolia

A. longifolia i.e. A. longifolia

A. longifolia i.e. A. longifolia e.g. Cortaderia selloana C. edulis Conyza A. longifolia A. longifolia

A. longifolia A. longifolia Acacia longifolia C. edulis C. selloana Conyza

Acacia longifolia et al.

A. longifolia e.g.,

A. longifolia

Box 7. 5 Could different management options in the past have solved the erosion problem without introducing A. longifolia ? A. longifolia C. edulis i.e A. longifolia Ammophila arenaria e.g., et al. et al.

A. longifolia T. acaciaelongifoliae A. longifolia

. Biological Invasions, Ammophila arenaria . Conservation Biology, Seeds: the ecology of regeneration in plant communities Corema album Empetraceae Acta Oecologica Ecology, Proceedings of the Royal Society of Victoria Leucospermum Seed Science Research Trichilogaster acaciaelongifoliae Acacia longifolia Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment Acacia Paraserianthes lophanta Fabaceae African Entomology Memoir . Biological Control, . Biological Conservation, Invasive species management: a handbook of principles and tecnhiques Annales Zoologici Fennici Biological control of weeds: a handbook for practitioners and students Acacia Acta Oecologica

Proceedings of the Ecological Society of Australia . Biological Control, Global Ecology and Biogeography Aspects of Applied Biology Vegetatio Silva Lusitana Journal of Ecology, Acacia saligna Israel Journal of Plant Sciences Trichilogaster acaciaelongifoliae Acacia longifolia African entomology Invasion of Portuguese coastal dunes by Acacia longifolia: impacts on soil ecology. Acacia longifolia Soil Biology & Biochemistry Acacia longifolia Applied Soil Ecology, Acacia longifolia . Biological Invasions, Acacia longifolia Plant Invasion: Ecological Threats and Management Solutions Ecosystems and Human Well-being: Biodiversity Synthesis Invasive species management: a handbook of principles and tecnhiques Finisterra Acacia Functional Plant Biology

Annual Review of Environment and Resources, Turning the tide: the eradication of invasive species Diversity and Distributions Acacia Perspectives in Plant Ecology, Evolution and Systematics Acacia longifolia Biological Invasions Carpobrotus edulis. Biological Invasions, Journal of Coastal Research Padrões Fitogeográficos em Sistemas Dunares do Noroeste de Portugal Continental. Vegetatio Trends in Ecology and Evolution Ammophila arenaria . Biological Invasions, Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment Acacia longifolia Plant Invasions: Human perception, ecological impacts and management Diversity and Distributions

Journal of Ecology,