Chapter II

A PROFILE OF STUDY AREA

This chapter attempts to describe physical and socio-economic profile of the study area. Agriculture is determined by physical and non-physical factors. Impact of physical factors such as geology, , drainage and soils on agriculture is enormous. These factors are briefly discussed initially and later the non-physical factors are also discussed to get a macro level picture of the study area. Seasonality which is controlled by the climatic factors is another important factor for determining agricultural production and productivity. The agricultural seasonal pattern is discussed through a generalized model in this chapter.

2.1 Land Distribution Land is vital for human existence-for cultivation, for housing, civilization and culture. All these are intimately connected with land, ecology and nature. has a total land area, including the land covered by inland water bodies, of 65,610 sq. km (approximately 6.56 million hectare). Location of Sri Lanka is shown in Figure 2.1. Administrative boimdaries of Sri Lanka are also showing in Figure 2.2. The land area without water bodies is 64,740 sq. km (approximately 6.47 million hectare). It is nearly 1/5* of the Maharashta state of . About 98.2 per cent of the total geographical area consists of land area and the balance 1.8 per cent consists of larger inland water (Department of Census and Statistics, 2004; 1). Some land is presently used and some remains sparsely used or unutilized. The balance comprises of forests and catchments areas, reserved area, land inimdated by tanks, steep land, land above 500 ft. contour, barren lands and marshes and mangroves. A rough balance sheet of the land distribution among the different categories is given in Table 2.1. J wiJ •.tiiS g %^ 1 f» % V •< fe: se g _,r BHT^* I k. < p A \ H^^H Ps s, <^ rW ^-"^-w •< •^ ? -*^ ^S J ^v* r ** ^1 e & o 4 0 «

> •^e •4 y "A < \^yju-'M at •< } < L * i H / " 1 j^ / M ^ L •< .a 4 ** 4ym „ L B i-v k a< J • • AO^_ 2 s f :«^iy ^W T M ^ H j^ •Sj !j "^ < 6

•< / < J **< k la 1 , A a /si 1

/

0\ Table 2.1 Land Distribution of Sri Lanka - 2000 Land categories Hectares (million) Percentage Presently used 2.63 40.09 Sparsely used and balance land 0.73 11.12 Forests and catchments areas 2.00 30.48 Reservations 0.46 7.01 Inundated by tanks 0.14 2.13 Steep lands 0.38 5.79 Land above the 500ft. contour 0.08 1.21 Barren lands 0.08 1.21 Marshes and mangroves 0.06 0.96 Total 6.56 100 Sources; Silva, Percy (2001) Land Use Changes in Sri Lanka, CNPP, UDA and NPPD Ip.

The land of Sri Lanka is mainly used for agriculture, a part for forestry and wild life conservation and a part for human settlements, industry, infrastructure etc. The balance remains unutilized. The distribution of major land use is given in Table 2.2.

Table 2.2 Sector Wise Land Distribution of Sri Lanka - 2000 Sector Extent Percentage

(Hectares) -• Urban land Built up land 24,000 0.36 Non agricultural land 7,000 0.10 Agricultural land Homegradens 785,000 11.96 Tree and other perennial crops 766,000 11.67 Crop land 2,168,000 33.04 Forest land Natural forest 1,678,000 25.57 Forest plantation 85,000 1.29 Range land Scrub land 510,000 7.77 Grassland 92,000 1.40 Wet lands 65,000 1.06 Water 300,000 4.57 Barren land 80.000 1.21 Total 6,561,000 100 Source; Silva, Percy (2001) op cit,,

The figures show that agriculture (crop land) and natural forests were the major uses of land in the country in 2000's. Nearly one third of the total land was the crop land and another 24 per cent of land was covered by homegradens and trees and perennial crops. There were 18,732,400 people in Sri Lanka in 2001 (Department of Census and Statistics, 2002; 34). Land availability per person is around 0.3 hectare at present. It was about 2.0 hectares in 19"* century and has been gradually decreasing due to the growth in population. In urban areas, such as or Gampaha where the density rises to 3000 per km^ and it is much lower in rural areas such as Mullative or Monaragala, with 50 and 72 persons per km^ respectively. Table 2.3 shows the diminishing pattern of the Man-Land Ratio (MLR) of the coxmtry.

Table 2.3 Land-Man Ratio of Sri Lanka 1830 - 2001 Year Population LMR (Hectares) 1830 962,155 6.83 1901 3,565,954 1.84 1950 7,647,000 0.86 1981 15,012,610 0.44 2001 18,732,400 0.31 Sources; Berugoda, S. "Present Pattem of Land Use and Policy Planning" in Logos, vol; 29, No 3 &4.

2.2 Geology Sri Lanka, like Indian peninsula, formed part of Gondwanaland in the distant geological past, and it was never fully submerged by the sea. The only major marine transgression was in Tertiary times when sediments were laid down in the northwestern belt of the island, including the Jafifoa Peninsular. As a result, nearly 90 per cent of the island is not covered by any sedimentary rocks. Precambrian rocks consist predominantly of a sedimentary succession of a variety of metamorphosed sedimentary rocks that are conventionally divided into two groups on the basis of their lithology and structure - the Highland Series and the Vijayan Series. Miocene formation covers large areas in the northwest and in the JafOia peninsular. They are important aquifers used extensively in the north for irrigation (Abeywickrama, et al. 1991; 3).

Among the superficial deposits of recent origin in many parts of the country are alluvium on the river floodplains and loose unconsolidated sands in the coastal belt. These superficial deposits are economically important for grass lands and agricultural lands.

31 2.3 Physiography Sri Lanka can be divided into three major physiographic zones i.e. the central highlands, the plains and the coastal belt by elevation. The central part of the country consists of , peaks, valleys and plains. The highest point is . (2524 m). Several high mountains such as Adams Peak (2243 m) and Namunukula (2036 m) are located there. The famous Horton Plains also are located in the central highlands. Main feature of the central highland is the emergence of drainage system that is based on uneven landscape.

Figure 2.3

Srilanka- Topogrphy

li^H^^ "^ •5v^ ^V^ * 1 f" ,\ltihide in metres rno-ioo

11. . TL i^n 100-1000 ^g 1000- 2000 ^B > :ooo •/s

£J^K A* m "3' •

^

3^^^ 40 80 K ilometas

SDUKC DK Naboail Mm af SrilMitktdOsg)

Most of the island's surface consists of plains between 30 and 200 meters above sea level, hi the southwest, ridges and valleys rise gradually to merge with the Central Highlands, giving a dissected appearance to the plain. In the southeast, a red, lateritic soil covers relatively level ground that is studded with bare, monolithic hills (Wikipedia on the web). A coastal belt about thirty meters above sea level surrounds the island. Much of the coast consists of scenic sandy beaches indented with coastal

32 lagoons. In the Jafiha peninsula, limestone beds are exposed to the waves as low- lying cliffs in a few places. In the northeast and southwest, where the coast cuts across the stratification of the crystalline rocks, rocky cliffs, bays can be found (Figure 2.3).

Sri Lanka's agriculture is mostly determined by physical factors in particular topography. Tea, rubber and other highland crops are cultivated on the central highland, while main crop of the plains is paddy.

2.4 Climate The climate of Sri Lanka is 'tropical monsoonal' with a marked seasonal rhythm of rainfall (Somasekaram et al, 1997; 16) (Figure2.4). All types of tropical crops are cultivated in Sri Lanka, which lie on the Arid zone. The monsoonal conditions refer to two seasonal wind regimes separated by two periods of light and variable winds. The two monsoon periods and the two inter-monsoon periods control the rhythm.

Figure 2.4 Figure 2.5

Sri Lanka - Avarage Annual Rainfall Sri Lanka - Annual Avarage Temperture

. ralfnU mm 500- 1000 TMa|MTlan-C 1000-1500 EH > 27.5 1500 - 2000 I I2S.0-I7.5 2000 - JOOO I 122.6-25.0 ^B ^^*^ - ''000 I I 20.0-22.5 I I 4000-5000 •I 17.5 - 20.5 ^H '5000 I I < 17.5

A

0 20 40 Kiloiiietas 0 20 40 Kilometers Sratcc Ibe Naliiaial Allx of Sii Laalu (1988) SMICC: HK Nabtud All« of Sn LHMU (1988)

33 Thus, climatic factors such as rainfall, number of rainy days, temperature, hxraiidity and wind are important for fanning crops, the yield and productivity. Sri Lanka's position between 6° and 10° north latitude endows the country with a warm climate, moderated by ocean winds and considerable moisture. The temperature decreases at a steady rate of about 6.5°c for each 1,000 meters rise. The mean temperature ranges fix)m a low of 15.8 degrees celcius at Nuwaraeliya where the elevation is 1895 meters in the central highland to a height of 29°c near the sea on the northeastern coast of (Figure 2.5). The oceanic influence (the maximum width of the island being only 225 kilometers) helps to reduce the temperature in lowlands by the sea breezes.

Rainfall is of three types - monsoonal, convectional and depressional. Monsoon rains occur diiring the two monsoon periods, namely, the Southwest and Northeast, and is responsible for nearly 55 per cent of the annual percipitation. Convectional rain occurs during the inter-monsoon period (Department of Census and Statistics, 2004; 14). The rainfall distribution is influenced by the following factors (a) Through monsoon wind regimes, (b) Equatorial Trough of Low Pressure or Inter Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ), (c) Convection, (d) Orography, (e) Easterly waves and (f) Cyclonic wind circulations (National Atlas of Sri Lanka, 1998).

The annual rainfall could be considered imder four distinctive periods. 1. The Southwest monsoon period i.e. May to September when depressions, cyclonic wind circulations in the low and mid troposphere and orography control the rainfall. Convectional activity can cause rain in the east of the country in May. The total rainfall during the period is below 3,500 mm. The westem slopes of the central highlands receive the highest rainfall. As a result there is a decrease in rainfall in the upper regions of the highlands. The Southwest quarter generally receives between 500 - 3,500 mm. The lowest rainfall is recorded in the northwestem and southern lowlands. The Southwest monsoon period is called >'a/a season.

2. The Inter-monsoon period following the Southwest monsoon i.e. October and November during which convection, cyclonic wind circulations and convergence activity make the rain- fall widespread. The rainfall received is

34 below 1,500 mm during this period. Nearly 50 per cent of the total annual rainfall is received by the northern and northwestern districts such as Jaffiia, Kilinocchi, Mannar and Mullative. Central highland districts get the lowest rainfall during the inter-monsoon period.

3. During the Northeast monsoon period i.e. December to February the orography, waves in the easterly air stream, cyclonic wind circulations and convection influence the rainfall. The heaviest rainfall, which is confined to the eastern half of the country, gradually decreases during the three months. In December the passage of waves of small altitude in the easterly wind stream and cyclonic wind circulation causes steady rain on the eastern slopes of the highlands. The rains on the western half of the coimtry are mainly due to conventional activity. The total rainfall received fi-om December to February is below 1,300 mm. Ehiring the period nearly 50 per cent of the total annual rainfall is received by Batticalloa, Ampara and Trincomalee districts of the eastern region.

4. The Intermonsoon period following the Northeast monsoon i.e. fix)m March to April during which convection over land by afternoon and convergence activity in the ITCZ play their roles. The total rainfall received during the period is below 850 mm. The highest rainfall occurs in the central highlands while the lowest is recorded in the northern regions of Sri Lanka.

2.5 SoUs Panabokke (1998) noted that in Sri Lanka, soil types fall into 14 of the 'Great Soil Groups' of the Seventh Approximation. The distribution of these soil types suggests that climate and terrain constitute the principle determinants of the macro-spatial edaphic diversities in the country. From distribution perspectives, the direct impact of lithology on soils appears far less evident. In Sri Lanka, as in many other parts of the h\unid tropics, similar soils tend to develop over a wide range of parent rocks (Quoted fi-om Peiris, 2006; 48). The soil distribution pattern of the country is illustrated in Figure 2.6 and summarized suitable soil groups for crops of Sri Lanka are shown in Table 2.4.

35 Figure 2.6

SiiilTvpeofSrlLMika Alluvial soils of vadable texture and drauiage Alhmsl Soils BI I BogandHalf-bogsoils.flatterraiii Eroaml mnDaoti steqiroditasdaiulvarious libosols Eras anal remnants Immature brovn Loams HonCalacBrown SoilsandLowHuaicGlejrSods RYP Soil! with Srong^ motUed mb sotl [ I RYP soil with prwnmcnt A1 ^|RVP soil with soft or hard r~1 Red YdlowLatosols 11^ Rcd-Ydlow PodzoUc Soils and Mountain Regosols ^gRed'YdlowPodzolic Soils IB Reddishfilovm Eaith and Low Hunoc Glc? Soils [ I RcddishBrown Earths and ImDoatureBrovn Loams f~7n Regosols on recent beach and dune ands 1 I Regosols on recent beach sands i 1 Soils on Old Alluviam I I SolodtredSolonctz

60 Kjlomdffs Source: TbeNationalAUasof ^Laoala(1988)

Table 2.4 Suitable Soil Groups for Crops of Sri Lanka Soil group Main areas of occurrence Crops Solodised Solonets, Lowlands of the north, Puddle rice Grumusols northeast and northwest Low Humic Gley Dry zone interior Rice Reddish Brown Earth, Dry zone interior Non Calcic Brown Lowlands adjacent to Cereals, pulses, cassava, sugarcane, Red Yellow Latosols, Mahaweli delta castor, onions, chilies, cotton, tobacco, Immature Brown Northern and north western vegetables, fruit crops Loams coastal area , Matale, Kurunegala Red Yellow Podsolic Wet zone Tea, rubber, coconuts, coffee, Reddish Brown Areas of intermediate cinnamon, pepper tobacco, vegetables, Latosolic Soils elevation in wet zone vegetables, cereals, sugarcane, onions Alluvial soils Lower courses of the main rivers Regosols Wide scatter along the Coconut, palmyra, cashew littoral Latosols Areas of intermediate forestry elevation in wet zone Old Alluvial Soils Dry zone interior Groundnuts, pasture, puddle rice, sugar cane Sources; Abeyvnckrama, B.A. at el. (eds.) Natural Resources of Sri Lanka, (1991).Natural Resources, Energy and Science Authority of Sri Lanka,. 109 - 110 pp and Alwis, K.A. de (ec/).Handbook of the Soils of Ceylon (1972).

36 2.6 Vegetation The total area under natviral forest was 2.9 million hectares in 1952 and it decreased up to 1.04 million hectares in 2002. The natural forests in the country are very unevenly distributed with nearly 70 per cent of being concentrated in the Dry zone. All the forest areas are also coming under state control and are under the administration of the Forest Department.

Perhaps the most significant change in the use of land in recent years has taken place in the forestry sector due to the rapidly increasing demand for land for settlement and economic activities. There is a constant struggle going on between forestry and other uses, and in this struggle, forestry invariably emerges as the loser. As a result, forest lands are being constantly turned over to other uses (Silva, 2001; 4).

2.7 Agro Ecology The division of the country into main geographical zones is based on different criteria such as rainfall, temperature and altitude. The first demarcation was done after carefiil consideration of the present land use distribution of forest species, rainfall data, topography and soils. The pattern of rural life in Sri Lanka mostly dq>ends directly or indirectly on rainwater. The mountains and the southwestern parts of the country, known as the 'Wet zone', receive ample rainfall (an annual average of 250 centimeters). Most of the southeast, east and northern part of the country comprises the 'Dry zone', which receives between 120 and 190 centimeters of rainfall annually. Much of the rain in these areas falls fi-omOctobe r to January; during the rest of the year there is very little precipitation, and all living creatures must conserve precious moisture. The arid northwest and southeast coasts receive the least amount of rain i.e. 60 to 120 centimeters per year - concentrated within the short period of the winter monsoon. The distribution of the areas among the climatic zones of Sri Lanka is as follows (Figure 2.7 and Table 2.5).

According to Table 2.5, approximately 23 per cent of the area is in the wet zone, about 63 per cent in the Dry zone, and the balance lay in the area labeled 'Intermediate', It has characteristics of both zones. The natural vegetation of the Dry zone is adapted to the annual change firom flood and drought. The typical ground cover is scrub forest, interspersed with tough bushes and cacti in the driest area.

37 Table 2.5 The Zonal Distribution of Land in Sri Lanka Zone Area in hectare Percentage of the total land area Wet zone 1,537,000 23.42 Intermediate zone 883,000 13.45 Dry zone including arid zone 4,141,000 63.13 Total 6,561,00 100.00 Source; Report of the Land Commission (1987) op cit,. 48p

Among the trees of the dry land forests are some valuable species, such as satinwood, ebony, ironwood, teak and . In the Wet zone, the dominant vegetation of the lowland is a typical evergreen forest, with tall trees, broad foliage, and dense undergrowth of vines and creepers. Subtropical evergreen forests resembling those of temperate flourish in the higher altitudes.

The second stage of sub-division for agro-ecological purpose is based on elevation, which takes into account the temperature limitations for the more important plantation and arable crops grown in the country. The three sub-divisions are, • Low coimtry - below 300 meters • Mid country - between 300 and 900 meters and • Up coimtry - above 900 meters.

The Dry zone falls totally within the low country, while the Intermediate and Wet zones fall within all the three subdivisions of low, mid and upper country (Panabokke, 1998 :79).

The third stage of sub-division (Figure 2.7) is into agro ecological regions, which represent approximately homogenous climate conditions combined with the effects of soil, landform and agricultural activities. The natural enviroimient in each agro- ecological region can thus be generalized in terms of its distinctive rainfall probability regime, soil and nature of terrain.

38 Figure 2.7

Sri lanka - Agro-ecology n A

Saorrr: The National Adas of Sri Lanaka (1988) Zone Symbol Major soil Groups

WUl Red - Yellow Podzolic and mountain regosols WU2 Red Yellow Podzolic soils with dark B horizon WU3 Red - Yellow Podzolic soils and Red Yellow podzolic soils with semi -prominent A I horizon WMl Reddish Brown Latosolic Solis, Immature Brown and Red-Yellow podzolic soils WM2 Reddish Brown Latosolicsolis.Immature Brown and Red-Yellow podzolic soils Wet zone WM3 Red -Yellow podzolic soil and red - Yellow Podzolic soils with semi-prominent AI horizon WLl Red -Yellow podzniic soil and nsd - Yellow Podzolic soils with strongly mottled sub soil WL2 Low humic Oley Solis WL3 WL3:Red - Yellow podzoilc soils with soft & hard laterite WL4 WL4:Red - Yellow podzoilc soils with soft & hard laterite and bog & half bog soils lUl IU2 Red - Yello Podzolic IU3 Red - Yello Podzolic and mountain regosols IMI Red - Yello Podzolic soils regosols Intermediate IM2 Reddish Brown Earth Reddish Brown Earth and immature brown loams zone IM3 Immature brown loams, Reddish Brown Latosolic solis and Reddish Brown Earth ILl Red-Yellow podzolic soils with strongly mottled sub soil, Low Humic gley soils red - yelllow lU podzolic lU Reddish Brown Earths, Immature Brown Loams and low humic gley solis Reddish Brown DLI Reddish Brown Eiirths AND Low Humic Gley soils DL2 Non Calcic Brown soils .Reddish Brown Earths, Soil on old Alluvium .Solodized Solonetz Dry zone DU Solodized Solonetz, Solonchaks and gtumusols DL4 Reddish Brown Earths with high amount of gravel in sub soil. Low Humic Gley soils and solodized DL5 solonetz

39 The agricultural pattern is also changing according to ecological zones. Paddy is the major crop in maha season that secures adequate water from rain or irrigation in Dry and Intermediate zones. During iheyala season, with inadequate water availability for farming, paddy and other field crops that were cultivated were abandoned. Most of abandoned plantations were cultivated in the Wet zoneand seasonality does not affect much during the year.

2.8 Drainage The surface drainage of Sri Lanka is made up of about 100 rivers, most of which are mere wet-season rivulets. Twelve major rivers account for about 75 per cent of the mean annual river discharge of the country, with those that flow entirely through the Wet zone (the highlands and the southwestern part of the country; see below) carrying about half the total discharge. With the exception of the 208-mile-long , all major rivers flow radially from the Central highlands to the sea. The Mahaweli, which originates on the western slopes of the highest areas of the highlands, follows a circuitous route in its upper reaches before it enters the plain to the east of the highlands and then flows toward the northeast coast. Because a part of its catchments is well within the Wet zone, this river has a larger and less seasonally varied flow than the other Dry zone rivers and so is a major asset for irrigation in the drier parts of the country (Janarajaya, 2009). Figure 2.8 shows the drainage systems of Sri Lanka.

2.9 Irrigation In the early periods of history, the cultivation of irrigated rice in the country appears to have been an art rather than a science. Apparently rice was the only crop that was irrigated. The art of irrigation probably was brought into this country by the early Aryan setflers along with the art of tank building. Generally, schemes except the Mahaweli Scheme, which provide irrigation facilities for over 80 hectares each are classified as major schemes. At present there are 535 such schemes of which 309 are storage schemes, 118 are diversion schemes while 96 are drainage, flood confrol or salt water exclusion schemes. In addition, there are 12 lift irrigation schemes installed. All these schemes serve a total extent of about 340,000 hectares under their command. In addition, there are nearly 18,000 minor irrigation schemes each serving less than 80 hectares (Somasekaram et al, 1997; 96). The irrigation schemes

40 constructed during the last several decades provided Ae necessary base for development of settled agriculture and land settlement in Sri Lanka. The majority of the schemes of the past and the schemes under construction are located in the Dry zone. The construction of large storage reservoirs and channel network for the development of irrigated agriculture represents a massive development effort sustained from the 1930s. By the end of 20* century, overall irrigation capacity had reached 540,000 ha.

Figure 2.8

Sri lanaka - Rivers and Tanks

Ltftnd / River •t •• TaidwS N k 4 Msdwatu 0\TI—fl^^O v'^"''- H'^c

»^jre MahawrH Gang

Krlaiii Giin|!iranh

Kalu Oanj^^nJ, 'S^^^ »^\i[ s^y f-«^s/ M \S^i^ ''^'

Ganga rawsila Gaiisa 0 30 60 Kilometers Source: The Natioual AdKofSnLau>ka(1988 ) ^•^sa of this extent, 63 per cent was being served by major irrigation systems. With the completion of the Mahaweli Development programme, these efforts may be regarded as having reached a stage when prospects for further expansion of the area under irrigated agriculture are shrouded in many uncertainties (Peiris, 2006; 84). Figure 2.8

41 shows the present pattern of water resources and irrigation development of the coxmtry. 2.10 Agrarian Cycle (Agrarian Seasons- yala and maha) Even though, Sri Lanka is located in tropical region, seasonal variation in crop cultivation can be identified to a certain extent. As indicated above, climatic component are the major determinants of the agrarian cycle. Accordingly, there are two major cultivation seasons can in Sri Lanka.

1. Yala season: May to September 2. Maha season; November to March

Very high rainfall is received during the yala season firomth e Southwest monsoon. This ^ala rain' is generally heavy in the interior stations and is able to produce yala crops successfully. The maha season's cultivation is also determined by the Inter monsoon and the Northeast monsoon rainfall which is comparatively low. Tennakoon has considered the classification given by B.H. Farmer in 1957, G. Thambyahpillay in

Figure 2.9 Agrarian seasons of Sri Lanka

Compiled by Author

42 1960 and V. Sri Ram in 1968 and pointed out the seasonal variation in the country (Tennakoon, 1986; 48). Accordingly the maha season is the 'largest season' which experiences adequate rainfall for cultivation through out the country. Mostly the Dry zone areas of the country produce better yield of minor crops during the yala season (Figure 2.9).

Figure 2.10 Generalized Model of Agrarian Cycle

^p,HA SEASov

'^osv3svn>'>^

Legend

WM Land prepartrtioo forfadd y

k^'vl Land preparation for chena

iiiiiji Han/esting period

hM\| Planting

Gestation period

Compiled by Author Inner circle-Wet Zone Outer cirde - Dry Zone

43 Figure 2.10 shows the generalized pattern of agrarian cycle mostly based on rainfall of Sri Lanka. These seasons are highly coincidence with rainfall seasons i.e. Northeast monsoon and Southwest monsoon of the coimtry. The Inter- monsoon periods are considered as offseasons because of inadequate rainfall in those periods.

Sri Lanka being small island, does not reveal large variation within the country. However, micro level analysis of the seasonal variation reveals that there is a sUght difference in farming time table within the Dry zone and the Wet zone. This pattern is clearly illustrated in Figure 2.10. The diagram has two circles which indicate the Wet zone (inner circle) and the Dry zone (outer circle). Land preparation for maha season begins at mid September in the Wet zone while at mid October in the Dry zone. Maha is famous for shifting (chena) cultivation in the dry zone and begins in early November with the Northeast monsoon. Paddy cultivation also begins at the onset of Northwest monsoon in the Dry zone. Maha season ends in 1^ or 2°^ week of March every year. Yala season begins with the burst of Southwest monsoon. Paddy is the major crop while shifting cultivation is given negligible importance during yala season due to climatic factors. Gestation period slightly differs in paddy variety. Basically, the length expands from 2 '/i to 3 Vi months in dry and Wet zones. The season ends with harvesting when begins at mid July but it goes till August.

2.11 Agriculture It is estimated that there are about 2 million ha (4.9 million acres) under permanent agriculture in Sri Lanka. This extent is equivalent to about 33 per cent of the 'gross land availabiHty' in the country. The related inter district diversities in this regard indicate that the most important determinant of spatial variation in the availability of land for agriculture is the availability of water. An analysis of covariance between district estimates of 'cultivable total land area' is shown in Figure 2.11. Lines of the graph were drawn with reference to the 'X' and 'Y' axis data i.e. inland water -.300, 400 and 500 in sq km and the arable land area - 2000, 3000 and 4000 in sq km. Accordingly, Anuradapura district has the highest number of inland water to arable land while Colombo district is the lowest. The districts such as Kurunegala, Ampara, PoUonnaruwa, Ampara, Batticaloea, Puttalam and Mulative are above the line

44 indicate the higher proportions of inland water bodies available to the cultivable land area of the districts. Result of the linear regression fo\md that the close positive relationship between two variables (R square is +0.629).

According to the Figure 2.11, the districts such as , Kurunegala, , Batticaloa, Ampara, Puttalam, Mulative and Trincomale represent the highest water potential areas of the country. The lowest water potential areas are located in the smallest triangle of the graph represents the poor water availability.

Figure 2.11

Covarience of surface water potential and cultivable land area

600

• KitUnocchi .. „ •Colombo ;*^ha \ ^ R^apura,

0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000 AraUe land area (sq km) Compiled by Author

On the basis of the land used, the agricultural sector can be divided into two sub sectors; plantations and small holdings. The plantation sector, which has three main crops, tea, rubber and coconut, is commercially oriented. The small holdings or domestic is the agricultural sector mainly growing paddy (rice), other field crops and fi^its and vegetables, is semi subsistence oriented and consists mainly of small, rural farms. About 92 per cent of the agricultural land are held and operated privately by families in smallholdings below two hectares. The small holdings are distributed over 3.5 million distinct land parcels held by about 3.6 million rural household under a wide range of tenure forms and transactional relationship which has developed over

45 Figure 2.12 Figure 2.13

Paddy CnltiiratiaH COM nut Cultivatiaa • fSrilanka ofSiiUnka

Coconut

Figure 2.14 Figure 2.15

Rubber CuUivatMM Tea CuhivatisK •f Sri huka ef Srilauka

Source; The National Atlas of Sri Lanka, (1998) Survey Department of Sri Lanka.

46 2.11 Population The demographic characteristics of a population have both direct and indirect implications of varying degrees on almost all ^heres of himian activity. The basic demographic characteristics of a population are its size, spatial distribution, growth, age-sex composition and employment structure.

The first official census, conducted by the British in 1871 recorded a total population of 2.8 million. Between then and the 2002s, the population increased seven fold. The population of Sri Lanka was estimated to be 18.6 million in mid 2006. This implies an average density of 278 persons per square km. The growth of the country's population in absolute number is at all times high, with current annual increments exceeding 200,000. At the turn of last century, when the population was 3.6 million, it took nearly 20 years for the next million to be added. As in any country, the distribution is uneven.

Figure 2.16

Employment in the Agricultural Sector of Sri Lanka 1990- 2006 60

^cP\

Source; Central Bank of Sri Lanka, 2007

Sri Lanka's economy has been slowly changing from an agrarian economy to a service economy. It is possible to understand the structure of the economy of the country through the proportion of employment in the agricultural sector. In 1990, 47 per cent of the people were engaged in agriculture while it was 33 per cent in 2001 and 34 per cent in 2006 (Figure 2.16). The agricultural sector has become less important when compared with other sectors of the economy. Landlessness, uncertainty, market failure, low profitability, social obligations and generation of

47 wage based employment opportunities are some of the problems confronted by farmers and they are inevitably evicted from the agricultural sphere.

2.13 Discussion This chapter attempted to examine the profile of the study area xmder several headings i.e. location, geology, climate, soils, vegetation, irrigation and agriculture etc,. All factors can be categorized in to physical, socio and economic variables which are related to agriculture. According to the standardized climatic classification world, Sri Lanka has a tropical environment. Even though the macro level climatic condition indicates monotonous picture, micro level situation reveals a different pattern of the coimtry. The next chapter attempts to examine the land use and land tenure pattern of Sri Lanka.

48 REFERENCES Abeywickrama, B.A. at el. (eds.) (1991), Natural Resources of Sri Lanka, Natural Resources, Energy and Science Authority of Sri Lanka.

Alwis, K.A. de {ed) (1972), Handbook of the Soils of Ceylon, n/p.

Beragoda, S. (n/d), "Present Pattern of Land Use and Policy Planning" in Logos, vol; 29, No 3 & 4.

Central Bank of Ceylon (2007), Annual Report, Colombo

Department of Census and Statistics, (2004), Statistical Abstract-2004, Ministry of Interior, Sri Lanka.

Janarajaya, P.S. (2009), "Sri lanka: The land and E)rainage", Britaimica Encyclopedia [Online: Web], Acceded on lOJanuary, 2009, URL: http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/561906/Sri-Lanka/24274/E)rainage

Panabokke, C.R. (1998), Soil and Fertilizers Use of Sri Lanka. M.D. Gunasena Ltd. Colombo (in Sinhala).

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