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Chapter Eleven Knowledge of human nature is the beginning and end of political education. (Henry Adams) CHAPTER ELEVEN THE STATE OF NATURE & THE INFLUENCE OF ORGANIZED SOCIETY HUMAN NATURE? READING QUESTIONS We know how to create This question has been treated by arguments and test them. And a number of thinkers, and you can As you study this chapter, keep these questions in mind for critical we’ve found that some issues are bet they come down on both thinking and analysis. far more complicated than they sides. Some say we’re nasty and • Explain the “Ring of Gyges” seemed to be before we looked only act or become good thought experiment. What is at them. It’s important to ask because organized society its point? whether God exists, and what sort changes us (so, person 0, society • Explain the importance of of being God might be if God 1). Others say we’re just great, but thought experiments in exists. Now what sort of things are society corrupts us (so, person 1, testing philosophical we? What is our nature, our society 0). Which arguments arguments or theories. essence? When you look at a seem more compelling? • What is the difference human being as such (human qua between negative and positive Finally, if we are purely evil or human), what is it? philosophy? What is the role purely good, then how in the of each in the philosophical This is a multi-part question. The first world can we act contrary to our pursuit of truth? part we’ll treat in this chapter (and nature? How is it possible that • Explain the notion called the the others in the rest of this text). something essentially good can “State of Nature.” This question asks about our go sour or something essentially • Explain and analyze nature as moral or virtuous. Are we bad can rise to moral greatness? Hobbes’ state of nature good? Are we evil? If you could How could we change our very argument. What is his theoretically remove us from essential nature? conclusion? How does his argument work? society, and just look at us as Logically, it would seem we individuals—like pinned insects on • Explain Xunzi’s argument couldn’t. that we are essentially, a card or samples in a Petri dish— naturally evil. How does he what would we be like? explain our ability to do good? Analyze his argument. Is it valid? Sound? How can he explain how something can go against its nature? Does his explanation work? • How do Hobbes and Master Hsün disagree regarding human nature and the role of organized society? Do either agree with Glaucon’s suggestion in the Ring of Gyges though experiment? continued… Chapter 11, page 343 The State of Nature & The Influence of Organized Society HUMAN NATURE IS THE ONLY SCIENCE OF MAN; AND READING QUESTIONS, YET HAS BEEN HITHERTO THE MOST NEGLECTED. continued. • How does Xunzi differ (DAVID HUME) from Mengzi regarding human nature? How do they account for the presence of evil? FOUNDATIONS • Explain Rousseau’s state We’ll be maintaining our use of LL: (x = y) → (Px & Py) of nature arguments. How the logical principles we learned We’ll also learn the following : does he reach his final already: conclusion? What is his X is a thought experiment iff x is conclusion? The Principle of Non- a conceptual exploration of a Contradiction (PNC): It is a • Explain Locke’s state of possible SOFA that tests one logical law that for any nature argument. What is particular concept or thesis. his conclusion? How does claim p, it is false that both it differ from Rousseau’s? p and not-p. X is the essence of something y iff x is the most basic, • What is natural law, and PNC: ~(p&~p) necessary, and unalterable how is it different than the The Law of Excluded Middle part of y that defines y as y and law we find in organized society? (LEM): It is a logical law that not something else. for claim p, either p is true • What do all the European X is an accidental property (or or p is not true. philosophers agree on? accident) of y iff x is a part of y What things do all humans LEM: p ∨ ~p that may be understood as share in the State of important but still could be Nature? Bivalence: Every claim or theory removed or changed without has exactly one truth value, • What influence does making y into something other either true or false. (That is, Locke’s account have on than y. both PNC and LEM apply.) American political thought, both historically Leibniz’s Law (LL): It is a logical TASKS AND CQs and currently? law that for anything x, There three critical questions and • Compare and contrast all anything y, and any one task in this chapter. There is the state of nature property P, if x is identical arguments. Who would also one team project. with y, then x and y will agree with whom, and both have P. over what? Which position (or positions) seem(s) to you best supported, both by evidence and by argument? • Explain why one might think humans are naturally evil. What arguments can be supplied for this thesis? Why might one think we’re naturally good? What problems come from taking one position over the other? • What are some criticisms of the social contract theory of justice? Chapter 11, page 344 The State of Nature & The Influence of Organized Society ON THOUGHT EXPERIMENTS One way philosophers attempt to tease out specific problems or issues, as we’ve seen from the last chapter, is the thought experiment. Rowe’s deer in the forest fire scenario is a thought experiment. But what is a thought experiment? X is a thought experiment iff x is a (probably implausible) hypothetical scenario that is designed to isolate and analyze intuitions concerning some philosophical issue. CHAPTER Notice that thought experiments are only probably implausible. OVERVIEW Rowe’s isn’t. But the Matrix is. The Allegory of the Cave is. Most In this chapter, we are primarily thought experiments are implausible because they are isolating concerned with another problem specific intuitions—specific gut feelings or pre-reflective beliefs. In the that deals with metaphysics, but it Allegory of the Cave, for example, Plato wants to look at only the is more directly related to questions process of learning and the nature of reality.* It doesn’t matter that of value theoretical philosophy like somebody who’s spent their whole life strapped to a chair would have ethics and political philosophy. For certain practices and values to atrophied muscles, so wouldn’t be able to clamber out of a steep cave. make sense—to be to some extent It doesn’t matter that somebody who’s never seen color would fail to rational values—reality needs to be grasp the riot of hues behind him, let alone the dizzying array outside certain ways. For example, if it of the sunless cave. In a thought experiment, it does not matter how turned out that human beings probable the scenario is. Saying, this is absurd. It’d never happen! is have no power to direct their own unhelpful, and totally missing the point. Of course this scenario would actions but were instead probably never happen. We’ve probably taken away from it all the marionettes being directed by complexities that would make it possible, in order to focus on the some cosmic puppeteer, it would important intuitions (or those intuitions that are important to the seem very irrational to blame current discussion). people for doing what they do, for calling those actions morally Instead of worrying about how likely a certain scenario is, focus on wrong. * Responsibility requires what the key point of the experiment might be. Thought experiments some ability to control one’s own are like laboratory experiments. In a lab, scientists create artificial actions. More generally, then, how conditions—that would never happen otherwise—in order to narrow the world is (metaphysics) relates down their study to one or two key variables. (A Petrie dish isn’t directly to how we value things in the world. exactly a natural environment!) Specifically for this chapter, we’re continued… looking at what sort of thing a * He’s actually looking at both. The Allegory of the Cave shows up alongside two other human being is. We’ll ask “what is a allegories, which explain the nature of reality in his metaphysical system, and human qua human?” The term qua learning about reality is going to be directly related to the nature of reality itself. If (pronounced ‘quay’) is Latin for as, reality were different, then the path to coming to understand it would be different. or to the extent that (among many other things). When we talk of ‘x * This is a pretty succinct description of the importance of the problem of free will, which we discuss in chapter 13. Chapter 11, page 345 The State of Nature & The Influence of Organized Society qua x,’ we mean we want to talk about x itself, stripped of everything but the core essence of x, without ON THOUGHT EXPERIMENTS, any extras. So in this chapter, we’re continued. going to look at the essence of being human. They set up circumstances with strict parameters in order to limit the We’re also going to try to see how this human qua human is affected variables to only those they wish to study. Thought experiments do by organized society. Once we the same thing, but with concepts.
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