DOCSLIB.ORG

The Sacrifice of Polyxena

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
The Sacrifice of Polyxena The Sacrifice of Polyxena Melissa Natividade The Sacrifice of Polyxena By Charles Le Brun 1619–1690 Paris Date: 1647 Accession Number: 2013.183 ​ Much has been discussed in great detail throughout this semester but naturally much more happened during the Trojan War than can be discussed in the three hours of class each week. Polyxena is one of those subjects that was touched upon but never truly explored in detail, making the painting recounting her sacrifice at the Metropolitan Museum of Art quite surprising and intriguing. Though there are discrepancies regarding details in the setup of the painting, The Sacrifice of Polyxena by Charles Le Brun successfully used specific iconography to capture and reconstruct the exact moment in the Trojan War that he wished to portray to his audience. At first glance, it was clear that the painting was a sacrifice of a young woman, leaving little room for debate on the possible identity of the subject of the painting. With minimal knowledge of the Trojan War, the subject of the sacrifice could be narrowed down to either the sacrifice of Iphigenia at Aulis or the sacrifice of Polyxena at Troy. One object, Achilles’ tomb, in the background of the painting immediately clarifies the circumstance as being the sacrifice of Polyxena. Achilles was the only great warrior that would have gotten such a proper burial and though that did not happen in the Homer’s original works, Le Brun represents Achilles’ tomb as being quite grand to invoke Achilles’ presence in the situation despite his physical absence. Other characters specific to this scene in Ovid’s “Metamorphoses” are Hecuba and Neoptolemus, who has substantial iconography in the painting. His slanted profile is painted with remarkable similarity to his father’s profile that is almost parallel to his own, with even their helmets being one and the same. As well as having the profile of Achilles to help identify Neoptolemus, Le Brun also makes Neoptolemus baby­faced to a degree that clashes with his actions and build, a tool used to subtly invoke his age and emphasize his identity that could otherwise be confused with a soldier seizing Iphigenia for her sacrifice. Hecuba, though lacking in iconography, can be identified by her rich, flowing articles of clothing and golden crown, as she would be the only Trojan royal that would be alive and who would mourn for Polyxena. There are discrepancies in the painting that clash with Ovid’s original description but some of these discrepancies invoke the traditional Baroque style that Le Brun was so highly­regarded for. “Le Brun personally created or supervised the production of most of the paintings, sculptures, and decorative objects commissioned by the French government for three decades during the reign of Louis XIV”(Encyclopaedia Britannica), making his style widely ​ ​ distinguished and easily detected. Polyxena was a virgin and valued her virginity, according to Ovid, until her last dying breath, being “careful to hide the parts that should be hidden, and to protect the honour of her chaste modesty,” (Ovid BK XIII:429­480). This manner was what made Polyxena the perfect sacrifice for Achilles, overlooking their history and her supposed unintentional treachery, but it also hid what Baroque painters such as Le Brun, so loved to explore. In the “Metamorphoses” Polyxena was said to have bared her throat and one breast to be slain but one breast would never be enough for the Baroque period, in which fleshy bodies were presented in their entirety. This explains why Le Brun chose to bare almost all of Polyxena, covering only her lower body. Other variations however, do not seem to interfere with Le Brun’s style of composition and do not have much basis. Achilles’s tomb is, as mentioned before, is quite grand but without much necessity as a simple depiction of arms or of Achilles’ profile alongside his tomb would have gotten the point across while also staying true to the kind of burial he would have gotten amidst a war. The background of the painting is also quite strange to have considering Troy itself was on a hill but it overlooked the plain of Scamander which would not look like the mountainous background Le Brun presents. Polyxena is said to have been pierced in the breast but the perspective in the painting make it appear as though she is going to be pierced in the throat. The priest is also mentioned as “weeping, and against his will, driving his sword home, piercing the breast she offered up,” in Ovid’s description of the scene whilst the priest does none of this in the painting. On the contrary to the original description, the priest is in the shadows of the painting and does not have very much to do with the scene at all. He does not have a look of resentment but rather a look of indifference or hollowness and his role of killing Polyxena is given to Neoptolemus instead. Despite the discrepancies, LeBrun does his part to maintain the scene very much like it is originally presented by Ovid, even adding small details to further connect the painting to the scene it is supposed to depict. Polyxena looks very much like she is being torn from Hecuba’s arms in the painting and the way she looks in her mother’s direction invokes Polyxena’s last words requesting that her body be returned to her mother without ransom. Much like it would be expected, Polyxena does not have a fearful expression on her face but rather a look of disappointment or distaste at the entire ordeal. Though the priest and Neoptolemus do not play the same roles in the painting as they do in “Metamorphoses”, LeBrun does include a priest and assigns Neoptolemus the sword that is depicted by Ovid as well. Beyond describing the scene in detail, giving particular focus to Achilles’ tomb to invoke his character, LeBrun also cleverly sneaks a horse into the scene on the top right corner of the painting that most likely serves as an indirect reference to the Trojan War during which this scene took place. In terms of quality of work, detail and focus on historical context LeBrun sets a very high standard for depictions of the sacrifice of Polyxena, making other paintings of the same scene subject to scrutiny. Giovanni­Battista Pittoni for example was also a Baroque painter who ​ depicted the sacrifice of Polyxena, however his work does not portray the scene with so much regard to historical context as LeBrun’s work does. As seen in Figure 1, Pittoni makes the scene too flowery and grand in setting when in truth the Greeks did not have such a magnificent tomb for Achilles while they were still battling in Troy nor did they have such rich garments to flounce around in. [good!] ​ ​ Though there are some disparities regarding details in the setup of the painting, The Sacrifice of Polyxena by Charles Le Brun in general successfully employed specific iconography and historical context to fully explore and recreate the moment in the Trojan War in which Polyxena was sacrificed while also staying true to the traditional Baroque style of the era. Figure1: The Sacrifice of Polyxena at the Tomb of Achilles by giovanni­battista pittoni Works Cited Metamorphoses, Ovid, translated by A.S. Kline ​ The Sacrifice of Polyxena at the Tomb of Achilles by giovanni­battista pittoni http://art.thewalters.org/detail/40682/the­sacrifice­of­polyxena­at­the­tomb­of­achilles/ Charles LeBrun, http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/333292/Charles­Le­Brun ​.
Load more

Recommended publications
  • Trojan Women: Introduction
    Trojan Women: Introduction 1. Gods in the Trojan Women Two gods take the stage in the prologue to Trojan Women. Are these gods real or abstract? In the prologue, with its monologue by Poseidon followed by a dialogue between the master of the sea and Athena, we see them as real, as actors (perhaps statelier than us, and accoutered with their traditional props, a trident for the sea god, a helmet for Zeus’ daughter). They are otherwise quite ordinary people with their loves and hates and with their infernal flexibility whether moral or emotional. They keep their emotional side removed from humans, distance which will soon become physical. Poseidon cannot stay in Troy, because the citizens don’t worship him any longer. He may feel sadness or regret, but not mourning for the people who once worshiped but now are dead or soon to be dispersed. He is not present for the destruction of the towers that signal his final absence and the diaspora of his Phrygians. He takes pride in the building of the walls, perfected by the use of mason’s rules. After the divine departures, the play proceeds to the inanition of his and Apollo’s labor, with one more use for the towers before they are wiped from the face of the earth. Nothing will be left. It is true, as Hecuba claims, her last vestige of pride, the name of Troy remains, but the place wandered about throughout antiquity and into the modern age. At the end of his monologue Poseidon can still say farewell to the towers.
    [Show full text]
  • Senecan Tragedy and Virgil's Aeneid: Repetition and Reversal
    City University of New York (CUNY) CUNY Academic Works All Dissertations, Theses, and Capstone Projects Dissertations, Theses, and Capstone Projects 10-2014 Senecan Tragedy and Virgil's Aeneid: Repetition and Reversal Timothy Hanford Graduate Center, City University of New York How does access to this work benefit ou?y Let us know! More information about this work at: https://academicworks.cuny.edu/gc_etds/427 Discover additional works at: https://academicworks.cuny.edu This work is made publicly available by the City University of New York (CUNY). Contact: [email protected] SENECAN TRAGEDY AND VIRGIL’S AENEID: REPETITION AND REVERSAL by TIMOTHY HANFORD A dissertation submitted to the Graduate Faculty in Classics in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy, The City University of New York 2014 ©2014 TIMOTHY HANFORD All Rights Reserved ii This dissertation has been read and accepted by the Graduate Faculty in Classics in satisfaction of the dissertation requirement for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. Ronnie Ancona ________________ _______________________________ Date Chair of Examining Committee Dee L. Clayman ________________ _______________________________ Date Executive Officer James Ker Joel Lidov Craig Williams Supervisory Committee THE CITY UNIVERSITY OF NEW YORK iii Abstract SENECAN TRAGEDY AND VIRGIL’S AENEID: REPETITION AND REVERSAL by Timothy Hanford Advisor: Professor Ronnie Ancona This dissertation explores the relationship between Senecan tragedy and Virgil’s Aeneid, both on close linguistic as well as larger thematic levels. Senecan tragic characters and choruses often echo the language of Virgil’s epic in provocative ways; these constitute a contrastive reworking of the original Virgilian contents and context, one that has not to date been fully considered by scholars.
    [Show full text]
  • Extended Abstract Vol 3, Iss 1 International Journal of Advanced
    Extended Abstract International Journal of Advanced Research in Electrical, Electronics and Vol 3, Iss 1 Instrumentation Engineering 2020 Machine Learning 2019: Cassandra-A novel versatile fully scalable Predictive Maintenance solution: Ludovic A. Krundel - IngDan Labs • Cogobuy Group, Comtech Tower, Hong Kong Ludovic A. Krundel IngDan Labs, Cogobuy Group, Comtech Tower, Hong Kong Machines with moving parts induce vibrations. Paris, who demands that he will travel to Sparta, and Various readings such as wavelength, frequency, on the off chance that Hesione isn't returned to him, he phase, amplitude, and more, measure these vibrations. will take Helen. The pressure increments when Analysis of these readings can not only identify but Cassandra encounters a sort of fit and collapses, also facilitate the prediction of faults. Advanced having anticipated the drop of Troy. By the time she calculations such as Fast Fourier Transform and recuperates, Paris has cruised to Sparta and returned, application of pre-trained deep networks lead to bringing Helen, who wears a veil. Cassandra before projection estimates. long starts to suspect—but does not need to believe— that Helen isn't in Troy, after all. No one is allowed to Cassandra provides accurate Predictive Maintenance see her, and Cassandra has seen Paris' previous darling for all types of machinery with moving parts and more Oenone clearing out his room. Be that as it may, she is such as train rails. Our solution is as revolutionary as incapable to acknowledge that Troy—that her father— replacing the horse by the car: using Cassandra in a would proceed to get ready for a war on the off chance factory can avoid considerable costs in the break down that its preface were untrue.In spite of the fact that related expenses.
    [Show full text]
  • ABSTRACT a Director's Approach to Euripides' Hecuba Christopher F. Peck, M.F.A. Mentor: Deanna Toten Beard, Ph.D. This Thesi
    ABSTRACT A Director’s Approach to Euripides’ Hecuba Christopher F. Peck, M.F.A. Mentor: DeAnna Toten Beard, Ph.D. This thesis explores a production of Euripides’ Hecuba as it was directed by Christopher Peck. Chapter One articulates a unique Euripidean dramatic structure to demonstrate the contemporary viability of Euripides’ play. Chapter Two utilizes this dramatic structure as the basis for an aggressive analysis of themes inherent in the production. Chapter Three is devoted to the conceptualization of this particular production and the relationship between the director and the designers in pursuit of this concept. Chapter Four catalogs the rehearsal process and how the director and actors worked together to realize the dramatic needs of the production. Finally Chapter Five is a postmortem of the production emphasizing the strengths and weaknesses of the final product of Baylor University’s Hecuba. A Director's Approach to Euripides' Hecuba by Christopher F. Peck, B.F.A A Thesis Approved by the Department of Theatre Arts Stan C. Denman, Ph.D., Chairperson Submitted to the Graduate Faculty of Baylor University in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Master of Fine Arts Approved by the Thesis Committee DeAnna Toten Beard, Ph.D., Chairperson David J. Jortner, Ph.D. Marion D. Castleberry, Ph.D. Steven C. Pounders, M.F.A. Christopher J. Hansen, M.F.A. Accepted by the Graduate School May 2013 J. Larry Lyon, Ph.D., Dean Page bearing signatures is kept on file in the Graduate School. Copyright © 2013 by Christopher F. Peck
    [Show full text]
  • The Polyxena Pattern
    J. Weiner / PsyArt 20 (2016) 104–115 The Polyxena Pattern Jeffrey Weiner UC Davis Abstract The title of this article is based on Seneca's description of the sacrifice of Polyxena in "The Trojan Women." The fear, desire, and transcendence that the sacrificed maiden elicits in the audience put the feminine at the center of an experience of fear and wonder that characterizes Shakespearean romance. This paper explores the paradoxical, early modern concept of "amazement" in relation to traumatic wounding and gender. Focusing on Shakespeare's late romances, especially Cymbeline and The Winter's Tale, I link the experience of terror to a traumatizing "evil queen" archetype. This fantasy inspires a sense of amazement as terror and results in the punishment of another archetypal character, the sacrificed maiden. When the female figure returns as the redeeming maiden at the end of Shakespeare's romances, she allows the male spectator to approach the terror and desire that the feminine inspire in him by providing him with an escape into fantasy. Keywords Early modern, theory of the soul, amazement, terror, romance, transformation To cite as Weiner, J., 2016, ‘The Polyxena Pattern’, PsyArt 20, pp. 104–115. In Shakespeare’s Pericles, Cymbeline, and The Winter’s Tale the men succumb to their fantasies of feminine threat and allure. If we think of Shakespeare’s plays chronologically, this is not surprising given the sharpening polarization of female characters in his late tragedies, which directly precede the romances: the malevolent sisters and the misunderstood, sacrificed daughter in King Lear; maligned Desdemona, who in Othello’s mind flutters between irresistible goodness and repugnant evil; the polar opposite wives, Lady Macbeth and Lady Macduff; and, of course, the seductive, but debauched temptress Cleopatra and the self-sacrificing, chaste Octavia.
    [Show full text]
  • The Wooden Horse
    THE WOODEN HORSE 0. THE WOODEN HORSE - Story Preface 1. ACHILLES 2. HELEN AND PARIS 3. THE TROJAN WAR 4. THE PLOT THICKENS 5. DEATH OF HECTOR 6. DEATH OF ACHILLES 7. THE WOODEN HORSE 8. RUINS OF TROY AND MYCENAE This vase—from about 675-650 BC—depicts a horse on wheels. If you look closely, you can also see something else: Greeks inside (and outside) the object. Image copyright Mykonos Archeological Museum, all rights reserved, and online via Beazley Archive at Oxford University. Provided here as fair use for educational purposes. Still unable to subdue the Trojans, Odysseus and the Greeks (Achaeans) needed to find a way to surreptitiously enter the fortified town. They learned, from Helenus—a Trojan seer—that in order to defeat Troy, Neoptolemus (Achilles’ son) would have to join the Achaean forces. Helenus also told the Greeks they would not win the war unless they stole the sacred Palladium—a wooden statue of Athena (called Minerva by the Romans)—which was said to have fallen from heaven. As long as that statue stood in Troy, the Greeks could not take the city take the city. On a dark night, Diomedes (with the help of Odysseus) climbed a wall of Troy. Once inside the city, Diomedes stole the Palladium, thereby weakening Troy’s defenses. Epeios (it is said) created a wooden horse big enough to hide many Greek warriors. Leaving the horse outside the gates of Troy, and moving their ships out of view, the Greeks fooled Priam and his subjects into believing their enemies had given up.
    [Show full text]
  • Trojan War - Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia Trojan War from Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia for the 1997 Film, See Trojan War (Film)
    5/14/2014 Trojan War - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Trojan War From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia For the 1997 film, see Trojan War (film). In Greek mythology, the Trojan War was waged against the city of Troy by the Achaeans (Greeks) after Paris of Troy took Helen Trojan War from her husband Menelaus king of Sparta. The war is one of the most important events in Greek mythology and has been narrated through many works of Greek literature, most notably through Homer's Iliad. The Iliad relates a part of the last year of the siege of Troy; its sequel, the Odyssey describes Odysseus's journey home. Other parts of the war are described in a cycle of epic poems, which have survived through fragments. Episodes from the war provided material for Greek tragedy and other works of Greek literature, and for Roman poets including Virgil and Ovid. The war originated from a quarrel between the goddesses Athena, Hera, and Aphrodite, after Eris, the goddess of strife and discord, gave them a golden apple, sometimes known as the Apple of Discord, marked "for the fairest". Zeus sent the goddesses to Paris, who judged that Aphrodite, as the "fairest", should receive the apple. In exchange, Aphrodite made Helen, the most beautiful Achilles tending the wounded Patroclus of all women and wife of Menelaus, fall in love with Paris, who (Attic red-figure kylix, c. 500 BC) took her to Troy. Agamemnon, king of Mycenae and the brother of Helen's husband Menelaus, led an expedition of Achaean The war troops to Troy and besieged the city for ten years because of Paris' Setting: Troy (modern Hisarlik, Turkey) insult.
    [Show full text]
  • List of Characters
    Cambridge University Press 978-0-521-67825-4 - Euripides: Hecuba John Harrison Excerpt More information List of characters GHOST OF POLYDORUS son of Priam and Hecuba HECUBA widow of Priam, king of Troy CHORUS captured Trojan women, fellow slaves of Hecuba POLYXENA Hecuba’s daughter, a captured slave ODYSSEUS son of Laertes, lord of Ithaca, a prominent fighter at Troy TALTHYBIUS Greek herald SERVANT old Trojan woman, now a slave AGAMEMNON King of Argos/Mycenae, commander of the Greek army POLYMESTOR lord of the Thracian Chersonese 1 © Cambridge University Press www.cambridge.org Cambridge University Press 978-0-521-67825-4 - Euripides: Hecuba John Harrison Excerpt More information PROLOGUE (1–92) The Prologue is the part of a Greek play which preceded the entry of the Chorus. Some plays, especially those by Sophocles, begin with a dialogue. Euripides preferred, as here, to have a single character introduce himself or herself and explain the dramatic situation. Setting of the play The action takes place soon after the end of the Trojan War. See page vi and map, page vii. 3 Hades … Polydorus … Hecuba Hades is the god of the underworld. In classical ‘theology’, after the overthrow of Cronos and his fellow Titans power was shared between Zeus and his two brothers. Zeus became supreme ruler on Mount Olympus, Poseidon took control of the seas, and Hades ruled over the dead in the underworld. Polydorus, a ghost (see ‘Ghosts’, page 6) tells us (13–15) that he was too young to fight at Troy. In Homer’s Iliad (where his mother was Laothoe, not Hecuba), against his father Priam’s (4) wishes he ran impetuously into battle and was killed by Achilles (Iliad xx and xxii).
    [Show full text]
  • HECUBA by Euripides
    HECUBA by Euripides translated by Jay Kardan and Laura-Gray Street POLYDORUS HECUBA CHORUS POLYXENA ODYSSEUS TALTHYBIUS THERAPAINA AGAMEMNON POLYMESTOR Script copyright Jay Kardan and Laura-Gray Street. Apply to the authors for performance permissions. Hecuba — translated by Kardan and Street — in Didaskalia 8 (2011) 32 POLYDORUS I come from bleakest darkness, where corpses lurk and Hades lives apart from other gods. I am Polydorus, youngest son of Hecuba and Priam. My father, worried Troy might fall to Greek offensives, sent me here, to Thrace, my mother’s father’s home and land of his friend Polymestor, who controls this rich plain of the Chersonese and its people with his spear. My father sent a large stash of gold with me, to insure that, if Ilium’s walls indeed (10) were toppled, I’d be provided for. He did all this because I was too young to wear armor, my arms too gangly to carry a lance. As long as the towers of Troy remained intact, and the stones that marked our boundaries stood upright, and my brother Hector was lucky with his spear, I thrived living here with my father’s Thracian friend, like some hapless sapling. (20) But once Troy was shattered—Hector dead, our home eviscerated, and my father himself slaughtered on Apollo’s altar by Achilles’ murderous son— then Polymester killed me. This “friend” tossed me dead into the ocean for the sake of gold, so he could keep Priam’s wealth for himself. My lifeless body washes ashore and washes back to sea with the waves’ endless ebb and flow, and remains unmourned, unburied.
    [Show full text]
  • A Preliminary Analysis of Coincidentia Opporitorum in Euripidean Drama: the Case of Hecuba1
    A Preliminary Analysis of Coincidentia Opporitorum in Euripidean Drama: The Case of Hecuba1 John Panteleimon Manoussakis (College of the Holy Cross and Australian Catholic University) The Structure of the Play The structure of the play has caused some considerable troubles to its critics.2 It seems as if Euripides had brought together two different stories, namely, the one staging Polyxena’s sacrifice and the other narrating Polydoros’ murder.3 And indeed, the play in its present form is a kind of stitching together of these two pieces4 and the exact point of their seam can be unmistakably found in verse 658 when, for the first time, the serving-woman begins to speak, after her return from the shore, and carrying in her hands Polydoros’ corpse, announces to Hecuba the bad news of her son’s death. From here on, Polyxena disappears and Polydoros’ dead body haunts the stage; the sacrificed daughter gives precedence to the murdered son.5 Furthermore, some characters appearing in the first half of the play, like Odysseus and Talthybius, are not even mentioned in the second half; while Polymestor, the causa malis, stays on the stage for as many as 342 verses, up to the end of the play. However, the dichotomy of the play becomes more obvious through the development of the characters. During the play’s course the initial depiction of each main character suffers its uttermost alteration (μετάστασις, 1266).6 After these characteristics of the pay’s structure are taken into consideration, there is no wonder why generations of classicists are at pains to resolve this annoying “defect” which splits Euripides’ Hecuba into at least two different components.
    [Show full text]
  • Troy Myth and Reality
    Part 1 Large print exhibition text Troy myth and reality Please do not remove from the exhibition This two-part guide provides all the exhibition text in large print. There are further resources available for blind and partially sighted people: Audio described tours for blind and partially sighted visitors, led by the exhibition curator and a trained audio describer will explore highlight objects from the exhibition. Tours are accompanied by a handling session. Booking is essential (£7.50 members and access companions go free) please contact: Email: [email protected] Telephone: 020 7323 8971 Thursday 12 December 2019 14.00–17.00 and Saturday 11 January 2020 14.00–17.00 1 There is also an object handling desk at the exhibition entrance that is open daily from 11.00 to 16.00. For any queries about access at the British Museum please email [email protected] 2 Sponsor’sThe Trojan statement War For more than a century BP has been providing energy to advance human progress. Today we are delighted to help you learn more about the city of Troy through extraordinary artefacts and works of art, inspired by the stories of the Trojan War. Explore the myth, archaeology and legacy of this legendary city. BP believes that access to arts and culture helps to build a more inspired and creative society. That’s why, through 23 years of partnership with the British Museum, we’ve helped nearly five million people gain a deeper understanding of world cultures with BP exhibitions, displays and performances. Our support for the arts forms part of our wider contribution to UK society and we hope you enjoy this exhibition.
    [Show full text]
  • Scanned Using Book Scancenter 5022
    The Trojan War Literature and Legends from the Bronze Age to the Present Second Edition D ia n e P. T h o m p s o n McFarland &. Company, Inc., Publishers Jefferson, North Carolina, and London 8. Transmission o f Troy Stories to the M iddle Ages 103 8 Transmission of Troy Stories to the Middle Ages In the gradual transition from the classical pagan world of Augustus and Virgil to the solidly Christian world of the European Latin Middle Ages, two major world-historical events affected the continuing tradition of Troy stories. The first event was the establishment of Christianity as the official religion of the Roman Empire in 312 CE. Christians hated the pagan gods and Homer’s Iliad and Odyssey were full of pagan gods, so Homer’s version of the Trojan War did not appeal to an increasingly Christian civilization. The second event Rome, Constantinople and Troy was the division of the Roman Empire into the Greek-speaking East and the Latin-speaking West in 395 CE. This split of the Roman Empire left the Greek East still reading Homer as or junior emperor, who was his adopted son and heir apparent. This system of four rulers part of their own cultural heritage, while Virgil’s Aeneid and a so-called eyewitness account was called the Tetrarchy. In 324 CE Constantine eliminated his co-emperor Licinius and of the Trojan War by Dares became the main versions of the Troy story transmitted in the became the single ruler of both East and West (Millar 175-77; Chuvin 23).
    [Show full text]