Walking on Thin Ice: Entrepreneurship in Nunavik

Home , Inukjuak

WALKING ON THIN ICE Entrepreneurship in Nunavik

Nathan Cohen-Fournier, CFA CONTENTS

About 4 Credits 5

Executive Summary 6 Background 8

Current State of Nunavik 8 Creation of Nunavik 11 Stakeholders of Economic Development in Nunavik 12

Methodology 14

A Framework for Entrepreneurship 14 Approach & Collaboration 15 Data Collection 16 Limitations 17

Findings & Analysis 20

Perceptions of Entrepreneurship 20

Business in Nunavik 24

Challenges 25 Opportunities 28

Recommendations 30 References 36 Acknowledgments 39

2 WALKING ON THIN ICE ENTREPRENEURSHIP IN NUNAVIK 3 ABOUT CREDITS

The Institute IBGC Global Research Author Advisory Team

for Business in the Fellowship Nathan Cohen-Fournier, CFA Karen Jacobsen Global Context Associate Professor of Research, Since 2009, IBGC has pioneered new models Nathan is pursuing a Master’s in The Fletcher School and experiential learning in international International Business at The Fletcher business through collaborative research School of Law & Diplomacy at Tufts Acting Director, projects. IBGC’s Global Research Fellowship University in Boston. Prior to graduate Feinstein International Center offers the unique opportunity to engage school, he worked in the Corporate exceptional Master’s candidates in cutting- Strategy department of Bombardier, a The Fletcher School’s Institute for Business Katherine Round edge research in frontier markets on issues global manufacturer of planes and trains. in the Global Context (IBGC) was founded Assistant Director, related to inclusive growth and business. This Institute for Business in the Global Context, in recognition of the need for a new Nathan is passionate about social program supports research innovation, The Fletcher School approach to the study of international allowing students to push beyond the scope entrepreneurship and sustainable business and capital markets—one that of traditional market research by engaging in development. He has been leading the prepares global business leaders with high-touch field methods to uncover Fletcher Arctic Initiative, which convenes essential “contextual intelligence.” important aspects of industry and economic an annual interdisciplinary forum to address the implications of an opening Through four core activities—research, development in emerging economies. Arctic. He is a research fellow at the dialogue, education, and lab— IBGC This report is the result of this innovative Institute for Global and Maritime Studies provides an interdisciplinary lens through collaboration. and an early career scholar within the which global markets and the underlying Arctic-FROST network. Born and raised drivers of change can be understood. IBGC’s Learn more at fletcher.tufts.edu/InclusionInc in Montréal, Nathan graduated with a Inclusive Growth Initiative aims to explore Bachelor in Finance from Concordia the potential trade-offs and innovations University in 2012 and completed the needed to disrupt classical business and CFA designation. economic frameworks and create truly sustainable prosperity for individuals, communities, and private enterprise.

4 WALKING ON THIN ICE ENTREPRENEURSHIP IN NUNAVIK 5 Nunavik, the land that spreads through a demonstrated that entrepreneurship is third of Québec’s immense province up considered to be a foreign concept, Nunavik to the Arctic Circle, has entered very mostly relating to self-employment and Jean-François Arteau EXECUTIVE quickly into a post-industrial world, maximization of available resources. creating a fracture between the old and Entrepreneurship is also perceived as a And yet… the new. Home to around 13,000 people, means to improve community well-being absence, of which a vast majority are Inuit, and decrease dependency to external emptiness, Nunavik’s social, economic and cultural stakeholders. I observed that through white monster, SUMMARY organization remains distinct from the relentless work and persistence, ethylene sirens, rest of Canada. Development is heavily business owners in Nunavik offer viable and cold, the cold indeed driven by external stakeholders, and solutions tailored to the needs and And yet… The Arctic is increasingly attracting considerable international Nunavik is one of the territories in values of the population. Entrepreneurs Canada where local businesses are the consider themselves to be at the heart of friendship, attention as global warming makes resources more accessible scarcest. With their legal and historical Nunavik’s renewed sense of identity and sharing, claims to the land, Inuit communities are pride. However, broader community identity, and Arctic maritime transportation a reality. The dynamics of asserting control and strengthening their members do not always look kindly to future, role in the development of the region. these economic agents, seeing play, globalization have fundamentally transformed the lifestyle of entrepreneurship as an individual means hope, During the summer of 2016, I sought to to accumulate capital and wealth. and hope, hope dear Lord. Arctic inhabitants. understand the communities’ Looking ahead, one wonders how perspectives towards entrepreneurship. communities will reconcile the Source: Two months of field work enabled me to capitalistic nature of entrepreneurship Faubert, M. (2010). Nunavik – interview 36 individuals of diverse and the fundamental Inuit values of Québec Untold. Les Éditions du Passage. backgrounds. These interviews Québec City. QC. sharing and solidarity.

6 WALKING ON THIN ICE ENTREPRENEURSHIP IN NUNAVIK 7 BACKGROUND

Through this research, I sought to often, when analyzing development struggles of businesses to make ends analyze the perspectives of local opportunities in the “North”, resource meet. Entrepreneurs in Nunavik are not entrepreneurs in the northernmost extraction is the silver lining. Instead of a only pursuing sustainable economic region of Québec. Are Nunavik homogenizing representation, opportunities, they are also seeking to entrepreneurs perceiving themselves, entrepreneurial avenues have the take ownership of their future. Although both women and men, as agents of potential to improve autonomy and entrepreneurs are few and far between in social and economic change? In what decision-making, breaking the damaging Nunavik, their will and perseverance are capacity are they contributing to the cycles of resource and state dependence. a bright light in a region otherwise development of the region? In tackling While the context for entrepreneurship known for its overcrowded homes and these interrogations, I delved into three in Inuit communities is unique in many elevated suicide rates. main research questions: 1) How is ways, the findings from this case study entrepreneurship defined and perceived can be applied to other remote and in modern Inuit society? 2) What are culturally distinct communities around Current State some of the main challenges and the globe. There is no one path for of Nunavik opportunities faced by entrepreneurs in progress and Nunavik shows us the running their businesses? and 3) What diversity in which local economic Nunavik, which means “Great Land” in programs could be designed to support development has the potential to be Inuktitut,1 is the Arctic region of Quebec, current and future business owners? portrayed. north of the 55th parallel and covering 500,000 square kilometers. Nunavik is a The three axes of research were My field work allowed me to participate homeland territory to Inuit, which developed in collaboration with the in the daily life of Inuit communities and represent 89.1% of the population.2 Kativik Regional Government. to interview artists, politicians, hunters, Within this vast area of pristine rivers, Furthermore, this report attempts to fill a and many other inspiring individuals. I countless lakes, and soaring mountains, research gap in the literature found a nascent private sector looking to fourteen communities exist as surrounding entrepreneurship in challenge the status quo by decreasing functional, dynamic entities. Nunavik. I hope the findings will support the region’s reliance on public sector Municipalities are connected to each further inquiry into the local economic institutions. I witnessed the challenges other and to the rest of the country by development of Arctic communities. Too experienced within communities and the

8 WALKING ON THIN ICE ENTREPRENEURSHIP IN NUNAVIK 9 SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC INEQUITY “Archeological evidence indicates that Inuit IN NUNAVIK have lived and used [Nunavik] in a continuous manner for over 4000 years.” 13 Many Inuit face social and economic inequities that impact their health and wellbeing.

Nunavik All Canadians 39% 4% of Nunavik Inuit live in of Canadians live in crowded homes crowded homes 40% 85% of Inuit aged 25 to 64 in of all Canadians aged 25 to Nunavik have earned a high 64 have earned a high school school diploma or equivalent diploma or equivalent

plane, with maritime transport offering a concluding report to describe what Nunavik versus the rest of Québec.9 convenient alternative in the brief occurred.5 To this day, Inuit communities Food and commodities are usually 150% $20,150 $56,889 summers. In Québec, the government’s are striving to find a path forward, while to 200% more costly than provincial Plan Nord put forward ambitious mining dealing with past traumas. standards.10 Despite an expanding The median individual The median individual income and further investments totaling economy, unemployment sits at 14%, It is safe to say that the economy in income after-tax for Inuit aftex-tax for non-Inuit people $50CAD billion over the span of 25 double of Québec’s 7.2%.11 The region’s Nunavik is considerably different from in Nunavik in Nunavik years, which has been received by mixed quality of life indicators such as the economy in the rest of Canada. reviews due to the potential education, life expectancy, and housing Academics describe it as a “mixed” environmental damages.3 are well documented, and the consensus economy, composed of traditional is alarming. Climate change is more than an activities (hunting, sewing, fishing, etc.) 19% 7% abstraction in Nunavik. As declared by and participation in the wage economy.6 Nunavik, however, should not be Sheila Watt-Cloutier, Nobel Peace Prize GDP has tripled over the past decade to remembered for statistics. Beyond those unemployment rate of Inuit unemployment rate for nominee and Inuit activist, “the human reach close to $1 billion, with the public numbers, this research shows another in Nunavik all of Canada dimension is seldom considered” when sector and the mining industry side of Inuit reality, one of resilience and thinking about global warming.4 Land accounting for 71% of GDP.7 The resourcefulness. Inuit culture and and ice do not only represent hunting population of Nunavik grew by 12% traditions remain very much alive and fishing arenas, they are intrinsically between 2006 and 2011, one of the despite the pace of change. Ninety-nine linked to Inuit way of life. Throughout the fastest rates across the entire country. percent of Nunavik Inuit are able to 75.2 80.6 world, Indigenous populations are The demographics also highlight a very converse in Inuktitut, and the region has voicing their claims. The Truth and young population with nearly two-thirds one of the highest rates of hunting, The average life The average life expectancy Reconciliation Commission of Canada of individuals aged 30 years and less.8 trapping and fishing in Canada.12 Values expectancy at birth for for all Canadians (TRC) was a major milestone to of sharing, solidarity, and pride remain GDP, for all its benefits, is a limited residents of Nunavik recognize the hardships experienced by deeply rooted in the communities I measure of well-being. Even GDP per Sources: First Nations, Inuit, and Métis. The term visited. These values provide a coping 1. Stats Canada. capita would be misleading, given a 2. Duhaime G., Lévesque S. & Caron A. Nunavik in Figures 2015—Full Version. Canada Research Chair in Comparative Aboriginal Condition, Université Laval. “cultural genocide” was used in the mechanism to face radical changes. Accessed November 15, 2016. http://www.chaireconditionautochtone.fss.ulaval.ca/documents/pdf/Nunavik-en-chiffres-vf-eng.pdf. significantly higher cost of living in Document inspired from the National Inuit Suicide Prevention Strategy published in 2016.

10 WALKING ON THIN ICE ENTREPRENEURSHIP IN NUNAVIK 11 Creation of Nunavik could receive family allowances. This ensued and gave birth to the James Bay Extractive industries have grown Figure 1: Breakdown of Jobs by Sector in Nunavik new way of life was in complete rupture and Northern Québec Agreement tremendously over the past decade. The Up until the advent of World War II, with their past. Assimilation policies (JBNQA). Compensations from the deal Raglan Mine, a large nickel complex in Northern Canada was generally were developed to “civilize” indigenous resulted in numerous new public the north of Nunavik, represents about considered a pristine and scarcely populations across the country. services. The agreement marked the 40% of Nunavik’s GDP and employs 5% populated territory. During the war, the Residential schools and relocation of birth of the Makivik Corporation over 1000 people, of which 15% are North served as a hub for American families made for tense relationships (Makivik) and the Kativik Regional Inuit.24 Professor Thierry Rodon of 19% PUBLIC SECTOR fighter jets, and Nunavik partly owes the between Inuit and state. Government (KRG). University Laval shows that Northern MINING development of its capital, Kuujjuaq, to communities have not benefited as In the 1970s, the government of Québec the military airport that was built in 1942 much as they could have from mining, 52% SOCIAL ECONOMY launched an ambitious hydroelectric by the US air force. Following the war, despite land claims ensuring Inuit project in the southern part of what now Stakeholders of SMALL BUSINESSES Canada’s welfare system was revamped participation in decision-making.25 (ESTIMATE) constitutes Nunavik. In response, Economic Development in an attempt to eradicate poverty. By Although resource development is 24% Indigenous communities united to the 1960s, most Inuit abandoned their in Nunavik non-negligible, it has exhibited boom semi-nomadic lifestyle to live in enforce their rights and reclaim A web of actors constitutes the fabric of and bust cycles and has disappointed in permanent settlements where they ownership of their lands. A legal dispute Nunavik’s economy. To this day, the empowering local communities. public sector is the key driver of The informal and traditional economies Sources: KRG. (2011). Jobs in Nunavik - Results of a Survey of Nunavik Employers in 2011. economic development in the region, are, to this day, difficult to quantify. Kativik Regional Government, Sustainable Employment Department, Nunavik. Regional Organizations of Nunavik generating close to 50% of jobs. Fishing, harvesting, and arts & crafts Small businesses estimate number of jobs based on sample gathered during field research (2016). Neither state-driven nor profit-driven, constitute the most important activities social economy organizations include within this sphere. land claims corporations, cooperatives, These threads all come together to nonprofits, and many more. They often create the economic landscape of Figure 2: Number of SMEs per 1,000 Individuals Makivik Corporation adhere to principles of participation and Nunavik as it stands today. Missing from (Aged 15+) empowerment with the purpose to this picture are entrepreneurs and small Established in 1978 to administer JBNQA funds and to legally represent 19 “serve the community.” The co-op businesses who have not been the Québec’s Inuit, Makivik is a nonprofit organization that has grown into an movement started in Nunavik in 1959 in subject of research. When looking at the economic, cultural, and political leader.14 According to researcher Frances NUNAVIK 13.1 the village of Kangiqsualujjuaq. This numbers, Nunavik is the one region in Abele of Carleton University, “beneficiary organizations are the embodiment marked the establishment of the first Canada where small and medium of Indigenous rights and the repository of many hopes for cultural survival NUNAVUT 29.6 cooperative in the Arctic and the enterprises (SMEs) are scarcest. Even and self-determination.”15 The land claims organization, owned and managed creation of the Fédération des when comparing Nunavik to other Inuit by beneficiaries, now manages an asset base of $429M of which nearly half NUNATSIAVUT 46.6 Coopératives du Nouveau Québec regions of Canada (Nunavut, is invested in subsidiaries and joint ventures including airlines, shipping, and 20 (FCNQ). The co-op movement Nunatsiavut), the numbers are many more.16 NORTHWEST 48.5 highlights a social economy initiative in astonishingly low. We will attempt to TERRITORIES Nunavik, and “cooperatives became explain the phenomenon throughout CANADA 39.2 quickly ingrained in the northern this study. experience.”21 Today, FCNQ is the largest private employer of Inuit in the region Sources: Statistics Canada, Business Register, December 2015. and generates close to $300M in annual Nunavik Regional and Private Business Directory, 2016 Kativik Regional Government revenues.22 For Abele, social economy organizations “perform essential KRG was also born out of the JBNQA in 1978 to “deliver public services” to bridging functions […] between old and the inhabitants of Nunavik as a form of self-government.17 Today, it manages new patterns of mutual aid, between an annual budget of roughly $200M, which is funded in majority by the wage economy practices and those Québec and Canadian governments in exchange for the delivery of public arising from modern harvesting”.23 In programs. KRG is recognized as an essential contributor to regional essence, the social economy allows for development projects and provides financing in the forms of loans and grants Inuit communities to participate in the to small businesses.18 market-driven economy while respecting fundamental values of solidarity.

12 WALKING ON THIN ICE ENTREPRENEURSHIP IN NUNAVIK 13 METHODOLOGY

A Framework for businesses follow these principles, and The challenge is to find a balance between value, through the creation or expansion promote a focus on the community and follow that entrepreneurism is bound to 32 Entrepreneurship we have to avoid romanticizing ancestral improving lives in material ways while of economic activity.” The very influential society. Academics and practitioners propagate. In addition, the dependence Indigenous values with modern maintaining or incorporating specifically twentieth-century economist Joseph alike now refer to this concept as social on external stakeholders, including 1. Indigenous Entrepreneurship practices. Indigenous ways of being and doing.29 Schumpeter refers to the entrepreneur entrepreneurship. One reason given for government institutions and mining as a force for innovation and “creative the rise of social entrepreneurship is the companies, indicates that Nunavik In Professor Léo-Paul Dana’s Handbook In the study “Toward a Theory of 2. Small Business and Mainstream destruction.”31 By “creative destruction,” global shift away from a social welfare would, on paper, benefit immensely from of Indigenous Entrepreneurship, the Indigenous Entrepreneurship,” Professor Entrepreneurship Schumpeter refers to a mutation of state approach to development and greater local empowerment. author stresses the importance of Ana Maria Peredo of University of processes and structures which lead to towards a neoliberal paradigm, with an culture and perceptions alongside the Victoria and the other authors state that The essential role of small and medium the opening of new markets. emphasis on market forces as primary idea of value creation in economic business development is “widely enterprises (SMEs) on economic mechanisms for the distribution (and activity. Entrepreneurship “should not be accepted [within Indigenous development in Canada is well Approach & 3. Social Entrepreneurship redistribution) of resources.33 By filling defined on the basis of opportunity, but communities] as key to a more vibrant recognized with SMEs employing 90% Collaboration institutional voids, social entrepreneurs rather cultural perception of economy leading to nation re-building.”28 of the private sector workforce.30 While Finally, entrepreneurs are increasingly act as agents of change. Due to the nature of the research and the opportunity.”26 Entrepreneurship in Peredo argues that Indigenous there persists a lack of consensus on the seen in a new light as more than importance of building trust with Indigenous communities is often entrepreneurship is closely related to exact definition of entrepreneurship, an commercial agents. They have the ability Since Nunavik is experiencing a very stakeholders on the ground, I spent two distributive, founded on commonly-held theories of social entrepreneurship, OECD report defines entrepreneurs as to define and pursue opportunities to rapid pace of change and entrepreneurs months during the summer of 2016 in assets, and sustainable.27 This is not to with the overarching goal to improve “those persons who seek to generate improve social wealth which, in turn, can are characteristically adept at exploiting Nunavik. I conducted this independent say that all Indigenous-owned living conditions. and building upon change, it would

14 WALKING ON THIN ICE ENTREPRENEURSHIP IN NUNAVIK 15 research with the help of KRG. introducing myself and the project.34 questionnaires to ensure language and Interviews were one on one using a Figure 3: Type of Participants Interviewed Collaborating with KRG and, more I learned basic Inuktitut words and cultural appropriateness and provided a questionnaire, which varied depending on specifically, with the team responsible for familiarized myself with the list of key informants, which were added the occupation of the participant. economic development, was key to the surroundings. I did not force dialogues to the Business Directory created and Interviews lasted between 25 to 120 legitimacy of the study. The community toward economic development but updated by KRG.35 Merged together, minutes and were held in conference 4 of Inukjuak became a natural destination rather sought to learn about the these lists became the sampling frame rooms provided by KRG. Two interviews given the fact that my key collaborator, community’s history and culture. and amounted to a total of 74 small were done on the phone, and the Tommy Palliser, economic development businesses. Palliser was also integral to remaining were in person. 24 interviews 6 CURRENT ENTREPRENEUR officer (EDO) for KRG, lives there. The 2. Get involved with the community the successful recruitment of were held in Inukjuak, and 12 were in KEY INFORMANT research was split between the interviewees through radio Kuujjuaq. Following each interview, the 17 I tried to be an integral part of the PAST ENTREPRENEUR community of Inukjuak (7 weeks), where advertisements, a very popular mode of recording was transcribed, personal notes community. Living with a family where I COMMUNITY MEMBER I stayed with a host family, and Kuujjuaq communication in the community. were added on, and the findings were was treated very kindly and with (2 weeks). The combinations of these compiled into a matrix to identify themes generosity, I would often go on treks towns was meant to provide a contrast in and disaggregate the data. 9 outside of town. I also helped with any perspectives. Inukjuak is a traditional Inuit tasks, such as the construction of cabins Data Collection The resulting qualitative and quantitative community of 1800 bordering the and cooking. I took part in communal data included: Hudson Bay. Kuujjuaq, on the other hand, Purposive, non-probabilistic sampling meals, activities, and sports. is the regional capital and economic hub techniques were used. Given the limited • 36 semi-structured interviews of Nunavik. Nearly two-thirds of all SMEs sampling frame, I started with • An online survey sent to small business 3. Partner with a community liaison in Nunavik are headquartered in Kuujjuaq. recommended participants and used owners with a response rate of 39% From the start, the research project I snowball sampling thereafter. In practice, (29 respondents out of 74) Figure 4: Participation Rates in Study I took the following steps in conducting undertook was as a collaborative one, I asked each participant at the end of the • A focus group with four women to the research: where the authority of knowledge was interview who they thought I should meet better understand the perceptions of 1. Adjust to the context shared between interviewees and with. This enabled me to gain access to women Location Entrepreneurs Interviewed Participation interviewer. Palliser’s contextual informal business owners as well as past • A community presentation in Inukjuak During the initial acclimatizing period, I Inukjuak 9 8 88.9% knowledge was key to the success of the business owners. to share preliminary findings and get simply went around the community, study. He reviewed interview community feedback Kuujjuaq 39 8 20.5% Rest of Nunavik 26 1 3.8% Nunavik 74 17 23.0% Limitations

A limitation was the language barrier. In certain interviews, although participants could speak English, it was a challenge for them to fully verbalize their opinions. Figure 5: Annual Sales of SMEs in Sample Conducting interviews in English brought an asymmetric power dynamic to the interviewee-interviewer relationship. As $1M AND OVER 4 reported by Temple & Young: “The interaction between languages is part of $250K – $500K 3 the establishment and maintenance of hierarchical relationships, with English $100K – $250K 4 often used as the yardstick for meaning.”36 Language also acted as a $30K – $100K 2 non-negligible bias as it often filtered out individuals of lower socioeconomic $30K AND BELOW 5 status. Finally, due to the small size of the sample, results cannot be generalized to all entrepreneurs and small businesses of Nunavik. The aim of the study is to shed in-depth insight and build awareness of the context for entrepreneurs in this sub-Arctic region.

16 WALKING ON THIN ICE ENTREPRENEURSHIP IN NUNAVIK 17 SUMMARY OF SAMPLE

Overview of Sample 70% 11 years have a high school average time as small degree or more business owner 28% 72% of participants of participants are female are male $175k 145 median annual total jobs revenues created

Breakdown by Sector

6% 6% 29% services 12% multi-sector transportation & storage communications arts & culture 12% mining construction 18% 17%

18 WALKING ON THIN ICE ENTREPRENEURSHIP IN NUNAVIK 19 the business owners in Nunavik to be businesses, I hypothesized, could be seen think of supporting each other and making very successful, with a handful generating as opposite to the sharing mentality and sure, you know, everyone is taken care of.42 millions of dollars in annual revenues. therefore not valued locally. For some, the In Nunavik, land ownership is collective, FINDINGS & clash in philosophies is evident. One sharing is prevalent, and the state plays a Sharing versus Selling retired business owner in particular even predominant role. To make the jump from goes as far as saying: Through my time living in Inukjuak, I there and to say that Inuit society is realized the extent of the sharing [Inuit] culture is so socialistic that communist is a whole other story. For ANALYSIS economy in modern Inuit society. Over individual business owners are seen as Andy Moorhouse, vice-president of thousands of years, Inuit society invaders. Inuit culture is so socialistic, it’s economic development at Makivik, the “customarily functioned essentially on infringing on communism. Everybody view is more nuanced: reciprocal solidarity” or a kind of helps everybody. When you do business, [Entrepreneurship] is a foreign concept. From the interviews, I identified the have to find a way.”37 Understandably, collective insurance policy.39 As the you don’t work like that.41 Perceptions on Traditionally, we were taught to share. I following as the primary questions generating income is the key motivation. harvesting of country food (caribou, seal, Entrepreneurship Similarly, for Palliser, business and was never taught to, let’s say, use to answer: beluga, etc.) can be highly volatile, Aside from monetary considerations, traditional values do not go hand in hand: whatever I catch from the land to sell it Motivations to Start a Business sharing has been synonymous with 1. How is entrepreneurship defined and “serving the community” and ”creating and earn money. But then again, I don’t survival and is a practice associated with It’s an opposite mentality. It’s very perceived in modern Inuit society? First, entrepreneurship is associated with jobs for locals” are reasons brought take offense from anybody who does that. representations of Inuit identity.40 I was individualistic, the entrepreneurship where people who run their own companies, the forward by entrepreneurs. We can For many, it’s their only source of income.43 2. What are some of the main curious to know whether businesses were you capitalize on opportunity and try to self-employed, or small-business people. therefore make the assumption that the challenges and opportunities faced perceived as a new way of sharing. Small make the most gain. Whereas Inuit, they The idea of entrepreneurship as a “foreign Businesses are started out of necessity, notions of self-advancement and the by entrepreneurs in running their concept” was echoed by many interest, or a will to become independent. individualist quest for money, which often businesses, especially once they interviewees. Business owners in Nunavik A key informant working for KRG and characterize small businesses elsewhere, have secured funding? “We can therefore make the assumption that the have grasped onto entrepreneurship as who himself attempted to run a business is not the only driving force in Nunavik.38 means to self-actualize while recognizing 3. What programs could be designed states that “People start businesses For most community members, the idea notions of self-advancement and the individualist quest a globalized economy As behaviors to support current and future because they want to support their of capital accumulation for the prospect for money, which often characterize small businesses become gradually more influenced by entrepreneurs? families. Number one. Other reasons of one single individual or group is elsewhere, is not the only driving force in Nunavik.” 38 economic rationality, some worry that the could be that they cannot find jobs. They rejected. This does not prevent some of

20 WALKING ON THIN ICE ENTREPRENEURSHIP IN NUNAVIK 21 “We [Inuit] are not here to survive, we’re here to thrive and prosper and do better. Do better for our past generations and make them proud. That’s what I try.”

economic development is a way to your own business and it’s operating, it In trying to answer the first research strengthen self-determination—not in the gives a sense of pride, a sense of question of the study, we can observe sense of state sovereignty but in the resilience, and a sense of community that the perceptions towards sense of increased ownership and also.”51 The idea of proving that Inuit entrepreneurship are nuanced. In general, decision-making—and independence of businesses can be successful in a modern it would seem that entrepreneurship is Nunavik.49 Most entrepreneurs and key economy is an important factor. And seen as a foreign concept and a means to informants relate to business as a means some of them are hugely successful! In an generate income and self-employment to foster a sense of identity and pride. A environment where suicides and but also to increase Nunavik’s self- male entrepreneur in Kuujjuaq explains insalubrious housing usually make the reliance. Furthermore, some, but not all, his motivations when saying that: “We headlines, entrepreneurs and community of the business owners consider [Inuit] are not here to survive, we’re here leaders are taking action to ignite change. themselves as agents of social change to thrive and prosper and do better. Do They are striving to build a better future with the intentions to improve well-being. better for our past generations and make for generations to come, and they are not Finally, there remains a tension between them proud. That’s what I try.”50 waiting for changes to happen at the the entrepreneurs’ nurturing of market- political level. They are inspiring the youth oriented entities and the communities’ Another entrepreneur in Kuujjuaq echoed and showing that it is possible to perceptions of business as a threat to these feelings, saying: “When you start succeed. Inuit traditions. “Through my time living in Inukjuak, I realized the extent of the sharing economy in modern Inuit society.” “To this day, Nunavimmiut feel stuck between two worlds.”

We are proud of the fact that we are “The idea of entrepreneurship as a “foreign concept” private. We’re not a collectively-owned company. It’s our way of saying: if we can was echoed by many interviewees. Business do it, you can do it on your own. We’re owners in Nunavik have grasped onto surviving on our own. We’re not entrepreneurship as means to self-actualize while dependent on anything or anyone. But our main objectives are to help the people in recognizing a globalized economy.” the long run.47

She goes even further by arguing that sharing philosophy is slowing brought a whole new dynamic to the collectively-owned organizations disappearing. One contributor, a woman functioning of Inuit communities. To actually do more harm than good since and artist in Inukjuak, uses country food this day, Nunavimmiut feel “stuck “in a collective [group], people start as the case in point: “They [community between two worlds”. What is hard to asking for handouts and it doesn’t really members] are starting to buy country accept is that changes have been sudden do anything for the people in the long food. They used to help each other. It’s and driven by external actors. This can run. There’s no pride instilled.”48 Clearly, less there. It’s a big erasing, helping each be understood as fate control, one of the an important distinction has to be made 44 other. It’s going away.” The tension six critical domains in the Arctic Social between participatory organizations and 46 created by the spread of monetary society Indicators report. For an Inuit woman collectively owned entities. Much of the 45 and the imperialism of markets is real. in business, individual businesses are development in Nunavik is managed a means to reduce the dependency Entrepreneurship as a Tool for from the top-down. While entities such that plagues Northern communities. Self-Determination as Makivik or FCNQ are collectively Rather than a dual assessment, owned and have generated substantive Evidently, Northern municipalities have businesses can act as a contemporary benefits, they do not necessarily foster witnessed a flurry of changes. The tool to reinforce cultural values, pride, active engagement. introduction of money, formal education and a sense of identity: systems, and permanent settlements Nearly all respondents acknowledge that

22 WALKING ON THIN ICE ENTREPRENEURSHIP IN NUNAVIK 23 Challenges

As we have seen, Nunavik is the region in gathered. Also surprising is the fact that BUSINESS Canada where businesses are the financing is not considered to be a major scarcest.52 Results from the online survey obstacle for Inuit-owned businesses. KRG show that the cost of doing business, has done a very effective job at filling the taxes, and availability of skilled labor are funding gap given the lack of banking the top three obstacles in running a services. KRG offers up to 80% of IN NUNAVIK business.53 Surprisingly, lack of demand is financing in loans and contributions to not deemed to be a major challenge, beneficiary-owned businesses. Gathering scoring the lowest average score. This the 20% can nevertheless be a major Nunavik is a region in Canada where SMEs are extremely scarce. observation was reinforced in interviews, challenge according to key informants, even by entrepreneurs whose businesses with lack of savings prevalent among the The reality of small and remote northern communities makes for a did not survive. Therefore, the hypothesis population. that the market in Nunavik is too small for challenging business environment. Nevertheless, opportunities are companies to succeed does not seem to abundant as investments in the Arctic reach record levels. hold, at least based on the sample

24 WALKING ON THIN ICE ENTREPRENEURSHIP IN NUNAVIK 25 TOP 3 CHALLENGES

1. Operating Costs

The costs of raw materials, energy, shipping, and labor are all inflated. This can be explained by the high costs of living, which implies that salaries must be attuned. Also, the sheer distance and lack of road infrastructure justify high operating costs.

2. Taxes & Administration

Municipal, provincial, and federal taxes to the French language and no exceptions The Trust Deficit The theme of “jealousy” appeared in Inter-Generational and Gender require heavy paperwork, often in a are made for Nunavik Inuit. By protecting 70% of interviews with current and past Aspects of Business Despite good intentions, entrepreneurs foreign language. For Palliser, operating a French through Bill 101, the Government business owners. This collective attitude often have to rely on workers from the The middle-age male demographic business in Nunavik is “like starting a of Québec is adding to the burden of results in an environment where South of Québec since local labor is seen dominates the SME landscape in many business in Russia. You’re in a foreign Nunavik’s entrepreneurs. For a young entrepreneurs are marginalized from as unreliable. One hypothesis brought regions, and this is also the case in the environment. Everything is foreign, it’s in entrepreneur in Inukjuak, everything is their community. This feeling of jealousy forward by interviewees is that welfare sample studied here. The gender and a different language.”54 The tax obstacle set up to fail: captures a broader issue in Nunavik. programs do not incentivize accountability intergenerational aspects of business in is only the tip of the iceberg, as it In contrast with Albert Einstein’s view The regulations here are set for the sake of and commitment from locals. As a result, Nunavik are definitely worthy of further encompasses administration, accounting, that “it is important to foster the general public by administrators that entrepreneurs are perceived to reinforce research. Younger generations and and legal obligations. As a result, many individuality, for only the individual can don’t live here. They’re not adapted to our the cycle of local unemployment, which in women face very specific sets of entrepreneurs operate informally, without produce new ideas,” Inuit communities needs. The language barrier is a huge turn creates tension with community challenges in Nunavik. A mother and legally setting up shop. This allows them foster collective decision-making.59 The problem. Once you start a business, they members. In interviews, the feeling of not business owner explains how the to avoid bureaucratic processes with focus on the collective can sometimes refuse to talk in English. I’ve experienced being supported by the community is challenge is threefold for women: “We limited risk of penalties since there is bring down individuals who try to that. […] It’s not friendly to start-ups. They something that came back again and are mothers. We are working. And we’re little official oversight. innovate or propose fresh ideas that try to have Québec standards up here as again. Despite the role of small businesses still trying to hold on to our culture […] deviate from the norm. This is expressed Furthermore, the regulations are not well. When they are not customized in a in stimulating local development, It’s challenging.”61 For another influential by one entrepreneur: “When someone’s adapted or tailored to the population. The way that takes into account the reality of the entrepreneurs feel misunderstood. A women in business, the issue is about trying to create something, there’s a Government of Québec holds on dearly region, everything’s set up to fail.55 past entrepreneur reinforced this when confidence and awareness: “Nobody sense of jealousy. […] This is common asked if the community supported her as really understands what throughout different people. When a business owner: “No. I’m sorry but no. entrepreneurship is. There’s a lot of people try to develop or self-actualize, For one thing, they [community women that [sell] arts & crafts without this sense of jealousy tends to bring 3. Availability of Skilled & Reliable Labor members] don’t understand it. The other them being aware they are in business.”62 them down.”60 If we make the link is that many people think entrepreneurs According to Global Entrepreneurship back to the perceptions toward With a high school drop-out rate business operator in Inukjuak when he are just trying to make money. Some Monitor, women are less likely than men entrepreneurship, the lack of support reaching 75%, the local population has says that his employees “constantly need people are jealous. A lot of it is not to think they have the skills needed to from communities illustrates a rejection limited education by Western standards supervision.”56 In Kuujjuaq, established understanding what’s trying to be done.”58 start a business and are more likely to be or misunderstanding of individualistic and qualified technicians are in high businesses lament the lack of Inuit prevented by a fear of failure.63 Regarding businesses. demand. More than a lack of formal workers specifically. As one business the intergenerational aspect to business, education, the issue for small business owner put it: “If we could have our way, it very few young men or women are 57 owners is the reliability of the workforce. would be all Inuit employees.” “The theme of “jealousy” appeared in 70% of involved in entrepreneurism. This This issue is illustrated by a full-time contrasts starkly with the general trend in interviews with current and past business owners.” Canada where the start-up environment is increasingly drawing a younger crowd.

26 WALKING ON THIN ICE ENTREPRENEURSHIP IN NUNAVIK 27 We can train people to make things here where we have a unique culture and environment: TV shows, movies, video games. Culturally, we don’t have enough content in Inuktitut. We would be gaining by creating our own content and our own money. It’s a win-win-win situation.68

For Andrey Petrov, Associate Professor of Geography at University of Northern Iowa, the creative class provides an appealing alternative to economic development in the Arctic.69 It goes much further than the arts & crafts sector and is a way through which Indigenous forms of knowledge can be valued and applied within today’s economic reality.

Clean Energy as the Path Forward

Communities operate solely on diesel. Not only does this cost a great deal, it Opportunities subcontracting to organizations from the also puts marine ecosystems at risk with South of Québec. Unlike Makivik, it is multiple spills occurring in recent years. Despite the numerous challenges, not possible for KRG to implement such In Inukjuak, the Innavik Hydro Project opportunities for economic growth and policies due to legal constraints imposed was launched to offer the region a clean prosperity are plentiful. According to an at the provincial and federal levels. energy alternative. The small Economic Development Officer at KRG, hydroelectric station could supply the challenges are a “blessing in disguise […] Promoting the Creative Class community in lieu of diesel, and the if we can tackle them, benefits will fall on project was approved by 83% of voters the community.”64 With the advent of The ”creative capital” term was coined in a referendum.70 Started in 2006, the the Internet and a growing, young by Richard Florida in 2002 and may be local landholding organization is still in population, entrepreneurship offers an defined as “a stock of creative abilities talks with provincial and federal bodies interesting avenue. According to the and knowledge(s) that have economic due to negotiations surrounding the President of the Landholding Corporation value and are embodied in a group of ownership of the project and pricing. in Inukjuak, Eric Atagotaaluk, “we [Inuit individuals who are engaged in creative Renewable energy would not only of Nunavik] have an opportunity to (scientific, artistic, entrepreneurial or 66 provide a long-term, sustainable source decide on how we want to grow.”65 technological) types of activities.” In of energy for the community, but it could Nunavik, there is certainly a lot of also unlock an array of options. For potential to further cultivate the creative Giving Priority to Local Moorhouse, “due to the lack of energy class. Talent is abundant. To this day, Service Providers available because we operate on diesel artists and craftsmen and women generators, we are limited. We can’t do The services sector is the most obvious operate on an isolated basis. According much. We can’t do greenhouses for one to tap into, according to participants. to an artist in Inukjuak, there is an example. We can’t move forward in Currently, regional organizations opportunity to connect artists and create different types of technology.”71 subcontract to firms from the South of a network or “an umbrella organization Québec but are eager for the services to to manage things.”67 Leveraging existing Opportunities in Nunavik are plentiful, be offered locally. Moorhouse explained knowledge and talent would create links but it is key that they are adapted to the Makivik’s plan to promote and prioritize between Nunavik’s 14 communities and needs and reality of Northern Inuit-owned businesses for contracts foster the development of more communities. Inuit have always been and public tenders. The first step is culturally appropriate content. According resourceful and resilient people. Provided therefore to ensure that the services to According to a graphic designer with the necessary resources and industry employs a local and regional Nunavik: support systems, they can better workforce, as much as possible, before transform ideas into reality.

28 WALKING ON THIN ICE ENTREPRENEURSHIP IN NUNAVIK 29 1. Dissemination of respondents saying they would find possible. The goal is for this approach to Information and Support video tutorials extremely useful (54%) engage a new generation of Inuit RECOMMENDATIONS and moderately useful (31%).73 On the entrepreneurs. The platform will also Participants and key informants agree flip side, key informants also highlighted engage users to think about the social that improvements in communication the reluctance of some entrepreneurs to economy. are essential. KRG currently broadcasts communicate once they receive funding. The third and final question I sought to answer through this quarterly updates on business activities It is therefore important to make sure From Business Development to on the regional radio and organizes local that after-care is a two-way dialogue. Business Sustainability research was: “What programs could be designed to support seminars in different communities. After a start-up is financed, continued Dissemination of information could be Online Portal for current and future entrepreneurs?” This analysis is based on support is limited but can also be made available through popular channels Small Business Support attributed to the reluctance of some such as social media. A number of the participants’ views and my own perspectives. Based on these findings and discussions entrepreneurs to communicate. Indeed, interviewees highlighted the need for with Palliser, we decided to put together a KRG’s Regional and Economic improved communication to promote plan to develop an online portal for small department support businesses in many local recognition and communal pride. business support. The aim of the platform ways in addition to financing. In 2015, The information could be made available will be to provide tools and information to the department provided 11 in a visually dynamic way. According to stimulate entrepreneurship and creativity entrepreneurs with support to attend many participants, Inuit are very visual. in Nunavik with an expected launch in business trainings. One KRG employee in her mid-twenties, mid-2017, if budgets allow it. Users will An important recommendation would be particularly emphasizes the mode of go through interactive steps of business for the federal and provincial learning: “We’re visual and we touch and planning and will have access to tutorials governments to monitor both short-term we learn like that. Reading, just seeing it, on administration and bookkeeping. and long-term progression: business people won’t be interested.”72 The online Information will be conveyed in Inuktitut development but also business survey reinforced this finding, with and will be as visual and interactive as

30 WALKING ON THIN ICE ENTREPRENEURSHIP IN NUNAVIK 31 sustainability. While aiming to create X 3. Changes at the Policy by highlighting the need for “Nunavik- number of new businesses every year is Level to Incentivize made” programs: How to leverage a quantifiable target, start-ups should be The government, the way they operate, existing networks accompanied and nurtured through their Entrepreneurship they want quick feedback on the while allowing for developing phase. This could While many improvements can be made investment, immediate. What happened individual innovation? significantly improve their likelihood to locally and regionally, many economic this year? But businesses do not take off survive. In practice, such an adjustment development policies are set at the like a helicopter, it takes time for them. would imply monitoring survival rates provincial level. The Québec government [We need] Nunavik-made or tailor-made following one, three, and five years. The has taken steps to encourage programs.77 need for mentorship is strong, with the entrepreneurship across the province, online survey indicating that 54% but these efforts have not been felt in Rather than looking at the number of believe mentorship would be extremely Nunavik.75 For Palliser, “there’s no link jobs created on a yearly basis, useful and 38% moderately or slightly between the policy and small business government officials should monitor useful. needs.”76 KRG has nevertheless long-term metrics such as business developed two tailor-made policies over survival rates across three or five years the past decade including the alongside their employment Collective 2. An Alternative Form Makigiarutiit Funds I & II to assist small contributions. Another low-hanging fruit Entity of Business Ownership? businesses in the region. The most for policy-makers is to have relaxed important is that policies are tailored to language policies for businesses in The demand for more business support the region’s needs. Adel Yassa, director Nunavik. Obviously, the key with these is clear. It would also be worthwhile to of KRG’s local and regional development programs is that they are developed in think about what business model works department, understands the situation collaboration with Nunavimmiut. best in Nunavik, both in terms of economic viability and community buy-in. The FCNQ was created in 1967 and Air Inuit in 1978. Both of these are powerhouses within the economic landscape of Nunavik. Where is the new wave of social economy partnerships that have the potential to empower future generations and create a brighter future for Nunavimmiut?

Northern communities revolve around social economy organizations which promote collaboration and participation. In Inukjuak, the Unaaq Men’s is individual entrepreneurship the synergies. A veteran entrepreneur Association, started in 2001 after a optimal path forward? Dana uses the echoes the importance of a regional wave of suicides, is an inspiring story. case of reindeer herding in Sami network: “We’ve got to form one The association pairs local elders with communities to show that reindeer cohesive unit as entrepreneurs, one unit youth to teach traditional skills, promote herds are individually owned but where we can approach, say, insurance. the preservation of Inuit culture, collectively managed. Drawing from Twelve businesses approaching increase youth confidence and Dana’s analogy, businesses could unite insurance company, you have a lot more leadership, and create job opportunities. to create collective entities in order to clout! That goes across many different The social economy has proved its value lower the cost of services. Creating sectors.”74 Such an approach would be in Nunavik but very promising tangible links between businesses in immensely facilitated by establishing organizations like Unaaq suffer from Nunavik is essential. If entrepreneurs partnerships between public sector chronic financial challenges and fail to share warehouse spaces, shipping institutions and social economy generate sufficient revenues. containers, administrative overhead, or organizations. KRG is striving to promote During my stay, I couldn’t help but think insurance contracts, costs could be cross-sector partnerships. Moreover, about ways to merge social and market reduced. Moreover, such methods would discussions around the creation of a economies. Given the perspectives leverage the Inuit traditional values of Chamber of Commerce are underway gathered and the challenges expressed, sharing while creating commercial and the file is led by Makivik.

32 WALKING ON THIN ICE ENTREPRENEURSHIP IN NUNAVIK 33 Despite a plethora of opportunities, seen as individualistic agents, most business owners interviewed. Local especially with regards to the creative entrepreneurs in Nunavik are actually economic development is not CONCLUSION class and clean energy, entrepreneurs in determined to promote fundamental necessarily welcome, even when Nunavik face a number of challenges. Inuit values. In that sense, we find that conducted by community members The top three challenges are: 1) entrepreneurship in Nunavik relates to themselves. One of the operating costs, 2) taxes and business the concept of ‘social entrepreneurship’ recommendations proposed is to raise Nunavik is a great land—great not only for its majestic administration, and 3) availability of while agreeing that there is no awareness on what it means to run a skilled and reliable local labor. These homogenizing representation. business and the social role that landscapes but also for the richness of its culture and the roadblocks are not preventing all SMEs entrepreneurs can have. Moreover, by A tension nevertheless remains between in Nunavik from playing a role in an regrouping and creating one cohesive the nature of entrepreneurship which generosity of its inhabitants. economy dominated by government and unit, entrepreneurs have the ability to promotes capital accumulation for an mining activities. In their quest for become not only more competitive but elite and the importance of sharing and greater autonomy, Nunavik also more socially integrated. Because reciprocity within Inuit communities. entrepreneurs are fostering a revitalized sharing in the Arctic is more than This tension materializes itself through sense of initiative, resourcefulness, and, generosity, it’s survival. the feeling of jealousy felt by 70% of most importantly, pride. Sometimes

34 WALKING ON THIN ICE ENTREPRENEURSHIP IN NUNAVIK 35 REFERENCES

1. Inuktitut (or Inuttitut) is the language spoken by Inuit living in the Eastern part of the Canadian Arctic. 29. Gretchen, H. 2013. “Indigenous Perspectives on Community Economic Development: A North-South Conversation.” Canadian Journal of Nonprofit and Social Economy Research 4 (1). 2. Duhaime G., Lévesque S. & Caron A. Nunavik in Figures 2015 – Full Version. Canada Research Chair in Comparative Aboriginal Condition, Université Laval. Accessed November 15, 2016. http://www.chaireconditionautochtone.fss.ulaval.ca/documents/pdf/Nunavik-en-chiffres-vf-eng.pdf. 30. Statistics Canada. 2016. Accessed August 2, 2016. http://www.ic.gc.ca/eic/site/061.nsf/eng/03022.html#point2-1.

3. Plan Nord. 2016. Accessed October 26, 2016. http://nord.gouv.qc.ca/en. 31. Schumpeter, J.A. The Theory of Economic Development. Transaction Publishers, 1934: 46.

4. Watt-Cloutier S. The Right To Be Cold: One Woman’s Story of Protecting Her Culture, the Arctic and the Whole Planet. Penguin Canada. 2015. 32. Zahra, S.A. & Wright M. June 2016. “Understanding the Social Role of Entrepreneurship.” Journal of Management Studies 53 (4): 610–629.

5. CBC News. 2016. “Truth and Reconciliation Commissions urges Canada to confront ‘cultural genocide’ of residential schools.” Accessed October 30, 2016. 33. Johnson, S. 2002. “Social Entrepreneurship Literature Review.” Paper produced for the Canadian Centre for Social Entrepreneurship, University of Alberta http://www.cbc.ca/news/politics/truth-and-reconciliation-commission-urges-canada-to-confront-cultural-genocide-of-residential-schools-1.3096229. School of Business.

6. Abele, F. (2009). “The State and the Northern Social Economy: Research Prospects.” The Northern Review 30 (Spring 2009): 37–56. 34. Pasch, T.J. 2008. Inuktitut Online in Nunavik: Mixed-Methods Web-Based Strategies for Preserving Aboriginal and Minority Languages. University of Washington Dissertation. UMI Number: 3345576 7. Robichaud, V & Duhaime, G. Economic Portrait of Nunavik 2012. Presentation to the Kativik Regional Government. March 2015, 7. 35. KRG. 2012. Nunavik Regional and Private Business Directory. Accessed November 2, 2015.

8. Duhaime G., Lévesque S. & Caron A. Nunavik in Figures 2015 – Full Version. Canada Research Chair in Comparative Aboriginal Condition. Université Laval. 36. Temple, B. & Young, A. August 2004. “Qualitative Research and Translation Dilemmas.” Qualitative Research. SAGE Publications 4: 161-178. 42. 37. Anonymous Male. Key Informant. Interview by Nathan Cohen-Fournier. One-on-one in-person interview. Inukjuak. 9. Ibid., 100. June 8, 2016.

10. Ibid., 100. 38. Southcott, C. Northern Communities Working Together: The Social Economy of Canada’s North. University of Toronto Press, 2015.

11. Ibid., 58. 39. Gombay, N. 2009. “Sharing or commoditising? A discussion of some of the socio-economic implications of Nunavik’s Hunter Support Program.” Polar Record 45 (233): 119–132. 12. Ibid., 59. 40. Chabot, M. 2003. “Economic changes, household strategies, and social relations of contemporary Nunavik Inuit.” 13. Makivik Corporation. Parnasimautik Consultation Report. 2014. Accessed May 25, 2016. http://www.makivik.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/12/ Polar Record 39 (208): 19–34. Parnasimautik-consultation-report-v2014_12_15-eng_vf.pdf. 41. Anonymous Male. Former Entrepreneur. Interview by Nathan Cohen-Fournier. One-on-one in-person interview. 14. About Makivik. Makivik website. 2016. Accessed August 31, 2016. http://www.makivik.org. Inukjuak. June 10, 2016. 15. Abele, F. “States Institutions and the Social Economy of Northern Canada.” Northern Communities Working Together. Ed. Southcott, C. University of Toronto 42. Palliser, T. Interview by Nathan Cohen-Fournier. One-on-one in-person interview. Inukjuak. July 4, 2016. Press. 2015. 43. Moorhouse, A. Interview by Nathan Cohen-Fournier. One-on-one in-person interview. Inukjuak. June 30, 2016. 16. Makivik Corporation. Annual Report 2014-2015. Paper version. 2015. 44. Anonymous Female. Artist. Interview by Nathan Cohen-Fournier. One-on-one in-person interview. Inukjuak. June 20, 2016. 17. Kativik Regional Government. 2016. Home Page. Accessed October 20, 2016. http://www.krg.ca/en/general-information-krg. 45. Martin, F. Money: The Unauthorized Biography—From Coinage to Cryptocurrencies. New York: Vintage Books LLC, 2015: 65. 18. Ibid. 46. Nymand Larsen, J., Schweitzer, P. & Petrov, A. 2014. Arctic Social Indicators – ASI II: Implementation. Accessed November 11, 2016. http://sdwg.org/wp- 19. Rodon, T. “Land Claim Organizations and the Social Economy in Nunavut and Nunavik.” Northern Communities Working Together. Ed. Southcott, C. University content/uploads/2015/02/ASI-II.pdf. of Toronto Press. 2015. 47. Anonymous. Interview by Nathan Cohen-Fournier. One-on-one in-person interview. Kuujjuaq. July 28, 2016. 20. McPherson, I. “Beyond Their Most Obvious Face: The Reach of Cooperatives in the Canadian North.” Northern Communities Working Together. Ed Southcott, C. University of Toronto Press. 2015: 143. 48. Ibid.

21. Ibid., 145. 49. Online survey, Question #34, N=26. “Do you see economic development as a way to strengthen the independence and self-determination of Nunavik? Definitely yes (1), Probably yes (2) Might or might not (3) Probably not (4) Definitely not (5).” 22. Fortin, A. 2012. Petite histoire méconnue d’une grande innovation sociale: La Fédération des coopératives du Nouveau-Québec. Accessed August 20, 2016. https://www.sommetinter.coop/sites/default/files/article-scientifique/files/ 50. Anonymous Male. Entrepreneur. Interview by Nathan Cohen-Fournier. One-on-one in-person interview. Kuujjuaq. 09-fortin_1.pdf. July 22, 2016.

23. Abele, F. “State Institutions and the Social Economy of Northern Canada.” Northern Communities Working Together. Ed. Southcott, C. University of Toronto 51. Anonymous Male. Entrepreneur. Interview by Nathan Cohen-Fournier. One-on-one in-person interview. Kuujjuaq. Press. 2015. July 22, 2016.

24. Raglan Mine. “Who we are.” Accessed November 11, 2016. http://www.mineraglan.ca/EN/Aboutus/Pages/OurCompany.aspx. 52. Researcher’s calculations based on Statistics Canada and KRG Business Directory.

25. Rodon, T., Levesque, F., Blais, J. 2013. “From Rakin Inlet to Raglan, Mining Development and Inuit Communities.” Inuit Studies 37 (2). 53. Online survey, Question #23, N=26. What are the main obstacles in running your business? Please rate each factor on a scale from 1 to 5, where 1 means “not an obstacle at all” and 5 means “a very important obstacle” : Access to financing (1), Lack of demand (2), Availability of skilled labor (3), Cost of doing 26. Dana, L.P. & Anderson, R.B. International Handbook of Research on Indigenous Entrepreneurship. Edward Elgar Publishing Limited. 2007. business (4), Lack of space / housing (5), Access to accountants, bookkeepers, lawyers, etc. (6), Taxes (7), Poor infrastructure (roads, internet, electricity, ...) 27. Anderson, R.W., Honig, B., Peredo, A.M. “Communities in the Global Economy: Where Social and Indigenous Entrepreneurship Meet.” Entrepreneurship as (8), Other (please specify) (9) Palliser, T. Interview by Nathan Cohen-Fournier. One-on-one in-person interview. Inukjuak. July 4, 2016. Social Change. Ed. Steyaert, C. & Hjorth, D. Edward Elger, 2006: 56-78. 54. Palliser, T. Interview by Nathan Cohen-Fournier. One-on-one in-person interview. Inukjuak. July 4, 2016. 28. Peredo, A.M., Anderson, R.B., Galbraith, C., Honig, B. & Dana, L.P. 2004. Toward a Theory of Indigenous Entrepreneurship. Accessed November 2, 2016. 55. Anonymous Male. Entrepreneur. Interview by Nathan Cohen-Fournier. One-on-one in-person interview. Inukjuak. http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1276522. June 8, 2016.

36 WALKING ON THIN ICE ENTREPRENEURSHIP IN NUNAVIK 37 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

56. Anonymous Male. Entrepreneur. Interview by Nathan Cohen-Fournier. One-on-one in-person interview. Inukjuak. This project was made possible through the Global Research June 7, 2016. Fellowship funding of the Institute for Business in a Global Context 57. Anonymous Male. Entrepreneur. Interview by Nathan Cohen-Fournier. One-on-one in-person interview. Kuujjuaq. July 22, 2016. (IBGC). Moreover, it could not have been possible without 58. Anonymous Male. Entrepreneur. Interview by Nathan Cohen-Fournier. One-on-one in-person interview. Inukjuak. collaboration from the Kativik Regional Government June 20, 2016. and the Regional and Local Development Department. 59. Isaacson, W. Einstein: His Life and Universe. Simon & Schuster, 2008. 60. Anonymous Male. Entrepreneur. Interview by Nathan Cohen-Fournier. One-on-one in-person interview. Inukjuak. A special thanks to Tommy Palliser, Adel Yassa, Andy Moorhouse, June 8, 2016. and Amanda Moorhouse. I would like to thank all the participants 61. Anonymous Female. Entrepreneur. Interview by Nathan Cohen-Fournier. One-on-one in-person interview. Kuujjuaq. July 28, 2016. and the communities of Inukjuak and Kuujjuaq for their time and

62. Anonymous Female. Entrepreneur. Interview by Nathan Cohen-Fournier. One-on-one in-person interview. Kuujjuaq. generosity. Finally, I want to acknowledge the invaluable support of July 28, 2016. my research advisor, Professor Karen Jacobsen, and the support of 63. Global Entrepreneurship Monitor. 2016. GEM 2015 / 2016 Global Report. Accessed November 2, 2016. http://www.gemconsortium.org/report/49480. Professors Thierry Rodon and Léo-Paul Dana. 64. Anonymous Male. Key Informant. Interview by Nathan Cohen-Fournier. One-on-one in-person interview. Inukjuak. June 8, 2016.

65. Atagotaaluk, E. Interview by Nathan Cohen-Fournier. One-on-one in-person interview. Inukjuak. June 15, 2016.

66. Petrov, A. “A talent in the cold? Creative class and the future of the Canadian North.” ARCTIC—Journal. Arctic Institute of North America 2008, 61(2): 162- 176.

67. Anonymous Male. Artist. Interview by Nathan Cohen-Fournier. One-on-one in-person interview. Inukjuak. June 8, 2016.

68. Anynomous, Male. Interview by Nathan Cohen-Fournier. One-on-one interview over the phone. Inukjuak. June 20, 2016.

69. Petrov, A. “A talent in the cold? Creative class and the future of the Canadian North.” ARCTIC—Journal. Arctic Institute of North America 2008, 61(2): 162- 176.

70. Rodon, T. (2016). “Serving Nunavimmiut: Policies and Programs Adapted to the Reality of Nunavik.” Accessed February 3, 2016. https://www.academia.edu/20293498/Serving_Nunavimmiut_Policies_and_Programs_Adapted_to_the_Reality_of_Nunavik

71. Moorhouse, A. Interview by Nathan Cohen-Fournier. One-on-one in-person interview. Inukjuak. June 30, 2016.

72. Anonymous Female. Entrepreneur. Interview by Nathan Cohen-Fournier. One-on-one in-person interview. Kuujjuaq. July 27, 2016.

73. Online survey. Question #26, N=26. “If video tutorials for tax filings, accounting, and good business practices were offered to you in English & Inuktitut, would you find that useful? Extremely useful (1), Moderately useful (2), Slightly useful (3), Neither useful nor useless (4), Slightly useless (5), Moderately useless (6), Extremely useless (7).”

74. Anonymous Male. Entrepreneur. Interview by Nathan Cohen-Fournier. One-on-one in-person interview. Kujjuaq. July 22, 2016.

75. Business Review Canada. July 14, 2014. “Quebec in Last Place Regarding Entrepreneurship, Economic Growth.” Accessed August 29, 2016. http://www. businessreviewcanada.ca/finance/1033/Quebec-in-Last-Place-Regarding-Entrepreneurship-Economic-Growth.

76. Palliser, T. Interview by Nathan Cohen-Fournier. One-on-one in-person interview. Inukjuak. July 4, 2016..

77. Yassa, A. Interview by Nathan Cohen-Fournier. One-on-one in-person interview. Kuujjuaq. July 27, 2016..

38 WALKING ON THIN ICE ENTREPRENEURSHIP IN NUNAVIK 39 Institute for Business in the Global Context The Fletcher School, Tufts University 160 Packard Avenue, Cabot 404 Medford, MA 02155 USA

December 2016