UNIVERSITY OF OKLAHOMA GRADUATE COLLEGE THE FORGOTTEN WARRIORS: KEETOOWAH ABOLITIONISTS, REVITALIZATION, THE SEARCH FOR MODERNITY, AND STRUGGLE FOR AUTONOMY IN THE CHEROKEE NATION, 1800 -1866 A DISSERTATION SUBMITTED TO THE GRADUATE FACULTY in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the Degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY By PATRICIA JO LYNN KING Norman, Oklahoma 2013 THE FORGOTTEN WARRIORS: KEETOOWAH ABOLITIONISTS, REVITALIZATION, THE SEARCH FOR MODERNITY, AND STRUGGLE FOR AUTONOMY IN THE CHEROKEE NATION, 1800 -1866 A DISSERTATION APPROVED FOR THE DEPARTMENT OF HISTORY BY ___________________________ Dr. Warren Metcalf, Chair ___________________________ Dr. Fay Yarbrough ___________________________ Dr. Sterling Evans ___________________________ Dr. James S. Hart ___________________________ Dr. Mary S. Linn © Copyright by PATRICIA JO LYNN KING 2013 All Rights Reserved. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Writing these acknowledgements is an enjoyable, yet intimidating task. Enjoyable, because there are many people who have helped me throughout this journey, and I am thrilled to be able to thank them publicly at long last. Intimidating, because I know that whatever I write, it will not be sufficient to express the depths of gratitude I feel for the new perspectives I have gained through their patient mentoring, support, and fine examples. It seems to me, as I’m sure it does to others, that this dissertation took a long time to complete, but this is a complicated story with many influences and viewpoints to consider. I couldn’t have finished any sooner without missing critical pieces of the story. One truism I learned through the process of this investigation is that once you awaken history from its slumber, it becomes a living, dynamic creature with a trajectory and mind of its own. All you can do is hold on and allow it to take you where it will. Sometimes it will lead you along beautiful sunlit paths which make you feel and confident and clever. Yet other times it may lead you down dark, foreboding alleyways where you may find yourself bewildered and lost. Only through commitment to your topic and a willingness to let the research take you where it may, can you uncover the answers you are looking for. In the early stage of my investigation I spent time foolishly trying to force my research to march to my tune and deliver the outcome I desired. Since then I have come to a fuller understanding of the words of James Joyce in Ulysses, “errors are the portals of discovery.” I have made many errors in the process of writing this dissertation, but through it all I have learned a great iv deal more than I ever anticipated, and I remain committed to this dynamic creature I have awakened. I have had wonderful financial support for my academic endeavors; first, as a recipient of a USA Today full scholarship to the university of my choice; and then after selecting Northern Arizona University, as the recipient of the William H. Lyon Western History scholarship for two consecutive years, the George and Eleanor Kyte American History Award, and the G.M. Farley History Scholarship. I was also selected as a Francis C. Allen Newberry Library Scholar in Residence. To my great surprise, I was then accepted as a fully-funded graduate student at the University of Oklahoma where I enjoyed the benefits of the Graduate Foundation Fellowship, the Bruce Granger Literature Fellowship from World Literature Today, the Browning Pipestem Memorial Scholarship, and finally, the Anne Hodges Morgan and H. Wayne Morgan Fellowship. I was honored to receive additional support for books and materials from the Cherokee Nation in Oklahoma. Without this amazing support, I could not have devoted the time and energy needed to further my studies and research. I owe my decision to go to grad school to several incredible scholars I had the privilege to work with in Arizona. The late historian Frank Hines, who talked me out of my “foolhardy” plans to study Political Science; Cultural Anthropologist Dr. Mike Holmes, who passed in 2007, shared his passion and great talent for rock music with me, as well as his experience of three decades of work with the Mojave community; and to my friend Dr. Valerie Avery, who passed unexpectedly in 2006 while I was visiting the University of Oklahoma, an v invitation she encouraged me to accept. I will never forget these three special mentors who helped me make the initial decisions that ultimately brought me to Oklahoma. I also owe an enormous debt of gratitude to Dr. Susan Deeds, who as Graduate Studies Chair at NAU was never too busy to talk to me about my program and plans, and to give me no nonsense advice and encouragement. She often laughed when reading my papers and exclaimed, “You write like a journalist!” Most of all, my advisor, Dr. Michael Amundson was my stalwart champion. A fine editor, he never held back criticism, and always pushed me to excel. He was the first person to tell me that he was certain that I could succeed in a doctoral program, and he gave me the courage to take those first steps. At OU, I was greeted enthusiastically by Department Chair, Robert Griswold, Dr. Albert Hurtado, and Dr. Donald Pisani, who all made me feel as though I were a part of the history team. Over the years I enjoyed working on projects with Dr. Griswold, and came to admire his seemingly limitless abilities and know-how in public relations, as well as his tireless work on behalf of the department. He always seemed to know how to find funding for special projects and was unyielding in his support of deserving students. I also enjoyed studying U.S. history with Dr. Griswold and felt well-prepared for my comprehensive exams under his advisement. I often visited with Professor Hurtado, Professor Pisani, and Professor Josh Piker, and found their doors always open when I needed to ‘talk out’ some aspect of my research that fell within their particular areas of expertise. I am also indebted to Dr. Sterling Evans and Dr. Fay Yarbrough for agreeing to serve on my dissertation committee. Dr. Evans has vi been encouraging, giving me advice on a number of occasions. Dr. Yarbrough too, has taken a keen interest in my research and has helped me establish productive contacts with scholars in related fields outside of OU. I appreciate all they have done to support my efforts. It is also an honor to have Dr. Mary Linn, a distinguished scholar in the field of Native language revitalization, as a member of my committee. I admire her work, and extend my heartfelt thanks for her commitment to my project. One of my fondest experiences at OU was the time I spent studying Tudor History under the guidance of Professor James Hart. Although I had no experience outside of ‘armchair’ enthusiasm for the topic, Dr. Hart never once waivered in his faith in me. He is a marvelous, personable teacher whose enthusiasm for British history is both contagious and empowering. Even as I grumbled through all 700 pages of Duffy’s Stripping of the Altars, I relished every minute of my opportunity to study with him. With his help, I developed a more insightful understanding of British and Indian relations that ultimately helped with my research. Most importantly, I owe the lion’s share of my gratitude to my advisor, Dr. Warren Metcalf. From the moment we first talked, Professor Metcalf expressed a genuine interest in my research goals and pursuits. If he had any doubts at all about my abilities as an ‘alternative’ student, he never gave any indication he had them, but urged me forward with confidence. In his customary, relaxed and contemplative style, he was always able to reframe my ideas in a much more engaging and contextual manner than I, yet he always allowed me to vii develop more nuanced understandings in my own way. His laid back approach gave me confidence in my own abilities, and helped me grow academically, for which I thank him. Throughout the formulation and writing of this dissertation, he remained positive and upbeat, giving suggestions only when warranted, and never frivolously. Dr. Metcalf also has a wonderful and rare ability to explain poorly understood issues to his students, a talent I greatly admire and hope to emulate in my own teaching. He is an exceptional scholar and a wonderful advisor who I will always think of as a trusted and valued mentor. I would also like to thank my friend Dr. Richard Allen who has worked tirelessly to promote education and history and to protect culture in the Cherokee Nation in Oklahoma. Dr. Allen was instrumental in linking Cherokee scholars around the country through the organization of conferences, panels, and lectures that fostered the sharing of information and resources. I am also most grateful to my friend Dr. Tom Holm for his astute comments on selected sections of my paper, and also for his years of devotion to Cherokee scholarship. My friend Professor Kathryn England-Aytes also deserves praise for her unswerving support. She has always been available to talk out research problems and discuss new ideas. She has been an enthusiastic partner in many projects and has graciously invited me into her home as part of her family on many occasions. Thanks also to Lew Aytes who cheerfully drove us through Delaware County in the middle of a torrential rain storm during tornado season and happily tromped through mud and weeds and chiggers searching for long-forgotten cemeteries. A viii wonderfully talented sculptor, and music enthusiast, Lew is a great friend and supporter of Indian history. One delightful aspect of my grad experience at OU was the incredible camaraderie of the graduate students.