Final Environmental Impact Statement General Management Plan

SUNSET CRATER VOLCANO National Monument • Arizona

SUMMARY: This general management plan will guide the management of the Sunset Crater Volcano National Monument for the next 10 to 15 years. Four alternatives were considered—a no- action and three action alternatives, including the National Park Service preferred alternative. The preferred alternative would provide increased educational opportunities and diverse experiences both within and outside of park boundaries. The park would be viewed as a destination for education and learning. Partnerships with the USFS, affiliated tribes, and educational institutions would provide interpretation and more consistent management of sites and features outside the park that are primary to the park’s purpose. Boundaries would be adjusted for ease of management and to better protect geologic features. Most existing uses would continue. The park would remain day-use only, with 24-hour access on FR545, and visitor use would be spread throughout more resources. A new multiagency visitor center would be built near US89 to serve as the primary location to orient and serve visitors, and the existing visitor center would be adapted for use as an education center. The environmental impact statement assesses impacts to archeological resources; historic character of the built environment; long-term integrity of ethnographic resources, natural systems and processes, and geological resources; threatened, endangered, and sensitive species; visitors’ ability to experience park resources; park neighbors, local, state, and tribal land management plans and land/resource managing agencies; and operational efficiency.

For more information about this document, contact:: Superintendent Flagstaff Area National Monuments 6400 N. Hwy 89 Flagstaff, Arizona 86004

United States Department of the Interior • National Park Service • Sunset Crater Volcano National Monument

SUMMARY

The purpose of the general management approved by the National Park Service and plan is to provide a comprehensive a federal "Record of Decision" will be direction for resource preservation and issued to document the approval. visitor use and a basic foundation for decision making for the monument for the Actions Common to All next 15 to 20 years. The plan prescribes the Alternatives resource conditions and visitor experiences that are to be achieved and maintained in Within the broad parameters of the park the park over time. The clarification of mission and mission goals, various what must be achieved according to law approaches to park resource protection, and policy is based on review of the park's use and development are possible. purpose, significance, and special Management zones are the tool this plan mandates. uses to identify how different areas of the park could be managed to achieve a The plan will outline the kinds of resource variety of resources and social conditions management activities, visitor activities, to serve recreation and resource and development that would be protections needs. Each zone specifies a appropriate in the monument in the particular combination of physical, future. However, the plan will not propose biological, social and management specific actions or describe how particular conditions. Eight possible zones were programs or projects will be implemented described that could be appropriate to or prioritized. More detailed site-specific various areas in Wupatki National analysis of alternatives and specific Monument. They are the resource proposals will be required in subsequent preservation zone, the discovery zone, the phases of planning before any major extended learning zone, the guided federal actions are undertaken. Four adventure zone, the hiking zone, the alternatives are presented, and the impacts motorized sightseeing zone, the overview of implementing those alternatives are zone, and the administrative zone. analyzed. A brief summary of the major actions under the alternatives, as well as Common to all alternatives is short range the actions that are common to all planning already underway to meet alternatives and the impacts thereof, are immediate operational needs that will presented below. continue to exist regardless of the alternative selected. These are identified The Next Step in National Park Service-wide initiatives, in Flagstaff Area National Monuments This Final Environmental Impact planning documents, such as the Strategic Statement/General Management Plan, Plan, Annual Performance Plan, which includes agency and organization Comprehensive Interpretive Plan, Fire letters and response to all substantive Management Plan, and Resources comments, will be distributed to those on Management Plan, and in local action the mailing list. After distribution of this plans to resolve safety, accessibility, facility final plan, there will be a no-action period maintenance, and similar issues. of at least 30 days. After this no-action period, a final plan will be selected and

i All alternatives presented recognize the will be made permanent through the opportunity for partnerships, for the formulation and publishing of a special protection of cultural and natural regulation. Although various alternatives resources, with the USFS, the State of may allow guided activities to continue in Arizona, and private landowners. USFS the park backcountry, there will be no lands surrounding Sunset Crater Volcano unguided access. will continue under USFS management, in accordance with decisions reached in the No-Action Alternative: USFS Flagstaff Lake Mary Ecosystem Existing ConditionsEntrance to Sunset Analysis (FLEA) planning process. Crater Volcano National Monument is via FR545, both ends of which connect with Planning and design of new wayside US89, creating a loop drive that also serves exhibits and museum exhibits is in Wupatki . A visitor center and progress, in accordance with the Flagstaff maintenance/housing area are one mile Areas Comprehensive Interpretive Plan, to further east, on Coconino National Forest improve visitor understanding and land near the monument boundary. These appreciation of Sunset Crater Volcano facilities were constructed and are resources. operated by NPS under an agreement with the Forest Service. Associated with the New wayside exhibits will replace and visitor center are park residences, a expand the existing system of interpretive maintenance facility, and a maintenance signs along FR545 and at major existing storage area. T visitor use areas. New museum exhibits will replace the outdated and inaccurate Sunset Crater Volcano is operated as a day- exhibits at the existing visitor center. use area, and the park is closed, but not gated, at night. Entrance fees are required Bonito Campground will be expanded by at Sunset Crater Volcano National the USFS to provide group camping, a day- Monument; access is limited to established use area for educational group gatherings, trails, roadways, and developed facilities. and an upgraded amphitheater for Areas not designated and identified for programs. public activities are closed to unguided entry. A new 4,000-square-foot curatorial building will be constructed in the A 20-car parking area and rest room are administrative area to provide for the provided near the Lava Flow Trail. The long-term care and preservation of one-mile Lava Flow Trail is a self-guided museum objects loop exploring a variety of volcanic formations. The one-mile Lenox Crater A new 20,000-square-foot maintenance, Trail provides an opportunity to climb a resources management, and ranger cinder cone. support facility will be constructed in the Sunset Crater Volcano administrative area. The Cinder Hills overlook near the eastern It will include vehicle and equipment boundary of the monument provides a storage, supplies and materials storage, view of numerous cinder cones in the area. offices, and a meeting room. About 3.5 miles east is the Painted Desert overlook, a small picnic area constructed The backcountry of Sunset Crater Volcano by the Forest Service and jointly operated National Monument (defined as all areas under a cooperative agreement. beyond designated roads, trails, or Impacts from the No-Action alternative developed facilities within the monument) would be as follows: The prehistoric and is closed to unguided entry. The closure ii Mission 66 landscapes would have an park would remain day-use only, with 24- overall reduction of historic integrity hour access on FR545, and visitor use resulting in a moderate adverse impact. would be spread throughout more Closure of the backcountry could help resources. A new multi-agency visitor protect ethnographic resources and have a center would be built near US89 to serve moderate beneficial impact. Natural as the primary location to orient and serve systems and processes would continue to visitors. The existing visitor center would have minor to moderate adverse impacts be adapted for use as an education center. caused by the existing main road and In comparison to the no-action alternative, visitor use in concentrated areas. Alternative 1 would impact a relatively This alternative would continue to provide small, but concentrated number of major benefits to visitors wanting a brief archeological resources near the new introduction to the volcanic landscape. visitor center. Increased USFS and NPS at Park facilities and many features would the new visitor center would provide remain accessible and provide access to increased opportunities to orient and representative volcanic features. The educate visitors. Overall the impacts existing visitor center would continue to would be major and adverse for specific provide limited space and interpretive archeological resources. The prehistoric exhibits, contributing to an incomplete and Mission 66 landscapes would have visitor understanding of park resources, a additional pullouts and a visitor center moderate adverse impact. resulting in an overall reduction of historic integrity, therefore creating a moderate Expected increases in visitation over time adverse impact. Ethnographic resources will add to congestion, increase would have moderate to major beneficial maintenance needs and unintentional impacts resulting from development of damage to resources. agreements and continued tribal Alternative 1 (Preferred): involvement in park management and Focus on Extended Learning interpretive planning. Natural systems and processes would The goal of the preferred alternative is to continue to have minor to moderate provide increased educational adverse impacts caused by the existing opportunities and diverse experiences both main road, visitor use in concentrated within and outside of park boundaries. areas and some trail construction. The park would be viewed as a destination for education and learning. Partnerships Alternative 1 would provide major benefits with the USFS, affiliated tribes, and to both park and forest visitors seeking educational institutions would provide comprehensive information on and interpretation and more consistent interpretation of regional resources and management of sites and features outside recreational opportunities. Construction the park that are primary to the park pur- of a multi-agency visitor center would pose. Minor boundary adjustments would provide major benefit s increasing be made for ease of management and to understanding of resources and the ability align park boundaries and associated to see the resources. The visitor center will fencing with topographic features rather present some moderate adverse impacts than along section lines. Geologic features on visitor experiences by concentrating would be better protected within a single greater numbers of people into existing jurisdiction, and management of existing parking and trails. USFS secondary roads would be clarified. Most existing uses would continue. The

iii This alternative would result in some Crater Volcano and Wupatki National adverse impacts to park neighbors. The Monuments by experiencing the dramatic design, development and operation of a landscape changes along FR545, as well as new visitor center would have long and through interpretive media within the short-term impacts on staffing, requiring monuments and at waysides. additional time from both USFS and NPS Boundaries would be adjusted for personnel. American Indian tribes would administrative purposes, as described in be adversely impacted by increased Alternative 1, and would include congestion and contact. Increased significant resources located at Bonito Park congestion on would adversely impact and south of existing park boundaries. neighbors residing or accessing areas from Removing all administrative and visitor FR 545. facilities (except toilets) from the heart of Alternative 2: Emphasize the park would allow for restoration of Quiet Natural Setting while damaged critical resources and provide a more pristine experience. The ability to Providing Diverse close the park at night would further Opportunities for Visitor Use protect fragile park features. Rerouting the entrance road would allow for This alternative would extend a high placement of the visitor center so that the degree of protection for park resources by public could be oriented before exploring removing and relocating some facilities the park, while maintaining a drive and would provide more diverse between Sunset Crater Volcano and experiences than the No-Action Wupatki National Monuments. Should Alternative. Visitor experience would visitation levels dictate, numbers of people require slightly more effort than under the could be controlled through use of a No-Action Alternative. Primary points of shuttle or reservation system. interest would be reached as destinations rather than roadside attractions. Visitors Impacts from Alternative 2 would have a would be better insulated from modern moderate adverse effect on the day intrusions. The desired outcome is that archeological impacts in the vicinity of visitors would spend more time engaged in Bonito Park and the new visitor center. in-depth learning activities than at Most of these impacts would be indirect, present. The increased diversity of resulting from increased use of these experience would be provided via new areas. This alternative would have major trails and new interpretive media and adverse impacts to the Mission 66 designed activities. The park road would be gated at landscape, due to the proposal removal of night. A new visitor center and several of the buildings and road access of campground would be constructed south the landscape. Actions of alternative 2 of Sunset Crater Volcano and both park would have both beneficial and adverse and forest orientation would be provided effects on ethnographic resources, and at this location. would require additional evaluation in conjunction with the associated tribes. As in Alternative 1, visitors would be in contact with employees from both NPS Impacts to natural systems, geological and USFS. Short roads to key areas of the resources, and threatened, endangered park would eliminate the current drive- species, and sensitive species from through experience. More of the alternative 2 will be overall very minor. monument would be experienced by trail Some minor to moderate impacts would and self-guided activities. Visitors would occur from construction of new facilities be able to connect the stories of Sunset and trails, but these would be offset by iv removal and rehabilitation in other areas. Alternative 3: Expand Park Moderate impacts could occur to Boundaries to Preserve Park pronghorn movement and fawning in the Bonito Park area. Related Resources and Alternative 2 would provide major benefits Provide Diverse Opportunities to both park and forest visitors seeking for Visitor Use comprehensive information on and This alternative would extend NPS interpretation of regional resources and management and protection by expanding recreational opportunities. It would park boundaries to the southeast to provide particular benefit to visitors include key features of the eruption and wanting to experience resources in a geologic story of the Sunset Crater volcanic quieter, more pristine environment. chain (see Alternative 3 map). Boundaries Construction of a new multi-agency visitor of Sunset Crater Volcano National center would provide major benefits to Monument were drawn in 1930, before visitor understanding of resources and the scientific study revealed the full extent of ability to see the 'real thing.' OHV users geologic features related to the eruption. would be adversely impacted by closure of This alternative would provide consistent the Cinder Hills area to the west of FR776. protection of these resources, including The area is relatively small; therefore, the the entire Bonito and Kana-A lava flows, impact would be minor. the red-topped cinder cones along the This alternative would result in some Cinder Hills fissure, Vent 512, and Double adverse impacts to park neighbors. The Crater and would allow visitors to design, development and operation of a experience the entire geologic story. new visitor center would have long and Partnerships with USFS would continue for short-term impacts on staffing, requiring visitor orientation and educational additional time from both USFS and NPS activities near the new visitor center, personnel. American Indian tribes would resource preservation at Bonito Park, and be adversely impacted by increased cooperative management of neighboring congestion and contact. The closure of FR lands. 545 and increased traffic on FR766 could Most existing uses would continue. The have moderate adverse impacts on some developed areas of the park would be park neighbors. managed for day use only. FR545 would be Implementation of alternative 2 would open 24 hours. Visitor use would be spread have long-term, major benefits to park throughout more resources. A new multi- operational efficiency. Access to the park agency visitor center would be constructed would be managed, which would increase near US89 to serve as the primary location the protection and preservation of park to orient and serve visitors to both park resources and reduce the need for law and forest lands. The existing visitor center enforcement. This alternative would would be adapted for use by educational dramatically improve the functionality and groups. Diverse experiences would be maintenance of facilities within the park. provided via new trails and new interpretive media and activities in a quieter natural setting. In comparison to the no-action alternative, Alternative 1 would impact a relatively small, but concentrated number of archeological resources near the new

v visitor center. Increased USFS and NPS at Sunset Crater Volcano. Construction of a the new visitor center would provide new multi-agency visitor center would increased opportunities to orient and provide major benefits to visitor educate visitors. Overall the impacts understanding of resources and the ability would be major and adverse for specific to see the 'real thing.' The visitor center archeological resources. Cumulative effects will present some moderate adverse on archeological resources would be minor impacts on visitor experiences by and beneficial, due to the elimination of concentrating greater numbers of people OHV impacts with the expanded park into existing parking and trails boundaries. OHV users would suffer a major adverse The prehistoric and Mission 66 landscapes impact resulting from the closing a would have additional pullouts and a relatively large area of the Cinder Hills visitor center resulting in an overall area. Approximately 25% of the designate reduction of historic integrity, therefore OHV area would be removed from use, creating a moderate adverse impact. including some of the most heavily used Ethnographic resources would have routes. moderate to major beneficial impacts This alternative would result in some resulting from development of agreements adverse impacts to park neighbors. The and continued tribal involvement in park design, development and operation of a management and interpretive planning. new visitor center would have long and Alternative 3 would have beneficial effects short-term impacts on staffing, requiring on the integrity of natural systems within additional time from both USFS and NPS the monument. Minor adverse impacts personnel. Additional adverse impacts would result from development of a new could result from the reduction in size and visitor center. These impacts would be potential relocation of the OHV offset by the benefits of preservation that recreational area. American Indian tribes would occur within the expanded would be adversely impacted by increased boundaries of the monument. Additional congestion and contact. Increased traffic benefit would result from preserving more on FR545 could have moderate adverse habitats for sensitive species impacts on some park neighbors. Alternative 3 would provide major benefits Changes resulting from implementing to both park and forest visitors seeking Alternative 3 would be increased comprehensive information on and maintenance needs for facilities and trail interpretation of regional resources and systems and increased resource protection recreational opportunities. It would and preservation. provide particular benefit to visitors wanting to explore the full range of volcanic features significant to the story of

vi TABLE OF CONTENTS

SUMMARY...... i

PURPOSE OF AND NEED FOR THE PLAN ...... 1 PURPOSE OF THE GMP ...... 1 NEED FOR THE GMP ...... 2 Reaffirm What Must Be Achieved ...... 3 Description of Scoping Process ...... 21 Decide What Might Be Achieved...... 23 Outstanding Park Values and Resource Concerns ...... 27

ALTERNATIVES ...... 31 DEVELOPMENT OF ALTERNATIVES...... 31 Resource Analysis...... 31 Management Zones...... 31 Boundaries Expansion Criteria ...... 35 Actions Common to All Alternatives ...... 37 Alternative Descriptions...... 38 No-Action Alternative: Existing Conditions ...... 38 Alternative 1 (Preferred): Focus on Extended Learning ...... 39 Alternative 2: Emphasize Quiet Natural Setting while Providing Diverse Opportunities for Visitor Use ...... 41 Alternative 3: Expand Park Boundaries to Preserve Park-Related Resources and Provide Diverse Opportunities for Visitor Use ...... 43 Alternatives Considered But Eliminated From Detailed Evaluation...... 44 MITIGATING MEASURES...... 55 SELECTION OF THE PREFERRED ALTERNATIVE ...... 57 ENVIRONMENTALLY PREFERRED ALTERNATIVE...... 59

AFFECTED ENVIRONMENT ...... 77 LONG-TERM INTEGRITY OF ARCHEOLOGICAL RESOURCES ...... 77 HISTORIC CHARACTER OF THE BUILT ENVIRONMENT ...... 78 LONG-TERM INTEGRITY OF ETHNOGRAPHIC RESOURCES ...... 79 LONG-TERM INTEGRITY OF NATURAL SYSTEMS AND PROCESSES ...... 81 THREATENED, ENDANGERED, AND SENSITIVE SPECIES ...... 85 LONG-TERM INTEGRITY OF GEOLOGIC RESOURCES...... 89 ABILITY TO EXPERIENCE PARK RESOURCES ...... 91 PARK NEIGHBORS; LOCAL, STATE, AND TRIBAL LAND MANAGEMENT PLANS; AND LAND/RESOURCE MANAGING AGENCIES...... 94 OPERATIONAL EFFICIENCY...... 97

vii ENVIRONMENTAL CONSEQUENCES...... 101 METHODOLOGY ...... 101 LONG-TERM AND SCIENTIFIC INTEGRITY OF ARCHEOLOGICAL RESOURCES...... 102 Methodology ...... 102 Effects of the No-Action Alternative: Existing Conditions ...... 103 Effects of Alternative 1 (Preferred): Focus on Extended Learning ...... 106 Effects of Alternative 2: Emphasize Quiet Natural Setting while Providing Diverse Opportunities for Visitor Use ...... 108 Effects of Alternative 3: Expand Park Boundaries to Preserve Park-Related Resources and Provide Diverse Opportunities for Visitor Use...... 110 Irreversible/Irretrievable Commitments of Resources...... 113 Loss in Long-Term Availability or Productivity of the Resource to Achieve Short-Term Gain...... 113 Unavoidable Adverse Effects ...... 113 HISTORIC CHARACTER OF THE BUILT ENVIRONMENT ...... 115 Methodology ...... 115 Effects Of The No-Action Alternative: Existing Conditions...... 115 Effects of Alternative 1 (Preferred): Focus on Extended Learning ...... 117 Effects of Alternative 2: Emphasize Quiet Natural Setting while Providing Diverse Opportunities for Visitor Use ...... 119 Effects of Alternative 3: Expand Park Boundaries to Preserve Park-Related Resources and Provide Diverse Opportunities for Visitor Use...... 120 Irreversible/Irretrievable Commitments Of Resources ...... 122 Loss In Long-Term Availability Or Productivity Of The Resource To Achieve Short-Term Gain...... 122 Unavoidable Adverse Impacts...... 122 Long-Term Integrity of Ethnographic Resources...... 123 Methodology ...... 123 Effects of the No-Action Alternative: Existing Conditions ...... 123 Effects of Alternative 1 (Preferred): Focus on Extended Learning ...... 125 Effects of Alternative 2: Emphasize Quiet Natural Setting while Providing Diverse Opportunities for Visitor Use ...... 126 Effects of Alternative 3: Expand Park Boundaries to Preserve Park-Related Resources and Provide Diverse Opportunities for Visitor Use...... 127 Irreversible/Irretrievable Commitments of Resources...... 127 Loss in Long-Term Availability or Productivity of the Resource to Achieve Short-Term Gain...... 128 Unavoidable Adverse Impacts...... 128 LONG-TERM INTEGRITY OF NATURAL SYSTEMS AND PROCESSES ...... 128 Methodology ...... 128 Effects of the No-Action Alternative: Existing Conditions ...... 129 Effects of Alternative 1 (Preferred): Focus on Extended Learning ...... 131 Effects of Alternative 2: Emphasize Quiet Natural Setting while Providing Diverse Opportunities for Visitor Use ...... 132 Effects of Alternative 3: Expand Park Boundaries to Preserve Park-Related Resources and Provide Diverse Opportunities for Visitor Use...... 134 Irreversible/Irretrievable Commitments of Resources...... 136

viii Loss in Long-Term Availability or Productivity of the Resource to Achieve Short-Term Gain...... 136 Unavoidable Adverse Impacts...... 136 THREATENED, ENDANGERED, AND SENSITIVE SPECIES ...... 137 Methodology ...... 137 Effects of the No-Action Alternative: Existing Conditions ...... 137 Effects of Alternative 1 (Preferred): Focus on Extended Learning ...... 140 Effects of Alternative 2: Emphasize Quiet Natural Setting while Providing Diverse Opportunities for Visitor Use ...... 141 Effects of Alternative 3: Expand Park Boundaries to Preserve Park-Related Resources and Provide Diverse Opportunities for Visitor Use...... 142 Irreversible/Irretrievable Commitments of Resources...... 143 Loss in Long-Term Availability or Productivity of the Resource to Achieve Short-Term Gain...... 144 Unavoidable Adverse Impacts...... 144 LONG-TERM INTEGRITY OF GEOLOGICAL RESOURCES ...... 144 Methodology ...... 144 Effects of the No-Action Alternative: Existing Conditions ...... 145 Effects of Alternative 1 (Preferred): Focus on Extended Learning ...... 147 Effects of Alternative 2: Emphasize Quiet Natural Setting while Providing Diverse Opportunities for Visitor Use ...... 149 Effects of Alternative 3: Expand Park Boundaries to Preserve Park-Related Resources and Provide Diverse Opportunities for Visitor Use...... 151 Irreversible/Irretrievable Commitments of Resources...... 153 Loss in Long-Term Availability or Productivity of the Resource to Achieve Short-Term Gain...... 153 Unavoidable Adverse Impacts...... 154 ABILITY TO EXPERIENCE PARK RESOURCES ...... 154 Methodology ...... 154 Effects of the No-Action Alternative: Existing Conditions ...... 154 Effects of Alternative 1 (Preferred): Focus on Extended Learning ...... 158 Effects of Alternative 2: Emphasize Quiet Natural Setting while Providing Diverse Opportunities for Visitor Use ...... 162 Effects of Alternative 3: Expand Park Boundaries to Preserve Park-Related Resources and Provide Diverse Opportunities for Visitor Use...... 167 Irreversible/Irretrievable Commitments of Resources...... 173 Loss in Long-Term Availability or Productivity of the Resource to Achieve Short-Term Gain...... 173 Unavoidable Adverse Impacts...... 173 PARK NEIGHBORS; LOCAL, STATE, AND TRIBAL LAND MANAGEMENT PLANS; AND LAND/RESOURCE MANAGING AGENCIES...... 173 Methodology ...... 173 Effects of the No-Action Alternative: Existing Conditions ...... 173 Effects of Alternative 1 (Preferred): Focus on Extended Learning ...... 176 Effects of Alternative 2: Emphasize Quiet Natural Setting while Providing Diverse Opportunities for Visitor Use ...... 177 Effects of Alternative 3: Expand Park Boundaries to Preserve Park-Related Resources and Provide Diverse Opportunities for Visitor Use...... 180

ix Irreversible/Irretrievable Commitments of Resources...... 181 Loss in Long-Term Availability or Productivity of the Resource to Achieve Short-Term Gain...... 181 Unavoidable Adverse Impacts...... 181 OPERATIONAL EFFICIENCY...... 182 Methodology ...... 182 Effects of the No-Action Alternative: Existing Conditions ...... 182 Effects of Alternative 1 (Preferred): Focus on Extended Learning ...... 186 Effects of Alternative 2: Emphasize Quiet Natural Setting while Providing Diverse Opportunities for Visitor Use ...... 189 Effects of Alternative 3: Expand Park Boundaries to Preserve Park-Related Resources and Provide Diverse Opportunities for Visitor Use...... 191 Irreversible/Irretrievable Commitments of Resources...... 193 Loss in Long-Term Availability or Productivity of the Resource to Achieve Short-Term Gain...... 193 Unavoidable Adverse Impacts...... 193

CONSULTATION AND COORDINATION ...... 195 HISTORY OF PUBLIC INVOLVEMENT...... 195 AGENCY CONSULTATION...... 195 TRIBAL CONSULTATION ...... 195 LIST OF RECIPIENTS ...... 196 Federal Agencies...... 196 Indian Tribes...... 196 State Government...... 197 Local Government...... 197 Organizations/Businesses ...... 197 Individuals ...... 199 RESPONSES TO COMMENTS ON THE DRAFT PLAN...... 199

APPENDIXES/REFERENCES ...... 251 APPENDIX A: Legislation ...... 251 APPENDIX B: RESOURCE ATTRIBUTES ...... Error! Bookmark not defined. APPENDIX C: CHOOSING BY ADVANTAGES AND COSTS .....Error! Bookmark not defined.

GLOSSARY...... 253

BIBLIOGRAPHY ...... 257

LIST OF PREPARERS...... 265 PREPARERS ...... 265 CONTRIBUTORS...... 266

INDEX ...... 268

x TABLES Table 1: Summary of Comparative Costs ...... 58 Table 2: Summary of Alternatives ...... 63 Table 3: Summary of Major Impacts...... 69 Table 4: Objectives Met by Alternatives...... 74 MAPS Region ...... 1 Existing Conditions ...... 49 Alternative 1 ...... 50 Alternative 2 ...... 51 Alternative 3 ...... 52 Combined Alternative 2 ...... 53 Regional Planning Considerations...... 53

xi

PURPOSE OF AND NEED FOR THE PLAN

PURPOSE OF THE GMP

The purpose of the general management plan (GMP) is to clearly define a direction for resource preservation and visitor use at Sunset Crater Volcano National Monument (NM). Sunset Crater Volcano is currently operating under a Master Plan approved in June 1982. It is the intent of this planning effort to provide a comprehensive direction for the next 10 to 15 years and to arrive at that direction through public participation. In fact this draft GMP is the result of extensive interaction with interested publics and affected government agencies begun in June 1996 (see Description of Scoping Process and Consultation and Coordination sections). The approved plan will provide a framework for proactive decision making, including decisions on visitor use, natural and cultural resources management, and park development, which will allow park managers to effectively address future opportunities and problems. The general management plan will prescribe the resource conditions and visitor experiences that are to be achieved and maintained in the park over time. The clarification of what must be achieved according to law and policy is based on review of the park’s Some of those conditions and experiences purpose, significance, special mandates, are specified already in law and policy, and the body of laws and policies directing whereas others are open to debate and park management. Management decisions must be determined through planning. to be made where law, policy, or Based on determinations of desired regulations do not provide clear guidance conditions, the plan will outline the kinds or limits will be based on the purpose of of resource management activities, visitor the monument, the range of public activities, and development that would be expectations and concerns, resource appropriate in the monument in the analysis, an evaluation of the natural, future. However, the plan will not propose cultural, and social impacts of alternative specific actions or describe how particular courses of action, and consideration of programs or projects will be implemented long-term economic costs. or prioritized. Those decisions will be

1 PURPOSE AND NEED deferred to more detailed implementation Development on private lands between planning, which will follow the broad, Sunset Crater Volcano and Wupatki has comprehensive decision making outlined produced year-round commuter traffic, in the general management plan. which is increasing. Increased traffic has resulted in increased maintenance needs, NEED FOR THE GMP occasional traffic accidents that need to be investigated by NPS rangers, occasional There were many issues and concerns that trash and garbage being left in park precipitated the need for a GMP. containers or along roadsides, and an Administratively, the three parks of the increase in necessary contacts at the Flagstaff Area (Wupatki, Sunset Crater entrance station. Volcano, and Walnut Canyon National Monuments) were combined under one Visitor use and administrative needs superintendent in 1990.Nationwide exceed the capacity of the Sunset Crater demographics and traffic patterns (Sunbelt Volcano visitor center. The visitor center is migration, international visitors, aging of easily missed by visitors and lacks a view America, shorter vacations year-round) of, or immediate access to, the volcano or have increased peak visitation seasons and any major park features. Many visitors extended shoulder seasons. Flagstaff believe they will see a “crater,” and the growth and housing development is demand for a view of this aspect of the occurring near park boundaries, impacting primary resource is unmet. (The volcano the visitor experience and remote was closed to hiking in 1973 because of character of the monument and increasing resource impacts.) Interpretive media are incompatible adjacent land uses. Traffic outdated or inaccurate, and there is no levels are increasing adjacent to and consistent integrated message between through the park; views are intruded on this and the other two Flagstaff Area by mining operations, housing monuments. Interpretive programs are developments, and divided highways; and offered as staffing permits. noise is increasing. Trampling of volcanic and other natural When Sunset Crater Volcano National features has occurred both inside and Monument was established in 1930, outside of the monument. Trails are boundaries were drawn around the difficult to maintain on cinder and lava volcano and its primary lava flow. Many surfaces, and routes are sometimes unclear associated features, such as the Kana-A because of social trails. All of the area lava flow, Bonito Park, related cones along immediately surrounding the monument is the eruptive fissure line, and evidence of managed by the U.S. Forest Service (USFS); the displaced prehistoric community, are the viewshed and natural soundscapes, outside the monument boundary. however, are affected by nearby pumice mining at the base of the San Francisco The park entrance road, Forest Road 545 Peaks and by off-road vehicle activities in (FR545), is maintained by the National Park the Cinder Hills area. The Cinder Hills Off- Service (NPS) and cuts across the flank of Highway Vehicle (OHV) Area occupies Sunset Crater Volcano, creating impacts on about 13,500 acres adjacent to and natural features of the park. Although southeast of the monument. The OHV area both Wupatki and Sunset Crater Volcano is visible from the Cinder Hills Overlook are closed at night, the access road and within the monument boundary. The common to both is not gated. The Park proximity of cinder cones that are Service provides 24-hour emergency protected to the degree of denying response along its entire 36 miles, 15 miles pedestrian traffic (within the monument), of which are in the monuments.

2 PURPOSE AND NEED

so near to similar formations that are be consistent with and contribute to allowed unlimited vehicular access (within fulfilling these missions and mandates. the OHV Area) often evokes visitor PARK MISSION comment. Substantial numbers of Cinder Hills users choose to travel through the Sunset Crater National Monument was monument to reach the OHV area. established by Presidential Proclamation No. 1911 on May 26, 1930, to provide In 1998, the staff of the Flagstaff Areas proper protection for certain geologic undertook an in-depth review and analysis formations. The monument name was of staffing needs for the three monuments changed November 16, 1990, to Sunset and for support positions in headquarters. Crater Volcano National Monument by the This process identified critical positions in Smith River National Recreation Act, P.L. visitor services, protection, resource 101-612. The monument occupies 3,040 management, maintenance, and acres totally surrounded by the Coconino administration that are integral to National Forest. accomplishing the purposes of the monuments and the National Park Service The following purpose statement is based mission. This review evaluated existing on and represents the agency’s conditions and personnel shortfalls in interpretation of the above-mentioned terms of National Park Service abilities to legislative mandates and NPS policies. The provide for a safe, educational visitor park purpose statement is the most experience and for adequate protection fundamental criterion against which the and preservation of park resources. A appropriateness of all plan number of positions were identified as recommendations, operational decisions, critical to maintaining operations at and actions are tested. acceptable levels, for both current and • To preserve and protect Sunset Crater future needs. These needs were identified Volcano National Monument’s prior to the general management geological formations, features, and planning process and are incorporated resources for scientific interests and into the alternatives developed. research, and for public interest, Reaffirm What Must Be including scenic, educational, and Achieved recreational pursuits. Park significance statements capture the Each unit in the National Park System is essence of the park’s importance to the guided by agency-wide and park-specific nation’s natural and cultural heritage. laws, regulations, and policies. Understanding park significance helps Understanding this guidance and how it managers to make decisions that preserve affects each park’s mission is fundamental the resources and values necessary to the to planning for the park’s future. This park’s purposes. The following significance section highlights the mission (expressed statements have been developed for as park purpose, significance, and mission Sunset Crater Volcano National goals) and legal and policy mandates that Monument: guide management of the park. These mission and mandate statements define • Sunset Crater Volcano is the Colorado the sideboards within which all Plateau’s most recent eruption of the management actions must fall. All San Francisco Peaks Volcanic Field and alternatives to be considered in the provides an unparalleled opportunity general management planning effort must to study eruption dynamics, change,

3 PURPOSE AND NEED

and recovery in an arid climate community. Current and complete following a volcanic eruption. scientific findings are available for • The volcanic eruption profoundly communication to partners, integration affected people in the area and their into the interpretive program and use lifeways and left a unique in the management decision process. archeological and ethnographic record • Facilities, services, and recreational of human adaptation, response, and opportunities offered are in keeping recovery to volcanic eruption. Sunset with site-specific requirements of Crater Volcano and its natural resource protection and visitor resources continue to have cultural enjoyment. Safety measures are an significance to contemporary native integral part of the visitor experience. tribes. • Through on-site and off-site education, • The park’s volcanic features are seen the Flagstaff Area National now with few human disturbances and Monuments promote visitor provide excellent opportunities for understanding of park purpose and science, education, and interpretation, significance, enhance appreciation and including insight into plate tectonics, enjoyment, and promote an attitude of ongoing geologic and ecological personal responsibility. processes, and a larger view of how • Flagstaff Area National Monuments this area is important in the context of use current management practices, Southwestern U.S. and world geology. systems, and technologies to This dramatic landscape of visually accomplish their missions. striking and colorful geologic features • provokes introspection. The Flagstaff Area National Monuments increase their capabilities • The microhabitat and climate of Sunset through initiatives and support from Crater Volcano create an unusual other agencies, organizations, and species mix, including lichens, molds, individuals. and endemic species that are highly visible examples of the scientific SPECIAL MANDATES AND concepts of succession and adaptation. ADMINISTRATIVE COMMITMENTS MISSION GOALS The monument has numerous special use agreements with other agencies: Mission goals were developed for the three units in the Flagstaff Area National Law Enforcement Agreements between Monuments Strategic Plan (NPS 2000). USFS and NPS: National, regional, and local They state that: agreements exist that allow law enforcement operations on each other’s • Natural and cultural resources and lands. associated values within the three Flagstaff Area monuments are Memorandum of Understanding with protected and maintained in good Coconino County Sheriff’s Department: condition and managed within their Outlines areas of responsibility within the broader ecosystem and cultural national monument and provides for the contexts. deputization of NPS protection park rangers through the Coconino County • Flagstaff Area National Monuments Sheriff’s department. actively pursue acquisition of natural and cultural resource data through NPS Interpretive Partnership: This partnership, staff and funding channels and which has been in operation for seven through association with the scientific years, coordinates interpretive activities on

4 PURPOSE AND NEED

NPS and USFS lands and encourages Many resource conditions and some consistent messages through shared aspects of visitor experience are prescribed staffing. by these legal mandates and NPS policies. Although the attainment of some of these Cooperative Agreement with Department conditions has been deferred in the of Anthropology, Northern Arizona monument because of funding or staffing University: Provides assistance to NPS for limitations, NPS will continue to strive to various cultural resource management implement these policies at the monument activities, using NAU students and faculty with or without a new GMP. The GMP is to complete projects. not needed to decide, for instance, Memorandum of Understanding with whether or not it is appropriate to protect Museum of Northern Arizona: Allows the endangered species, control exotic species, museum to store and care for various improve water quality, protect artifacts from the three Flagstaff Area archeological sites, provide access for monuments, while retaining NPS visitors with disabilities, or conserve ownership of the collection. artifacts. Cooperative Agreement Western National The conditions prescribed by laws, Parks Association (WNPA): Allows WNPA regulations, and policies most pertinent to to operate a bookstore in each of the the planning and management of the Flagstaff Area monuments and monument are summarized in this section. headquarters, with support provided to NPS from those sales. Impairment Memorandum of Understanding between Current laws and policies require the USFS and NPS: Outlines the responsibilities analysis of potential effects to determine and uses of the administrative area at whether or not actions would impair park Sunset Crater Volcano National resources. Monument, where there are NPS facilities Desired Condition Source on USFS lands, as well as the maintenance While Congress has given Management and jurisdiction on FR545. the Service the Policies Doney Park Water Company Agreement: management discretion to Provides water for the Sunset Crater allow certain impacts within parks, that developed area, including Bonito discretion is limited by the Campground; establishes limits for water statutory requirement consumption/use. (enforceable by the SERVICEWIDE LAWS AND POLICIES federal courts) that the Park Service must leave As with all units of the National Park park resources and values System, management of Sunset Crater unimpaired, unless a Volcano National Monument is guided by particular law directly and the 1916 act creating the National Park specifically provides Service, the General Authorities Act of otherwise. 1970, the act of March 27, 1978, relating The impairment that is to the management of the National Park prohibited by the Organic Act and the General System, and other applicable federal laws Authorities Act is an and regulations, such as the Endangered impact that, in the Species Act and the National Historic professional judgment of Preservation Act. the responsible NPS manager, would harm the

5 PURPOSE AND NEED

Desired Condition Source enjoyment of those resources or values. An integrity of park resources impact to any park resource or value may or values, including the constitute an impairment. An impact opportunities that would be more likely to constitute an otherwise would be impairment to the extent it affects a present for the enjoyment resource or value whose conservation is: of those resources or values. Whether an impact • Necessary to fulfill specific purposes meets this definition identified in the establishing legislation depends on the particular or proclamation of the park; resources and values that • Key to the natural or cultural integrity would be affected; the severity, duration, and of the park or to opportunities for timing of the impact; the enjoyment of the park; or direct and indirect effects • Identified as a goal in the park’s of the impact; and the general management plan or other cumulative effects of the relevant NPS planning documents. impact in question and other impacts. Impairment may result from National Park Service activities in managing the park, The fundamental purpose of the National visitor activities, or activities undertaken Park System, established by the Organic by concessioners, contractors, and others Act and reaffirmed by the General operating in the park. A determination of Authorities Act, as amended, begins with a impairment is made in the Environmental mandate to conserve park resources and Consequences section for each impact values. NPS managers must always seek topic. ways to avoid, or to minimize to the Natural Resource Management greatest degree practicable, adverse Requirements impacts on park resources and values. However, the laws do give the National Air Quality Park Service the management discretion to Sunset Crater Volcano is a class II air allow impacts to park resources and values quality area. Current laws and policies when necessary and appropriate to fulfill require that the following conditions be the purposes of a park, as long as the achieved in the monument for air quality: impact does not constitute impairment of the affected resources and values. Desired Condition Source Although Congress has given the National Air quality in the Clean Air Act; Park Service the management discretion to monuments meets NPS allow certain impacts within parks, that national ambient air Management discretion is limited by the statutory quality standards (NAAQS) Policies requirement that the National Park Service for specified pollutants. must leave park resources and values Park activities do not Clean Air Act; unimpaired, unless a particular law directly contribute to NPS and specifically provides otherwise. The deterioration in air Management prohibited impairment is an impact that, quality. Policies in the professional judgment of the responsible National Park Service manager, Overall, the regional air quality is good. would harm the integrity of park resources Air flows generally down and away from or values, including the opportunities that the adjacent San Francisco Peaks and does otherwise would be present for the not allow concentrations of most

6 PURPOSE AND NEED

pollutants to accumulate within the Water Resources monument. However, rapid growth and Current laws and policies require that the development in the Flagstaff area could following conditions be achieved in the begin to affect air quality in the parks. monument for water resources: Some regional haze issues already exist in the Sunset Crater Volcano area, which is in Desired Condition Source the same airshed as Grand Canyon The Service will Clean Water Act; National Park. Current passive ozone perpetuate surface Executive order monitoring at the monument indicates waters and 11514; NPS some elevation of ozone levels (ca 60 ppb) groundwaters as Management during the summer months prior to the integral components Policies onset of the monsoon season in July. of park aquatic and Although the National Park Service has terrestrial ecosystems. very little direct control over air quality The Service will Clean Water Act; within the airshed encompassing the determine the quality Executive Order of park surface and 12088; NPS monument, the Flagstaff Areas cooperate groundwater Management with the Arizona Department of resources and avoid, Policies Environmental Quality (ADEQ) and the whenever possible, Environmental Protection Agency to the pollution of park monitor air quality and ensure that air waters by human quality is not impaired. activities occurring within and outside of The National Park Service will take the parks. following kinds of actions to meet legal Natural floodplain Executive Order and policy requirements related to air values are preserved 11988; Rivers and quality: or restored. Harbors Act; Clean • Enhance monitoring of localized air Water Act; NPS quality by establishing long-term Management Policies monitoring stations for visibility impairment in the Sunset Crater The natural and Executive Order Volcano area and continue monitoring beneficial values of 11990; Rivers and wetlands are Harbors Act; Clean ozone at the monument. (Air quality preserved and Water Act; NPS monitoring will be conducted in enhanced. Management conjunction with regional air quality Policies agencies.) • Participate in regional air pollution Surface water resources within Sunset control plans and regulations and Crater Volcano National Monument are review of permit applications for major almost nonexistent, except for local new air pollution sources. catchments upon lava flows and seepage • Conduct park operations in compliance areas around the perimeter of lava flows. with federal, state, and local air quality There are relatively deep aquifers beneath regulations. the monument, one of which is used for drinking water. The monument includes areas of deep cinder deposits, and overlies aquifer-bearing geologic formations that are extensively fractured by volcanic vents and fissures. In this regard the monument may serve as a local aquifer recharge area.

7 PURPOSE AND NEED

The National Park Service will take the use suffer from severe erosion on cinder following kinds of actions to meet legal cone slopes, and the breakage and loss of and policy requirements related to water lava and spatter cone surfaces. This is resources: particularly evident on the abandoned crater overlook trail and along the Lava • Apply best management practices Flow Trail. Areas of deep cinder deposits (BMP) to all pollution-generating are easily disturbed by human trampling, activities and facilities in the parks, which hinders the development of soils such as NPS maintenance and storage and survival of vegetation. facilities and parking areas; minimize use of pesticides, fertilizers, and other The National Park Service will take the chemicals and manage them in keeping following kinds of actions to comply with with NPS policy and federal legal and policy requirements related to regulations. geologic resources: • Promote greater public understanding • Inventory and map specific volcanic of water resource issues and encourage features in order to determine their public support. relative uniqueness and assess current Geologic Resources damage levels. • Initiate studies of the deep cinder Current laws and policies require that the deposits to understand off-trail following condition be achieved in the trampling impacts to natural soil park for geologic resources: formation and vegetation Desired Condition Source establishment processes. Geologic features will be Monuments’ • Take actions appropriate to the protected. Certain fragile enabling management zone to deter further geologic features will be legislation; NPS damage to unique volcanic features, monitored to determine if Management possibly including the strategic measures are needed to Policies placement of handrail barriers and prevent or stop human- caused damage (areas of information on the sensitivity of these special management features. considerations will be Species of Special Concern determined through management zoning Current laws and policies require that the decisions in the GMP). following conditions be achieved for species of special concern in the park: Sunset Crater Volcano is very young in Desired Condition Source geologic time and one of the few Federal- and state-listed Endangered undisturbed cinder cone volcanoes within threatened and Species Act; northern Arizona. The volcano offers endangered species and NPS unique insight into fresh lava and cinder their habitats are Management weathering processes, soil formation, and sustained. Policies pioneering vegetation establishment. Populations of native plant Monuments’ Geologic resources in the monument are and animal species enabling adversely affected by disturbance to function in as natural a legislation; NPS unique cinder volcano, lava flow, cinder condition as possible Management barren, spatter cone, and other volcanic except where special Policies features caused by human activities inside management and outside park boundaries. Inside the considerations are park, some areas receiving heavy visitor warranted. (Areas with

8 PURPOSE AND NEED

Desired Condition Source Development for visitor access, visitor use, special management and administrative activities within the considerations will be monument influences plant and animal determined through species distribution. Roads divide natural management zoning areas, and act as barriers or create crossing decisions in the GMP.) hazards for wildlife. Roads, trails, and The Service will strive to Monuments’ disturbed areas also function as corridors restore extirpated native enabling for invasive species to move into the plant and animal species legislation; NPS monument, which may alter unique to parks when specific Management habitats and completely displace rare criteria are met. Policies species. A sustained effort is needed to Management of NPS control these threats to native vegetation populations of exotic plant Management and wildlife habitats. and animal species, up to Policies; and including eradication, Executive Order The National Park Service will take the will be undertaken 13112, Invasive following kinds of actions to comply with wherever such species Species legal and policy requirements related to threaten park resources or native species and to manage the park “in public health and when as natural a condition as possible”: control is prudent and feasible. • Inventory and catalog the plants and animals occurring in the monument. Many natural areas support populations of • Regularly monitor the distribution and species that are sensitive to human status of selected species that are (1) disturbance and development. If these indicators of healthy ecosystem species are in serious decline, they are function and inherent biodiversity, (2) protected by law. Preserving the rare or protected, (3) nonnative, and prehistoric landscape of Sunset Crater (4) native species capable of creating Volcano may also provide a unique refuge resource problems (e.g., for certain species that are sensitive to overpopulation may result in undue other land uses. Two unique plant species competition or alter available habitat are found only within the areas of deep for other species). cinder deposits. Fractured lava flows and • Nurture research that contributes lava tube features may provide habitat for relevant knowledge for conserving rare bat species and other unique wildlife. native species and ecosystem processes. Certain rare plant species may be subject • to collection for cultural reasons, and Restore species populations and their better information on them is needed to habitats where feasible. ensure that populations remain stable. • Manage native species in management zones designated for historic scene, In addition, the monument provides active recreation, operations, or other foraging habitat for the endangered prescribed uses; plantings of nonnative Mexican spotted owl and northern species in such zones would follow NPS goshawk, which are known to occur policies (e.g., limited use of noninvasive nearby in surrounding U.S. Forest Service plants only where justified by historic lands. Although not officially listed as scene or operational needs). threatened or endangered, pronghorn antelope are declining in the region. • Control or eliminate nonnative invasive Seasonal pronghorn antelope movements plants and animals where there is a are completely thwarted in areas where reasonable expectation of success and fenced roadsides form continuous barriers.

9 PURPOSE AND NEED

sustainability; control efforts would be ranch lands are threatened. Sunset Crater prioritized in order of: Volcano has agreements with neighboring • threat to legally protected or uncommon fire protection agencies to efficiently share native species and habitats local personnel, equipment, and funds for • threat to visitor health or safety fire emergency response. In the event a • threat to scenic and aesthetic quality large, regional fire should occur, the • threat to common native species and habitats monument would participate in an appropriate response as coordinated by • Manage diseases and pests in similar the National Interagency Fire Center. priority order to those listed above for nonnative species. Although Sunset Crater Volcano’s 3,000 acres are dominated by expanses of barren • Educate visitors and neighbors on lava and cinder deposits, there are pockets threats to native species and ways to of mature ponderosa pine forest and conserve these species. pinyon woodland that could sustain a • Cooperate with Arizona Game and wildfire. Forest vegetation surrounding Fish, the U.S. Forest Service, Arizona the monument likely burned more Department of Transportation (ADOT), frequently in the past, which promoted and local landowners to sustain the native herbaceous cover and biodiversity, regional pronghorn antelope herd. thinned trees, and prevented dead wood Wildland Fire accumulation and intensely hot fires. Limited management-ignited fires may be Current laws and policies require that the proposed, mainly to restore the role of fire following conditions be achieved to local forests and meadows. regarding wildland fire in the park: The Park Service will take the following Desired Condition Source kinds of actions to comply with legal and Park fire management NPS policy requirements related to fire programs are designed to Management management: meet park resource Policies, management objectives National Fire • Suppress all unwanted wildfires as while ensuring that Management quickly as possible. firefighter and public Plan • Initiate research into the role of fire in safety are not maintaining natural vegetation within compromised. All the monument; use the results to wildland fires are effectively managed identify desired vegetation condition through application of and management-ignited fire the appropriate strategic objectives; revise the Fire Management and tactical management Plan accordingly. options. • Ensure management-ignited fires comply with Arizona Department of A fire management plan and Environmental Quality air quality environmental assessment will be regulations. prepared for Sunset Crater Volcano National Monument. The plan will identify the appropriate tactics for suppressing wildfires and the objectives for using management-ignited fire. Aggressive suppression tactics are only proposed when human life, property, and adjacent

10 PURPOSE AND NEED

Night Sky Natural Soundscapes The monument’s night skies are features An important part of the NPS mission is to that contribute to the visitor experience. preserve or restore the natural soundscapes associated with national Desired Condition Source parks. The sounds of nature are among the The Service will preserve, NPS intrinsic elements that combine to form to the greatest extent Management the environment of our national parks. possible, the natural Policies The natural ambient soundscape is the lightscapes of parks, which are natural aggregate of all the natural sounds that resources and values that occur in parks, together with the physical exist in the absence of capacity for transmitting natural sounds. human-caused light. Natural sounds occur within and beyond Recognizing the roles that the range of sounds that humans can light and dark periods perceive and can be transmitted through play in natural resource air, water, or solid materials. Natural processes and the sounds are slowly and inexorably evolution of species, the disappearing from most NPS units. Service will protect natural darkness and Desired Condition Source other components of the The National Park Service NPS natural lightscape in will preserve, to the Management parks. To prevent the loss greatest extent possible, Policies of dark conditions and of the natural soundscapes of natural night skies, the parks. The Service will Service will seek the restore degraded cooperation of park soundscapes to the natural visitors, neighbors, and condition wherever local government possible and will protect agencies to prevent or natural soundscapes from minimize the intrusion of degradation due to noise artificial light into the (undesirable human-caused night scene of the sound). ecosystems of parks. Using appropriate management planning, The National Park Service will take the superintendents will following kinds of actions to comply with identify what levels of this policy: human-caused sound can • be accepted within the Monument staff will work with local management purposes of communities and other agencies to parks. The frequencies, encourage protection of the night magnitudes, and durations skies. of human-caused sound • Monument staff will evaluate impacts considered acceptable will on the night skies caused by facilities vary throughout the park, being generally greater in within the monument. If light sources developed areas and within the monument are determined generally lesser in to be affecting night skies, monument undeveloped areas. In and staff will study alternatives, such as adjacent to parks, the shielding lights, changing lamp types, Service will monitor human or eliminating unnecessary sources. activities that generate noise that adversely affects

11 PURPOSE AND NEED

Desired Condition Source • Monument staff will continue to park soundscapes, including require tour bus companies to comply noise caused by mechanical with regulations that reduce noise or electronic devices. The levels (e.g., turning off engines when Service will take action to buses are parked). prevent or minimize all noise that, through Noise generated by NPS management frequency, magnitude, or activities will be minimized by strictly duration, adversely affects regulating administrative functions such as the natural soundscape or aircraft use and use of motorized other park resources or equipment. Noise will be a consideration values, or that exceeds in the procurement and use of equipment levels that have been by park staff. identified as being acceptable to, or Cultural Resource Management appropriate for, visitor uses Requirements at the sites being monitored. Archeological Resources Current laws and policies require that the The Park Service will take the following following conditions be achieved for kinds of actions to comply with this policy: archeological resources in the park: • Activities causing excessive or Desired Condition Source unnecessary unnatural sounds in and Archeological sites National Historic adjacent to parks, including low- are identified and Preservation Act; elevation aircraft overflights, will be inventoried, and Executive Order monitored, and action will be taken to their significance is 11593; Archeological prevent or minimize unnatural sounds determined and and Historic that adversely affect park resources or documented. Preservation Act; Archeological values or visitors’ enjoyment of them. Archeological sites Resources Protection • are protected in an NPS will work with the Federal Act; the Secretary of undisturbed Aviation Administration (FAA), tour the Interior’s condition unless it is operators, commercial businesses, and Standards and determined through general aviation interests to encourage Guidelines for formal processes aircraft to fly outside of the Archeology and that disturbance or Historic Preservation; monument, especially for those flights natural Programmatic where the presence of the monument deterioration is Memorandum of is incidental to the purpose of the unavoidable. flight (i.e., transit between two points). Agreement among the NPS, Advisory Actions that might be considered to In those cases where disturbance or Council on Historic encourage pilots to fly outside the deterioration is Preservation, and the monument include identifying the unavoidable, the site National Council of monument on route maps as a noise- is professionally State Historic sensitive area, educating pilots about documented and Preservation Officers the reasons for keeping a distance salvaged. (1995); NPS from the park, and encouraging pilots Management Policies to fly in compliance with FAA regulations and advisory guidance, in a Portions of the park have not been manner that minimizes noise and other systematically surveyed or inventoried. impacts. Precise information about the location,

12 PURPOSE AND NEED

characteristics, significance, and condition Desired Condition Source of the majority of archeological resources the Secretary of the Council on Historic in the park is lacking, and impacts are Interior’s Standards Preservation, and the difficult to measure. The National Park (unless it is National Council of Service will take the following kinds of determined through State Historic actions to meet legal and policy a formal process Preservation Officers requirements related to archeological that disturbance or (1995); NPS sites: natural Management Policies deterioration is • Survey and inventory archeological unavoidable). resources and document their significance. Many of the historic properties in the park • Treat all archeological resources as exhibit various stages of deterioration eligible for listing on the National owing to a lack of systematic preservation Register of Historic Places (NRHP), maintenance. A study of planning and pending a formal determination by the architecture of the NPS Mission 66 National Park Service and the Arizona program is under way. The study will State Historic Preservation Officer provide the park with baseline data (SHPO) as to their significance. necessary for the long-term preservation • Protect all archeological resources of these resources. determined eligible for listing on, or The National Park Service will take the listed on, the NRHP; if disturbance to following kinds of actions to meet legal such resources is unavoidable, conduct and policy requirements related to historic formal consultation with ACHP, SHPO, properties: and affiliated American Indian tribes in • Complete a survey, inventory, and accordance with the National Historic evaluation of historic properties under Preservation Act. National Register criteria. Historic Properties • Complete a survey, inventory, and Current laws and policies require that the evaluation of cultural landscapes. following conditions be achieved in the • Submit inventory/evaluation results to park for historic properties (e.g., buildings, SHPO with recommendations for structures, roads, trails, cultural eligibility to the National Register. landscapes): • Determine the appropriate level of Desired Condition Source preservation for each historic property Historic properties National Historic formally determined to be eligible for are inventoried and Preservation Act; listing, or listed on, the National their significance Executive Order Register (subject to the Secretary of the and integrity are 11593; Archeological Interior’s Standards). evaluated under and Historic • Implement and maintain the National Register Preservation Act; the criteria. Secretary of the appropriate level of preservation for Interior’s Standards such properties. The qualities that and Guidelines for • contribute to the Analyze the design elements (e.g., Archeology and eligibility for listing materials, colors, shape, massing, scale, Historic Preservation; or listing of historic architectural details, site details) of Programmatic properties on the historic structures and cultural Memorandum of NRHP are protected landscapes in the monument (e.g., Agreement among in accordance with the NPS, Advisory buildings, bridges, trails, roads and the Secretary of the

13 PURPOSE AND NEED

intersections, curbing, signs, picnic To accomplish these goals, NPS will do the tables) to guide rehabilitation and following: maintenance of sites and structures. • Survey and inventory ethnographic Indian Trust Resources resources and document their Secretarial Order 3175 requires that any significance. anticipated impacts to Indian trust • Treat all ethnographic resources as resources from a proposed project or eligible for listing on the National action by Department of Interior agencies Register of Historic Places, pending a be explicitly addressed in environmental formal determination by NPS and documents. The federal Indian trust Arizona SHPO as to their significance. responsibility is a legally enforceable • Protect all ethnographic resources fiduciary obligation on the part of the determined eligible for listing or listed United States to protect tribal lands, on the NRHP; if disturbance to such assets, resources, and treaty rights, and it resources is unavoidable, conduct represents a duty to carry out the formal consultation with ACHP and mandates of federal law with respect to SHPO in accordance with the National American Indian and Alaska Native tribes. Historic Preservation Act. Desired Condition Source • Conduct regular consultations with Anticipated impacts to Secretarial affiliated tribes to continue to improve Indian trust resources are Order 3175; NPS communications and resolve any addressed in Management problems or misunderstandings that environmental Policies occur. documents. • Continue to encourage the employment of American Indians on Although there are no Indian trust the park staff to improve resources in Sunset Crater Volcano, communications and working resources important to Indian tribes were relationships and encourage cultural identified during the scoping process by diversity in the workplace. the tribes themselves, and that information was carefully incorporated • Provide for access to and use of natural into the design of alternatives so that and cultural resources in parks and these resources would be protected under collections by American Indians that is any alternative considered. consistent with park purposes, does not unreasonably interfere with American Ethnographic Resources Indian use of traditional areas or sacred Certain contemporary American Indian resources, and does not result in and other communities are permitted by degradation of park resources. law, regulation, or policy to pursue Through consultation, an agreement customary religious, subsistence, and other with tribes on access issues will be cultural uses of park resources with which developed. they are traditionally associated. The In addition, consultation with affiliated National Park Service plans and executes Indian tribes was conducted throughout programs in ways that safeguard cultural the course of the planning process. Tribes and natural resources while reflecting were funded to identify ethnographic informed concern for the contemporary resources within the three Flagstaff Area peoples and cultures traditionally monuments, and this information was associated with those resources. considered in developing alternatives.

14 PURPOSE AND NEED

Desired Condition Source Ethnographic information will be collected through collaborative NPS Management Policies research that recognizes the sensitive nature of such information. All agencies shall accommodate access to and ceremonial use of Executive Order 13007 on American Indian Indian sacred sites by Indian religious practitioners and avoid Sacred Sites adversely affecting the physical integrity of these sacred sites. The National Park Service acknowledges that American Indian NPS Management Policies, E.O. 13007 on tribes, including Native Alaskans, treat specific places containing American Indian Sacred Sites certain natural and cultural resources as sacred places having established religious meaning and as locales of private ceremonial activities. Consistent with E.O. 13007, the Service will, to the extent practicable, accommodate access to and ceremonial use of Indian sacred sites by religious practitioners from recognized American Indian and Alaska Native tribes, and avoid adversely affecting the physical integrity of such sacred sites. Other federal agencies, state and local governments, potentially National Historic Preservation Act; affected American Indian and other communities, interest Programmatic Memorandum of groups, State Historic Preservation Officer, and the Advisory Agreement among the NPS, Advisory Council on Historic Preservation will be given opportunities to Council on Historic Preservation, and the become informed about and comment on anticipated NPS actions National Council of State Historic at the earliest practicable time. Preservation Officers (1995); Executive Order 11593; American Indian Religious Freedom Act, American Indian Graves Protection and Repatriation Act, Executive Order 13007 on American Indian Sacred Sites; Presidential Memorandum of April 29, 1994, on Government-to-Government Relations with Tribal Governments; NPS Management Policies All agencies shall consult with tribal governments prior to taking actions that affect federally recognized tribal governments. These consultations are to be open and candid so that all interested parties may evaluate for themselves the potential impact of relevant proposals. Parks will regularly consult with traditionally associated American Indians regarding planning, management, and operational decisions that affect subsistence activities, sacred materials or places, or other ethnographic resources with which they are historically associated. American Indian Religious Freedom Act; Presidential Memorandum of April 29, 1994, on Government-to-Government Relations with Tribal Governments; NPS Management Policies Certain research data may be withheld from public disclosure to NPS Management Policies protect sensitive or confidential information about archeological, historic, or other NPS resources when doing so would be consistent with FOIA. In many circumstances, this will allow the NPS to withhold information about ethnographic resources. American Indians and other individuals and groups linked by ties NPS Management Policies; American of kinship or culture to ethnically identifiable human remains will Indian Grave Protection and Repatriation be consulted when remains may be disturbed or are encountered Act on park lands.

15 PURPOSE AND NEED

Collections • Develop a collection management Current laws and policies require that the program according to NPS standards to following conditions be achieved in the guide protection, conservation, and use park for museum collections: of museum objects. • Implement the collection management Desired Condition Source program. All museum objects National Historic and manuscripts are Preservation Act; Visitor Experience and Park Use identified and American Indian Requirements inventoried, and their Religious Freedom significance is Act; Archeological Current laws and policies require that the determined and and Historic following conditions be achieved in the documented. Preservation Act; parks regarding visitor experience and Archeological park use: The qualities that Resources Protection contribute to the Act; American Indian Desired Condition Source significance of Graves Protection Visitor and employee NPS Management collections are and Repatriation safety and health are Policies protected in Act; NPS protected. accordance with Management established Visitors understand NPS Organic Act; Policies standards. and appreciate park Monuments’ values and resources enabling and have the legislation; NPS The Flagstaff Area curatorial/museum information necessary Management collections are at risk. Improper storage to adapt to park Policies and lack of adequate security and fire environments; visitors protection systems at facilities that house have opportunities to the collections threaten their safety and enjoy the parks in ways that leave park integrity. Significant portions of the resources unimpaired archeological and historical collections for future generations. remain uncataloged, and the collections Park recreational uses NPS Organic Act; continue to be scattered throughout are promoted and Monuments’ various facilities. regulated, and basic enabling The National Park Service will take the visitor needs are met legislation; Title 36 following kinds of actions to meet legal in keeping with park of the Code of and policy requirements related to purposes. Federal Regulations; NPS collections: Management • Ensure objects are housed in proper Policies storage. Ensure that museum All reasonable efforts Americans with collections not housed in NPS will be made to make Disabilities Act; repositories are preserved, protected, NPS facilities, Architectural and documented, according to programs, and services Barriers Act; accessible to and Rehabilitation Act; National Park Service standards. usable by all people, NPS Management • Acquire and catalog all park museum including those with Policies collections in accordance with disabilities. standards in the NPS Museum Visitors who use NPS Management Handbook. All cataloging information federal facilities and Policies; 1998 will be made accessible in the services for outdoor Executive Summary Automated National Catalog System. recreation may be to Congress,

16 PURPOSE AND NEED

Desired Condition Source NPS recovers the costs incurred for required to pay a Recreational Fee providing special park uses, but returns to greater share of the Demonstration the U.S. Treasury any revenues in excess of cost of providing those Program, Progress costs. opportunities than the Report to Congress, population as a whole. Volume I— Congress authorized the recreational fee Overview and demonstration program to begin on Summary (U.S. October 1, 1995, and to end on September Department of the 30, 2002. The program authorizes NPS and Interior, National other agencies to implement and test new Park Service, U.S. fees. The program allows the participating Fish and Wildlife agencies to retain all of the demonstration Service, Bureau of project revenues and to retain at least 80 Land Management; percent of the revenues at the sites where U.S. Department of they are collected. These revenues yield Agriculture, Forest Service) substantial benefits because they provide on-the-ground improvements at local The park has 1978 National Parks recreation sites. For NPS, the majority of identified and Recreation Act implementation (P.L. 95-625); NPS new recreation fee revenues are dedicated commitments for Management to reducing identified backlogged visitor carrying Policies maintenance, infrastructure, and resource capacities for all areas management needs. Some of the of the unit. demonstration fee revenues are reinvested into infrastructure and new collection These laws, regulations, and policies leave methodologies to prepare additional areas considerable room for judgment regarding to collect fees and provide for overall the best mix of types and levels of visitor- collection efficiency across NPS. use activities, programs, and facilities. For Regulations governing visitor use and this reason, most decisions related to behavior in units of the National Park visitor experience and use are addressed in System are contained in Title 36 of the the Decide What Might Be Achieved Code of Federal Regulations and section and in the alternatives. However, Superintendent’s Compendium. These the authority to charge fees is dictated by regulations have force of law and address law and is therefore the same for all a number of use limitations, such as limits alternatives. on commercial activities. The Land and Water Conservation Fund Under the 1978 National Parks and Act (16 USC 460l et seq.) allows NPS to Recreation Act (P.L. 95-625), NPS is collect recreation fees of the appropriate required to address the issue of carrying type for its parks, facilities, and programs. capacity in its general management plans. Fees are to be reasonable and are The concept of carrying capacity is determined in accordance with the criteria intended to safeguard the quality of park and procedures contained in the Land and resources and visitor experiences. Water Conservation Fund Act and Identifying desired resource conditions regulations in 36 CFR 71. Fees collected and visitor experience by zone is part of under this authority are returned to the general management planning. At this U.S. Treasury. Fees are also being collected level of decision making, the desired for special park uses under 16 U.S.C. 3(a) resource conditions and experiences and 31 U.S.C. 3701, in accordance with describe carrying capacity in qualitative OMB Circular A-25. Under this authority, terms. These qualitative terms are then

17 PURPOSE AND NEED translated into quantitative standards over Desired Condition Source time during implementation planning. community surroundings. The National Park Service will take the The Service will actively seek following kinds of actions to meet legal out and consult with existing and potential and policy requirements related to visitor visitors, neighbors, people experience and park use: with traditional cultural ties • Provide opportunities for visitors to to park lands, scientists and understand, appreciate, and enjoy the scholars, concessioners, cooperating associations, park (management directions are gateway communities, other explored in the alternatives within this partners, and government broad policy). agencies. The Service will • Continue to enforce the regulations in work cooperatively with 36 CFR. others to improve the • condition of parks; to Ensure that all park programs and enhance public service; and facilities are accessible to the extent to integrate parks into feasible. sustainable ecological, • Complete a carrying capacity cultural, and socioeconomic implementation plan, which will systems. succeed this GMP. This plan will In the spirit of partnership, identify indicators and standards, the Service will also seek develop a monitoring strategy, and opportunities for identify management actions needed cooperative management agreements with state or to address conditions when standards local agencies that will are reached or exceeded. allow for more effective and • Implement a carrying capacity efficient management of monitoring program. the parks, as authorized by • section 802 of the National Take management action as necessary Parks Omnibus to keep resource and visitor experience Management Act of 1998 conditions within established (16 USC 1a-2l). standards. Relations with Park Neighbors and The National Park Service will take the Other Agencies following kinds of actions to meet legal and policy requirements related to park Sunset Crater Volcano National Monument neighbors: is managed as part of a greater ecological, • social, economic, and cultural system. Continue to establish and foster Current policy requires the following: partnerships with public and private organizations to achieve the purposes Desired Condition Source and mission of the monument. Public participation in NPS Partnerships will be sought for resource planning and decision Management protection, research, education, and making will ensure that the Policies visitor enjoyment purposes. Park Service fully • understands and considers Park staff will keep landowners, land the public’s interests in the managers, local governments, and the parks, which are part of general public informed about park their national heritage, management activities. Periodic cultural traditions, and consultations will occur with

18 PURPOSE AND NEED

landowners and communities affected or its capacity to provide for present and by park visitors and management future generations. Sustainable practices actions. The Park Service will work minimize the short- and long-term closely with local, state, and federal environmental impacts of development agencies and tribal governments whose and other activities through resource programs affect, or are affected by, conservation, recycling, waste activities in the monument. Monument minimization, and the use of energy staff will continue their regular efficient and ecologically responsible consultations with the Arizona State materials and techniques. Historic Preservation Office, the Arizona State Game and Fish Desired Condition Source Department, and Indian tribes. In Facilities are integrated NPS particular, NPS will maintain a close into the park landscape Management and environs with Policies working relationship with the U.S. sustainable designs and Forest Service to meet mutual systems to minimize management needs with staff from the environmental impact. Peaks and Mormon Lake Ranger Development does not Districts on the Coconino National compete with or dominate Forest. Park staff will continue to meet park features, or interfere as needed with staff from Northern with natural processes, Arizona University (NAU) Departments such as the seasonal of Anthropology, Geography, Geology, migration of wildlife or and School of Forestry; the Museum of hydrologic activity associated with wetlands. Northern Arizona; the U.S. Geological

Survey (USGS); U.S.G.S. National Any facility development, whether it be a new Resources Division, Colorado Plateau building, a renovation, or Field Station at NAU; Coconino Plateau an adaptive reuse of an Natural Reserve Lands; City of Flagstaff; existing facility, includes Arizona State Lands Department; improvements in energy Coconino County; Natural Resources efficiency and reduction in Conservation Services; and the U.S. Fish “greenhouse gas” and Wildlife Service. Organizations emissions for both the that the monument staff periodically building envelope and the keep informed-depending on the issue- mechanical systems that include Grand Canyon Trust, National support the facility. Maximum energy Parks and Conservation Association, efficiency is achieved Nature Conservancy, Sierra Club, using solar thermal and Friends of Walnut Canyon, and photovoltaic applications, neighboring national parks. appropriate insulation and • Monument staff will continue to glazing strategies, energy- participate in cooperative regional efficient lighting and planning to ensure that the appliances, and renewable energy technologies. monuments are treated as issues of Energy-efficient regional concern. construction projects are Sustainable Design/Development used as an educational opportunity for the Sustainability can be described as the visiting public. result achieved by doing things in ways that do not compromise the environment

19 PURPOSE AND NEED

The NPS Guiding Principles of Sustainable Special Use Management Design (1993) directs NPS management Requirements philosophy. It provides a basis for achieving sustainability in facility planning Rights-of-Way and Telecommunication and design, emphasizes the importance of Infrastructure biodiversity, and encourages responsible Current laws and policies require that the decisions. The guidebook articulates following conditions be achieved in the principles to be used in the design and park: management of tourist facilities that emphasize environmental sensitivity in Desired Condition Source construction, use of nontoxic materials, Park resources or Telecommunications resource conservation, recycling, and public enjoyment of Act; 16 USC 5; 16 integration of visitors with natural and the parks are not USC 79; 23 USC 317; denigrated by 36 CFR 14; NPS cultural settings. Sustainability principles nonconforming uses Management have been developed and are followed for Policies; Director’s Telecommunication interpretation, natural resources, cultural Order 53A, Wireless structures are resources, site design, building design, Telecommunications energy management, water supply, waste permitted in the prevention, and facility maintenance and parks. to the extent that they do not operations. The Park Service also reduces energy costs, eliminates waste, and jeopardize the park’s mission and resources. conserves energy resources by using energy-efficient and cost-effective No new technology. Energy efficiency is nonconforming use or rights-of-way will be incorporated into the decision-making permitted through process during the design and acquisition the parks without of buildings, facilities, and transportation specific statutory systems that emphasize the use of authority and renewable energy sources. approval by the director of the In addition to abiding with these National Park Service principles, the following will also be and only if there is no accomplished: practicable alternative • Park staff will work with appropriate to such use of NPS lands. experts to make the monument’s facilities and programs sustainable. Value analysis and value engineering, The Telecommunications Act of 1996 including life cycle cost analysis, will be directs all federal agencies to assist in the performed to examine the energy, national goal of achieving a seamless environmental, and economic telecommunications system throughout implications of proposed park the United States by accommodating developments. requests by telecommunication companies for the use of property, rights-of-way, and • The park staff will support and easements to the extent allowable under encourage suppliers, permittees, and each agency’s mission. Unlike with other contractors to follow sustainable nonconforming uses, the National Park practices. Service is legally obligated to permit • Park interpretive programs will address telecommunication infrastructure within sustainable park and nonpark practices. the parks if such facilities can be structured to avoid interference with park purposes.

20 PURPOSE AND NEED

The National Park Service will take the explained the preliminary range of following kinds of actions to meet legal management zones. Another mail-back and policy requirements related to special comment form was included, which asked uses of park lands: the public if the management zones included the experiences they felt were • Determine appropriate locations and important and if they recommended any stipulations before permitting changes. Nine responses were received. telecommunication infrastructure on NPS lands in order to ensure the A third newsletter, issued in November protection of park resources and 1998, combined and organized comments quality visitor experiences while received from newsletters #1 and #2 into endeavoring to respond positively. decision points and related problems to be Applications, sites, and stipulations will solved by alternatives in the draft be based on the management zoning environmental impact statement. This scheme determined by the GMP. newsletter also introduced draft alternatives for the three parks and two Description of Scoping alternatives proposing a combination of Process Sunset Crater and Wupatki. Again, a mail- back form was included. This newsletter NOTICES, NEWSLETTERS, AND was followed by another public open MEETINGS house, held in Flagstaff, December 3, 1998, and attended by about 60 people. The notice of intent (NOI) to prepare an environmental impact statement was The third newsletter and the open house published in the Federal Register May 19, that followed elicited a large response 1997 (62 FR 27272). The NOI indicated compared with the previous newsletters. availability of the first newsletter, from One hundred and twenty-eight individual which comments were accepted until June responses were received, along with a 30, 1997. The first newsletter (April 1997) petition that had 1,200 signatures and 541 described purpose and significance copies of a form letter. The issue statements for all three Flagstaff Area generating the petition and form letter parks and identified preliminary issues. A was the proposal to expand the mail-back comment form was included, boundaries at Sunset Crater and Wupatki asking the public if they agreed with the and eliminate the use of off-highway material in the newsletter, if they had vehicles. Other actions proposed in the recommendations on improvement, and if alternatives (increased access, road there were issues or problems that had closures, and road expansion) received been missed. Comments from the small numbers of responses, relatively newsletter were collated and presented at equal for and against. an open house August 20, 1997, in The fourth newsletter, issued in May 1999, Flagstaff. Twenty-nine comment forms described the decision to prepare a plan were returned by mail. Additional concurrently with the Forest Service. comments were taken at the open house. Primary issues added by the public All newsletters were posted on the included funding, access, and the planning Internet on the National Park Service process. planning web page. All comments that were received through June 1999 were The second newsletter, released in considered in this EIS. February 1998, detailed public response to the first newsletter, described the final A number of meetings were held with purpose and significance statements, and staff from the Forest Service and Arizona

21 PURPOSE AND NEED

Game and Fish Department to discuss VISITOR USE STUDY impacts that the alternatives might have As a complement to the public meetings, on adjacent recreational activities and newsletters, and trip fact sheets, a visitor impacts to wildlife and their movement use study was conducted to gather more corridors and to try to ensure that NPS in-depth information on visitors, their planning would be in support/harmony experience, behavior, and how behavior with other agencies’ planning efforts. affects resources. Many of the conversations focused on joint or comanagement of resources and Approximately 1,200 mail-back visitor uses. A number of meetings were questionnaires were distributed in held with the affiliated tribes, including conjunction with an on-site interview. A Havasupai Tribe, Hopi Tribe, Hualupai total of 885 questionnaires were returned- Tribe, Navajo Nation, San Juan Paiute -287 for Sunset Crater Volcano, 304 for Tribe, Tonto Apache Tribe, White Walnut Canyon, and 294 for Wupatki. The Mountain Apache Tribe, Yavapai Apache on-site survey repeated the questions Nation, Yavapai-Prescott Tribe, and Zuni asked in the trip fact sheets, whereas the Tribe. Meetings with the tribes were held mail-back questionnaire provided more to determine traditional uses, desired detailed information. The following continuing uses, ethnography information, information was asked: sacred sites data, consultation protocol, • What sites did visitors visit, and how and issues related to repatriation of long did they stay at each site? human remains and artifacts. • In which activities did visitors TRIP FACT SHEETS participate? To determine if existing park visitors’ • What problems did visitors encounter? needs were being met, trip fact sheets • What were visitors’ feelings about were set out in each of the three visitor seeing other visitors? centers. Visitors filled out the sheets • voluntarily. The trip fact sheets were a What added to or detracted from their one-page check-off that asked visitors park experience? where they were from, why they came to Sunset Crater Volcano attracts visitors the park, how they preferred to learn interested in looking at the scenery, about the park, and what they would take looking at visitor center exhibits, taking advantage of, if it were available. A total pictures, hiking and walking, exploring the of 4,091 trip sheets, spanning a 15-month lava flows, and taking a self-guided tour. time frame, were collected and collated. Things that bothered visitors included not Responses were fairly consistent for the being able to go to the top of the volcano three monuments. The following five and confusing and missing trail markers. items were considered highly desirable by When asked about what they would like visitors to the three monuments: to see changed, most visitors responded, “nothing.” They did say they wanted • Want short and longer hiking trails. more, longer trails, access to the top of • Want to be able to step off the trail for Sunset Crater, more interpretive picture taking. information, and better information on volcano formation (Lee and Treadwell • Want self-guided activities. 1999). • Want to learn by ranger programs. • Want to learn by museum exhibits.

22 PURPOSE AND NEED

Decide What Might Be resources without disruption by visitor Achieved use. • Trail use often exceeds design capacity, ISSUE ANALYSIS AND CONCERNS causing safety and resource protection Many issues and concerns were identified concerns (trails are subject to erosion by the park staff, other agencies, and the and rockfalls). general public as part of the scoping for 2. Important park goals are to ensure this general management plan. These adequate visitor orientation and issues and concerns were then categorized education and to minimize use impacts. according to how they could be resolved. We need to decide whether to accomplish The list of things to be addressed in the this by increasing facilities and services or general management plan will include by limiting entrance points and visitor major planning issues (decision points), the circulation. resources and values that could be at stake in choosing one course of action over Considerations: another (impact topics), and the range of • Existing buildings do not meet current management prescriptions (management visitor or employee needs; visitation zones). These elements are described often exceeds visitor center and below. The impact topics are also parking lot capacities. addressed in the evaluation of alternatives • Visitors do not receive necessary in the Environmental Consequences information before they encounter section of this plan. sensitive resources. DECISION POINTS • Resources are being lost because of Based on public comments and NPS vandalism and theft. concerns, there are four major points • Visitor centers and exhibits do not about which decisions must be made in reflect current scientific thinking or this GMP. The considerations following relationships between sites and people. each statement were actual scoping • Some facilities are located in prime comments received. resource areas and may be causing 1. We need to decide to what extent we undue impacts on those resources; can provide visitor access to cultural and other facilities are not sustainable or natural resources without unacceptable designed for the landscape. impacts to those resources. • Existing staffing and budget levels limit Considerations: visitor services. 3. We need to decide the extent to which • Monitoring and protection of resources park operations, visitor experiences, and is difficult. resource protection can be integrated • Popular resources are trampled by across the three Flagstaff Area parks or visitors. whether they need to be treated • Additional research is needed to separately. understand the relationships between Considerations: numbers of visitors and resource impacts. • There is redundancy and inefficiency in • There is a need to understand tribal park facilities and infrastructure; much requirements for access to and use of of the infrastructure is antiquated and inadequate.

23 PURPOSE AND NEED

• Park units and park operations are not • Historic character of built environment consistently integrated and structured Historic resources to address prioritized needs. Cultural landscapes • Systems and programs do not ensure • Ethnographic Resources clear and effective communication Long-term scientific and traditional among the staff or with visitors. integrity of culturally sensitive areas • (shrines, gathering sites, landforms, Static funding and staffing levels resource collection areas, etc.) require maximum use and efficiency of park facilities, infrastructure, and • Natural Systems and Processes programs. Conserving native plant and animal communities 4. We need to determine to what extent Maintaining natural geomorphic and soil we can protect park values through formation processes agreements and/or partnerships with park Preserving unfragmented natural systems Conserving wildlife populations neighbors and inholders and/or boundary Maintaining the natural character/condition adjustments and land acquisition. of ponderosa pine forest and pinyon woodland Considerations: Controlling the spread of invasive, • Rapid regional growth and nonnative plant species Maintaining the integrity of natural systems development adjacent to parks for ecological research increase the potential for damage to resources, viewsheds, and visitor • Threatened, Endangered, and Sensitive experience. Species • Confusion sometimes arises from the Federally listed threatened and endangered species, “species of concern,” and critical presence of multiple agencies with habitats common boundaries and/or resources Other sensitive plants, animals, and unique but different management policies and habitats identified during the scoping visitor use regulations. process • There are land management, land • Geologic Resources trades, and “friendly condemnation” Preserving unique geologic features such as issues near park boundaries involving cinder volcanoes, lava flows, lava tubes, the state and the U.S. Forest Service. cinder barrens, spatter cones Preserving the integrity of geological • Strategies are needed for dealing with resources for scientific research private land in the parks while • Ability to experience park resources preserving private property rights. Access to park resources by the general RESOURCES/VALUES AT STAKE IN public Access to a full spectrum of park resources THE PLANNING PROCESS for visitors with disabilities During scoping, the resources and values Uncrowded visitor experiences Personal freedom (inside and outside park that could potentially be at stake in boundaries) selecting various future directions for the Traditional employee/visitor experiences parks were identified. Public and park staff (interpretation through personal services, input was considered. The following access to favorite sites) Traditional recreational activities (biking, impact topics were derived from this climbing, etc.) scoping input for Sunset Crater Volcano: Access to information provided by • collections (ability to see the “real thing”) Long-term integrity of archeological Minimally altered environment resources Ability to experience scenic, recreational, Scientific integrity of cultural resources and educational pursuits

24 PURPOSE AND NEED

Visibility of night skies income population or community. The Natural soundscapes, ability to hear natural impacts on the natural and physical sounds Ability of public to understand park environment that occur from any of the resources alternatives would not significantly and Visitor understanding of regional context adversely affect any minority or low- income population or community. • Effects on park neighbors; local, state, Although there are several Indian tribes and tribal land management plans; and nearby, a series of consultation meetings land/resource managing agencies has resulted in alternatives carefully Effects on neighbors’ access and emergency response crafted to incorporate and resolve the Economic contribution of park to local tribal concerns identified. Therefore economies environmental justice was dismissed as an Access to culturally sensitive areas by impact topic. traditional users Traditional land uses external to boundary Prime and Unique Agricultural Possible conflicts between the proposed Lands action and local, state, or Indian tribal land use plans, policies, or controls for the area In August 1980, the Council on concerned Environmental Quality directed that • Operational efficiency federal agencies must assess the effects of Employee and visitor health and safety their actions on farmland soils classified by Ability to enforce park regulations and the U.S. Department of Agriculture’s protect park values Natural Resources Conservation Service Staff (NRCS) as prime or unique. Prime or Facilities Distance to work unique farmland is defined as a soil that Management of collections and other particularly produces general crops such as resources common foods, forage, fiber, and oil seed; Ease of communication unique farmland produces specialty crops Utilities Employee housing such as fruits, vegetables, and nuts. According to NRCS, none of the soils in the TOPICS DISMISSED FROM FURTHER project area are classified as prime or ANALYSIS unique farmlands. Therefore, the topic of prime and unique farmlands was dismissed Socially or Economically as an impact topic in this document. Disadvantaged Populations Air Quality Executive Order 12898 “Federal Actions to The President’s Council on Environmental Address Environmental Justice in Minority Quality guidelines for preparing Populations and Low-Income Populations,” environmental impact statements require requires all federal agencies to incorporate the lead agency to analyze the impacts of environmental justice into their missions the proposed action and alternatives on by identifying and addressing air quality. Under each of the proposed disproportionately high and adverse management alternatives for Sunset Crater human health or environmental effects of Volcano National Monument, visitor use their programs and policies on minorities and administrative operations would and low-income populations and generate similar levels of air pollutant communities. None of the alternatives emissions from motor vehicles and considered would result in any identifiable motorized equipment, water and sewage adverse human health effects. Therefore, treatment operations, propane and there would be no direct or indirect natural gas-fueled appliances, and wood- adverse effects on any minority or low-

25 PURPOSE AND NEED burning stoves used to heat employee levels of water pollutants from road run- residences. Some dust and fumes would be off, facility maintenance operations, and generated during the maintenance, water and sewage treatment operations. improvement, construction, or removal of All wastewater and sewage from the roads, trails, and other facilities. The NPS visitor center, employee housing, and would follow established policy requiring toilets is treated and discharged through the use of energy-efficient and infiltration fields. None of the existing or environmentally friendly products and proposed facilities would be located in the processes whenever possible. Although vicinity of regulated surface waters. public visitation and motor vehicle use are Although infiltration systems are located expected to increase during the next 20 in proximity to as much a 700 feet of years, levels of vehicle exhaust are not highly porous cinder deposits and expected to dramatically increase or volcanically fractured bedrock, the nearest significantly contribute to regional air reliable aquifer beneath these facilities is pollutant loads. Although the NPS at least 1,900 feet deep. The aquifer may proposes the limited use of fire to manage be hydraulically isolated from the surface ponderosa pine forest within the by horizontal rock formations of limestone monument, further analysis of air quality and sandstones. Water pollutant impacts is deferred until a fire discharges would be managed in management plan and environmental compliance with U.S. Environmental assessment can be prepared. Protection Agency and Arizona Department of Environmental Quality None of the identified air pollutant regulations. The NPS would follow sources would generate enough quantities established policy requiring the use of to require a discharge permit under U.S. water-conserving technology and Environmental Protection Agency and environmentally friendly products. Arizona Department of Environmental Although public visitation and motor Quality regulations. The impacts of these vehicle use are expected to increase during emissions are deemed to be negligible on the next 20 years, the level of incidental the local environment and regional air hydrocarbon run-off from roads is not quality for the proposed action and all expected to dramatically increase or alternatives. Therefore, they are excluded contaminate local waterways. For these from further environmental analysis. reasons, the proposed action and all Water quality alternatives are deemed to have a negligible impact on the environment and The President’s Council on Environmental water quality and this topic is excluded Quality guidelines for preparing from further environmental analysis. environmental impact statements require the lead agency to analyze the impacts of Wetlands, Floodplains, and the proposed action and alternatives on Riparian Habitats water quality. Impacts to intermittent drainage systems, wetlands/floodplains, The Clean Water Act, Executive Order and riparian environments are assessed 11990, Executive Order 11988, and the separately in the Environmental President’s Council on Environmental Consequences section. Under each of the Quality guidelines for preparing proposed management alternatives for environmental impact statements require Sunset Crater Volcano National the lead agency to analyze the impacts of Monument, visitor use and administrative the proposed action and alternatives upon operations would require similar amounts wetlands and floodplains. In addition, of drinking water and generate similar public scoping typically identifies

26 PURPOSE AND NEED

widespread concern over riparian habitat At the time of the monument’s conditions within the Southwestern United establishment, the precise timeframe and States. The geologic events that formed geologic processes responsible for the Sunset Crater Volcano resulted in areas of creation of Sunset Crater were unknown. deep cinder deposits and highly fractured Geological work beginning in the 1970s basalt flows. Surface water from dated some features near Sunset Crater precipitation events quickly percolates cinder cone and analyzed the sequence of deep underground and generally does not Sunset Crater’s eruptions. Geologists accumulate on the surface. The monument continue to work out the details of the boundary includes an area of high terrain eruptions but are now confident in the relative to the surrounding topography, identification of those features that and no intermittent drainage features are compose the Sunset Crater volcanic event. evident. There are virtually no surface According to Volcanoes of North America water resources within the monument, (Wood and Kienle 1990), “The eruption except for seasonal water catchments began with the opening of a 15-km-long upon and local seepage around the fissure, accompanied by curtain of fire perimeter of lava flows. None of these activity and the growth of a small lava features are believed to meet jurisdictional flow at the southeast end. Strombolian wetland criteria under the Clean Water fountaining then localized near the Act, and no areas within the monument northwest end and Sunset Scoria Cone function as floodplains. For these reasons, grew, with the simultaneous deposition of the proposed action and all other a widespread scoria layer. At the same alternatives are deemed to have negligible time the 11-km-long Kana-A lava flow impacts upon the regional environment, issued from the cone. This was followed by and this topic is excluded from further further cone building and production of analysis. the Bonito Lava Flow.” OUTSTANDING PARK VALUES It is commonly held among the geologists AND RESOURCE CONCERNS who have studied Sunset Crater that the volcanic features along Sunset Crater’s Sunset Crater Volcano represents the fissure form a line of successively older Colorado Plateau’s most recent volcanic parts of the Sunset Crater volcanic event eruption. It is the youngest, least-eroded (Richard Holm, pers. comm.). According to cinder cone in the San Francisco Volcanic Holm and Moore (1987): “Volcanic Field. The significance of Sunset Crater deposits formed during the Sunset Crater Volcano extends well beyond the eruption include the scoria cone of Sunset geological events themselves. The Crater, two basalt lava flows that extruded powerful geologic processes that formed from its base, three rows of small scoria the volcano profoundly affected the way and agglutinate cones east-southeast of of life of local inhabitants during the 11th Sunset Crater, a basalt lava flow from vent and 12th centuries and shaped both the 512 about 6.2 mi (10 km) east-southeast of landscape and the ecology of the area. Sunset Crater, and a tephra blanket that Furthermore, the young age of this originally covered 800 mi2 (2,080 km2).” volcano and its location in a relatively They further indicate there is evidence undeveloped landscape provides an that the Sunset Crater tephra blanket was unparalleled opportunity to study plant laid down while Gyp Crater and Vent 512 succession processes and ecological change deposits were still hot. They also state that in an arid volcanic landscape. “the rows of small cones east-southeast of Sunset Crater probably resembled the

27 PURPOSE AND NEED well-known ‘curtain of fire’ eruption style Several contemporary American Indian on Hawaii.” tribes, including Hopi, Navajo, Yavapai- Apache, and White Mountain Apache, Prior to the eruption of Sunset Crater, the maintain ties to Sunset Crater and its area in and immediately surrounding the associated volcanic features. Hopi shrines monument was occupied by farmers who situated within and outside of the current lived in small, scattered hamlets adjacent boundaries of Sunset Crater Volcano to their fields. When Sunset Crater National Monument are part of a sacred erupted, the prehistoric inhabitants of the landscape linking the Hopi Mesas with the area, whom archeologists call Sinagua, San Francisco Peaks. Several shrines are apparently moved out of harm’s way. No located along a prehistoric trail that evidence has been found indicating that crosses the Little Colorado River near Black the people were surprised by the Falls, then passes through the Wupatki eruptions, and no human remains have area and the Cinder Hills to the north en been found indicating deaths occurred as route to Sunset Crater. The trail then a direct result of the volcanic activity. contours around the northern flank of There are some indications of prayer Sunset Crater and Bonito Park to the west, offerings given as lava flowed from the before descending toward Flagstaff and base of the volcano. The Sinagua soon the eastern slope of the San Francisco discovered that the deep cinder/ash fall in Peaks. the immediate vicinity of Sunset Crater was not farmable, but as they moved Hopi oral traditions include stories about northward and the depth of ash the eruption of Sunset Crater. The Hopi diminished, they found that the cinder believe that their ancestors’ spirits, the cover acted as a moisture-retaining mulch, Kachinas, travel from the San Francisco allowing low elevation areas that were Peaks to Hopi and back each year via previously unsuitable for farming to Sunset Crater and Bonito Park, and some produce successful crops. Most deities are believed to reside in the archeologists believe that the creation of immediate area. (Kana-A lava flow is this new farmland by the Sunset Crater named after a Hopi deity associated with eruption was a primary reason for the Sunset Crater Volcano). development of the complex culture in The Navajo and Apaches also have oral what is today Wupatki National traditions about Sunset Crater, and they Monument. consider the Cinder Hills area in general to Dr. Harold Colton, founder of the Museum be a traditional cultural property because of Northern Arizona (MNA), first of events that took place there in the recognized the connection between mythical past. Sunset Crater and nearby buried pithouse Sunset Crater is the most recent volcano ruins in the early 1930s, several years after on the entire Colorado Plateau. As such, Sunset Crater Volcano National Monument Sunset Crater and its associated volcanics was established. Research by MNA are a valuable resource for the study of archeologists revealed that the people ecological succession. The story of who built these pithouses had witnessed ecological succession on the cinder cones Sunset Crater’s birth in 1064. It was tree- of the San Francisco Volcanic Field is not ring dating of timbers found in these well understood. Succession in this arid pithouses and the nearby pueblo region is exceedingly slow, and biologists structures of Wupatki that gave geologists believe the 250-year-old pinyons in the a more definitive date for the beginning area are the first colonists of this relatively of the Sunset Crater eruption. new landscape. Recent work by ecologists

28 PURPOSE AND NEED

has established that the pinyon pines are the monument on an occasional basis. physiologically stressed and may lend OHV tracks cause long-term scarring and insight to how plants can cope with erosion to the cinder cones and other stressors such as global warming. The geological features of the fissure. The complex web of plant and animal difficulty in rehabilitating erosional scars interactions in the pinyon forest around on cinder cones is exemplified by the the volcano is under a great deal of study history of the footpath on Sunset Crater by biologists (Whitham 1999, pers. com.). Volcano. The trail to the top of Sunset The plants colonizing the cinders and lava Crater was closed in 1973 because of flows today are especially fragile. excessive erosion (in places foot traffic and Furthermore, the Cinder Hills surrounding erosion had caused the trail to become a Sunset Crater provide the primary habitat hip-deep rut). Despite intensive efforts to for one sensitive endemic species, obliterate the trail and extensive Penstemon clutei. rehabilitation efforts, the scar remains visible on the crater’s side. OHV tracks on Although the volcanic features and cinder cones are typically on very steep ecology within the current monument grades and have caused deep rutting on boundaries remain relatively undisturbed, slopes of features that are part of the this is not the case immediately outside Sunset Crater volcanic chain. the monument boundaries. Since the 1970s, a popular off-highway vehicle Although mining of cinders does not (OHV) use area has been located adjacent currently occur on the lands surrounding to Sunset Crater within the Coconino Sunset Crater Volcano, mining of pumice National Forest. The current management deposits is currently occurring in close plan for Coconino National Forest specifies proximity. Pumice mining on the slopes of continued use of the red-topped cinder San Francisco Mountain affects the cones by OHVs. Despite official closure to monument viewshed. This impact is off-road vehicle use, the Kana-A lava flow particularly noticeable from the Lava Flow and the cinder fall area to the east and Trail, where the story of Sunset Crater and north of the monument are subject to its relation to the greater San Francisco trespass OHV use, which also occurs within Volcanic Field is most actively interpreted.

29

ALTERNATIVES

DEVELOPMENT OF rules and regulations, stakeholders, and ALTERNATIVES experiences were prepared. This analysis aided in the development and Resource Analysis placement of management zones and facilities in different alternatives. Desirable As the first step in the alternatives resource conditions and visitor experiences development process, landscape units for each zone were identified. This analysis were plotted, sensitive resource areas were and the sensitive areas maps were mapped, and existing visitor experiences consulted when decisions were made (driving, hiking, viewing archeological about how to place zones and facilities in sites) were identified. Natural and cultural different alternatives. Other measures resource inventories were evaluated. taken to check feasibility and determine Visitor use statistics were gathered and potential impacts included field-checking studied. The planning team also discussed alternative ideas and proposals and areas where visitors or park staff have consulting with resource experts and other noted problems in the past and sought the agencies. Input from newsletters and underlying reasons for those problems. scoping was also used to draft alternatives. Landscape units plotted for Sunset Crater Input from visitor surveys provided a Volcano included: steep timbered hills, better understanding of what visitors rolling timbered hills, timbered cinder hills, value, what their expectations are, and cinder hills, pristine black dune, crater, and what problems they experience. lava flow. The appropriateness of these The goal was to ensure that the draft landscape units for use and development alternatives did not include actions with was considered. unacceptable effects on park resources or Information on the following visitors or actions having no public issues/existing conditions and resources support. For example, sensitive eagle areas was overlaid to create maps highlighting were mapped, and those areas were areas that were particularly sensitive to considered off limits for visitor use in order human use: boundary/adjacent uses, visitor to protect the eagles. An alternative use, roads/trails/development, considered early in the process would have boundaries/fences, impact areas, closed the loop road connecting Wupatki ethnographic/sacred sites, and Sunset Crater Volcano; this alternative threatened/endangered/endemic was rejected because of the lack of public species/habitat, wetlands, soils/geologic support. features, sensitive cultural areas, pristine Management Zones areas, and safety concerns. In meetings with the Forest Service, maps showing Within the broad parameters of the park cultural resource information (traditional mission and mission goals, various cultural properties, National Register of approaches to park resource protection, Historic Places properties, collecting areas, use, and development are possible. inventoried archeological site densities, Different approaches can be used to and historic uses), sensitive species, current address the decision points previously identified in the planning process (Purpose

31 ALTERNATIVES and Need, Decide What Might Be visitors could benefit from the experience Achieved section). For all three Flagstaff of learning that particularly sensitive Area monuments, potential management resources are preserved for future zones were identified and then applied for generations. each monument to meet the different Appropriate Kinds of Activities or alternative concepts developed. Facilities Management zones identify how different areas of the park could be managed to There would be no facilities or achieve a variety of resources and social developments for visitors, but off-site conditions and to serve recreational needs. interpretation would be extensive, to Each zone specifies a particular promote visitor education about the value combination of physical, biological, social, of resource protection. As noted, access and management conditions. Different would be by permit only for approved actions would be taken by the Park Service activities. Telecommunication in different zones with regard to the types infrastructure would not be permitted in and levels of uses and facilities. this zone. Ten possible zones were described that DISCOVERY ZONE could be appropriate to various areas in Resource Condition or Character the three Flagstaff Area monuments. Ideas for the range of zones came from Resources would appear pristine. On-site responses to the newsletters and from controls and restrictions would be minimal park staff. In formulating alternatives for and subtle. The tolerance for resource future park conditions and management, modifications and degradation would be preparers placed these zones in different very low. locations or configurations on the ground, Visitor Experience based on different alternative concepts. The eight zones applicable to Sunset Visitors would explore remote areas in a Crater Volcano National Monument are wilderness-like setting, free from modern described below. intrusions. These areas could be trailed or untrailed. Trails would be primitive in RESOURCE PRESERVATION ZONE nature (unsurfaced and no wider than 2 Resource Condition or Character feet), and no other facilities would be present. Solitude, natural soundscape, and Resources in this area are fragile and may undirected discovery would be key to this be in a range of conditions from pristine experience. Opportunities for to endangered. Management actions for independence, closeness to nature, resource protection would be high, and challenge, and adventure would be tolerance for resource degradation would common, and visitors would need to have be very low. individual outdoor skills and be self- Visitor Experience sufficient. There would be a very low probability of encountering other visitors Access to these areas would be restricted or evidence of visitor impacts. Off-site and permitted only for the purposes of management of visitors could include research, traditional cultural activities, or eligibility requirements before entering other well-justified special uses. The areas such an area, and limits on numbers of would provide maximum preservation of visitors and length of stay could be in fragile and/or unique resources, place. endangered species, sacred sites, and so on. Although access would be restricted,

32 ALTERNATIVES

Appropriate Kinds of Activities or Appropriate Kinds of Activities or Facilities Facilities No facilities except for primitive trails Trails (which could be surfaced and up to 5 would be appropriate in these areas. feet wide), overlooks, and wayside exhibits Cross-country hiking would be the and other interpretive media would be predominant activity. Telecommunication appropriate in these areas. Support infrastructure would not be permitted in facilities, such as rest rooms and small this zone. picnic areas, could also be present. Predominant activities would include EXTENDED LEARNING ZONE hiking, viewing resources, and attending Resource Condition or Character interpretive walks and talks. Telecommunication infrastructure would Visitors, sites, and trails would be not be permitted in this zone. intensively managed to ensure resource protection and public safety. Areas would GUIDED ADVENTURE ZONE be predominately natural, but the sights Resource Condition or Character and sounds of people would be evident. Resources could be modified for essential Resources in these areas would appear visitor needs (such as trails and interpretive pristine. Low levels of management for media) and park operation needs (such as resource protection and visitor safety hardening of archeological sites), but they would be appropriate in these areas, but would be changed in a way that any resource modifications would be harmonizes with the natural and cultural minimal and would harmonize with the environment. Except for essential changes, natural environment. Tolerance for the Park Service’s tolerance for resource resource degradation in these areas would degradation would be low. be low. Visitor Experience Visitor Experience The emphasis in this experience would be Visitors would explore park resources as on visiting and learning about significant part of a guided group. Areas where this park resources. These experiences could be experience would be offered would either self-guided or ranger-led. Intimate usually be untrailed and free from interaction with resources would be developments. Intimacy with resources, offered where possible without undue learning, social interaction among the resource impacts. Structure and direction group, and the security of a guided would be provided, (e.g., trails, experience would be key elements of this interpretive media, signs), but some experience. The probability of opportunities for discovery would also be encountering other groups would be low, available. Visitors would need to exert and there would be some opportunities some physical effort and make at least a for individual solitude. The environment moderate time commitment. At certain would offer a moderate level of challenge, times of the day or season there could be but the need for individual outdoor skills opportunities for solitude, but in general would be low. there would be a moderate probability of Appropriate Kinds of Activities or encountering other visitors. The probability of encountering park staff and Facilities other evidence of NPS management would No permanent facilities would be be high. appropriate in these areas except for primitive trails if deemed necessary for

33 ALTERNATIVES resource protection. Hiking and camping Because of the need for visitors to with a guide would be the predominant understand park significance, some activity in these areas. Telecommunication primary resources must be available for infrastructure would not be permitted in visitors to view in these areas. this zone. Visitor Experience HIKING ZONE Visitors would get an overview of park Resource Condition or Character resources and significance in a short time frame and with a minimum of physical Resources would appear pristine. On-site exertion. Park orientation and controls and restrictions would be used if interpretation of primary park themes needed for resource protection. The would be important elements of this tolerance for resource modifications and experience. Interaction and encounters degradation would be low. with other visitors and park staff would be Visitor Experience common, but overcrowding would be avoided. Although structured intimacy Visitors would explore the park using with some park resources could be unpaved trails. Trails would be semi- possible, viewing resources from a distance primitive (unsurfaced and no wider than 4 or from trail or overlook facilities would feet), and few other facilities would be be more common. present. Visitors would need to make a moderate time commitment. There would Appropriate Kinds of be a low probability of encountering NPS Activities or Facilities staff and a moderate probability of Sightseeing, learning about encountering other visitors or evidence of the park, short walks, and visitor impacts. Off-site management of attending interpretive visitors could include eligibility programs would be requirements before entering such an common activities in these area, and limits on numbers of visitors and areas. Orientation and length of stay could be in place. interpretation facilities, such Appropriate Kinds of Activities or as visitor centers, kiosks, Facilities wayside exhibits, and other interpretive media would be Few facilities except for trails, trailheads, appropriate. Support facilities such as rest occasional pit toilets, and minimal rooms and picnic facilities could also be interpretation would be appropriate in present. Telecommunication infrastructure these areas. Hiking would be the would not be permitted in this zone. predominant activity. Telecommunication infrastructure would not be permitted in MOTORIZED SIGHTSEEING ZONE this zone. Resource Condition or Character OVERVIEW EXPERIENCE ZONE Intensive management would be provided Resource Condition or Character in this area to ensure resource protection and public safety (e.g., fences, intensive Resources would appear natural, but law enforcement, and restrictions on paving or other management actions visitor activities). Resources might be would be taken as necessary to protect modified (e.g., paving or felling hazard resources. Visitors would interact with trees) for essential visitor and park resources only to the extent possible operational needs. without undue impact to those resources.

34 ALTERNATIVES

Visitor Experience Visitor Experience The paved roadways and associated These areas would not be intended for developments in this area would be used visitor use; however, if visitor use did not for touring the park, enjoying scenic conflict with the primary use of the area, overlooks and interpretive media, and incidental use could be permitted. gaining access to other park areas. Visitor Appropriate Kinds of Activities or attractions would be convenient and easily accessible. The visitor experience would be Facilities generally dependent on a vehicle or Facilities necessary for park operations or bicycle, would involve driving along a well- surrounding land uses are appropriate in maintained, paved road, and would be this area, including park maintenance perceived as linear/sequential in nature. yards, residential areas, access roads, and Observing the natural environment would utility areas and corridors. be important, and there would be a sense Telecommunication infrastructure would of adventure, but there would be little be permitted in this zone, in the following need for visitors to exert themselves, apply locations. For Wupatki, Sunset Crater, and outdoor skills, or spend a long time in the Walnut Canyon radio repeater needs, NPS area. The probability of encountering uses a site at O’Leary Peak on USFS lands. other visitors would be high, and there Installation of telecommunications would be a moderate probability of equipment at this site would require encountering NPS staff. permission from the Forest Service. A radio Appropriate Kinds of Activities or repeater was once located on Woodhouse Mesa near the park visitor center at Facilities Wupatki. The Park Service would consider The motorized sightseeing experience requests for location of equipment at this would occur in a substantially developed site based on the ability to install the area. The paved roads, pullouts, overlooks, equipment without visual intrusion and and associated short trails and picnic areas, without loss or disturbance of natural or parking areas, and other facilities that cultural resources. Because of the fragile support visitor touring would be included nature of the resource, no use of NPS land in these areas. Most facilities and some at Sunset Crater for telecommunications trails would be accessible in this area. would be permitted. If a new visitor center Telecommunication infrastructure would were constructed near I-40 at Walnut not be permitted in this zone. Canyon, there could be an opportunity to locate telecommunication equipment ADMINISTRATIVE ZONE there, or at the water tower that is part of Resource Condition or Character the current administrative zone. The natural environment would be Boundaries Expansion Criteria modified for park operation needs, but they would be changed in a way that SUNSET CRATER VOLCANO harmonizes with the natural environment. The monument currently preserves most of These areas would not be close to sensitive Sunset Crater Volcano and one of the two natural or cultural resources, if such lava flows created during the eruption of resources could not be adequately Sunset Crater. At the time of the protected. monument’s establishment in 1930, the Kana-A lava flow and the volcanic evidences of the fissure system that eventually produced the Sunset Crater

35 ALTERNATIVES cinder cone were not known to be of park Since the 1970s, the geological and significance. Geological investigations ecological features and the ethnological beginning in the 1970s dated some values of the Sunset Crater area have been features near Sunset Crater cinder cone subject to much degradation, as they form and analyzed the sequence of Sunset the center of the popular Cinder Hills Off- Crater’s eruptions. Geologists are now Highway Vehicle (OHV) Recreation Area confident in the identification of those within the Coconino National Forest. The features that make up the Sunset Crater current management plan for Coconino volcanic event. It is commonly held among National Forest specifies continued use of geologists who have studied Sunset Crater the red-topped cinder cones by OHVs. that the succession of volcanic features Despite official closure to off-road use, the along the fissure forms a line of Kana-A lava flow and the cinder fall area successively older parts of the magmatic to the east and north of the monument event. Clearly these features are part of are subject to occasional trespass OHV use. the Sunset Crater eruption story, and as The ability of visitors to understand the such, constitute resources of primary park full story of Sunset Crater could be purpose and significance. enhanced if they were able and Several contemporary American Indian encouraged toaccess additional resources tribes, including Hopi, Navajo, Yavapai- related to park significance, particularly Apache, and White Mountain Apache, the fissure area and Gyp Crater to the maintain ties to Sunset Crater and its southeast.. Because erosion is altered by associated volcanic features. Hopi shrines OHV tracks, visitors are also not able to within and outside the current boundaries view an unaffected picture of the of Sunset Crater National Monument are geological processes that have been at included in a sacred landscape that links work for about 1,000 years, sculpting the the Hopi Mesas with the San Francisco landscape of the volcano and its associated Peaks. Stories about the eruption of Sunset features. Crater are a part of Hopi oral tradition. Noise from OHV use encroaches within the The Hopi believe that their ancestors’ existing park boundaries, which may spirits, the Kachinas, travel from the San adversely impact visitor enjoyment. Scars Francisco Peaks to Hopi and back each year on the landscape and views of OHV traffic, via Sunset Crater and Bonito Park, and and dust, are clearly visible from Cinder some deities are believed to reside in the Hills Overlook, from which it would be immediate area (Kana-A lava flow is possible to interpret the significance of the named after a Hopi deity associated with row of cinder cones that mark the fissure Sunset Crater Volcano). Bonito Park, which that produced Sunset Crater. lies outside the monument boundaries, has been identified as a significant traditional Expansion of current monument cultural property to the Hopi, and because boundaries, to include related resources of its cultural importance, the Hopi have and for administrative purposes, was requested that Bonito Park be included considered as part of the planning process, within the monument to afford additional as specified in Section 604 of the National protection to the area. The Navajo and Parks and Recreation Act of 1978 (16 U.S.C. Apache consider the cinder hills around 1a-5et seq.). Authority for modifying Sunset Crater to be traditional cultural boundaries is contained in the Land and properties based on their associations with Water Conservation Fund Act amendments events that occurred in the mythical past. of June 10, 1977 (Public Law 95-42). Consideration for modifications to the boundaries was based on one or more of

36 ALTERNATIVES

the following criteria: (1) expansion would recreation, grazing, and other human uses include significant resources or on these lands; documentation of opportunities for public enjoyment, (2) unacceptable impacts will provide a basis expansion would address operational and for management changes to control those management issues, or (3) expansion effects. would protect monument resources critical B. INTERPRETIVE EXHIBITS to fulfilling the purpose of the park. Boundary expansions are considered Planning and design of new wayside practical or necessary if: (1) the added exhibits and museum exhibits is in lands could feasibly be administered, progress, in accordance with the Flagstaff taking into consideration the size of the Areas Comprehensive Interpretive Plan, to proposed expansion, configuration, improve visitor understanding and ownership, costs, and so on, and (2) that appreciation of Sunset Crater Volcano other alternatives for management and resources. New wayside exhibits will resource protection are not considered replace and expand the existing system of adequate. The alternatives each include a interpretive signs along FR545 and at brief description of one of the boundary major existing visitor use areas, that is, at expansion options that were considered. Bonito Park, Lava Flow Trail, Lenox Trail, and the Painted Desert picnic area. New Actions Common to All museum exhibits will replace the outdated Alternatives and inaccurate exhibits at the existing visitor center. Like the wayside exhibits, Short-range planning is under way they will convey current knowledge of the simultaneously with this GMP to meet park’s natural and cultural resources and immediate operational needs that will explain their significance. continue to exist regardless of the alternative selected. These are identified in C. CAMPGROUND EXPANSION National Park Service-wide initiatives, in Bonito Campground will be expanded by Flagstaff Area National Monuments the USFS to provide group camping, a day- planning documents, such as the Strategic use area for educational group gatherings, Plan, Annual Performance Plan, and an upgraded amphitheater for Comprehensive Interpretive Plan, Fire programs. USFS has agreed that the Management Plan, and Resources campground will remain in its current Management Plan, and in local action location during the life of this general plans to resolve safety, accessibility, facility management plan. maintenance, and similar issues. A. PARTNERSHIPS D. CURATORIAL FACILITY A new 4,000-square-foot curatorial All alternatives presented recognize the building will be constructed in the opportunity for partnerships, for the administrative area to provide for the protection of cultural and natural long-term care and preservation of resources, with the USFS, the State of museum objects and specimens from all Arizona, and private landowners. USFS three monuments. The facility will occupy lands surrounding Sunset Crater Volcano a site totaling approximately 8,000 square will be managed in accordance with feet. Water, sewer, and electrical utilities decisions reached in the Flagstaff Lake and a road will be extended to the site. Mary Ecosystem Analysis (FLEA) planning process, but the two agencies will actively coordinate a variety of activities. There will be continued monitoring of the effects of

37 ALTERNATIVES

E. MAINTENANCE/RESOURCE and visitor safety. All facilities work will be MANAGEMENT FACILITY designed to upgrade and improve safety features. New and remodeled facilities will A new 20,000-square-foot maintenance, be thoroughly evaluated during the design resources management, and ranger process to ensure that safety remains an support facility will be constructed in the upfront consideration. Actions will be Sunset Crater Volcano administrative area. taken as needed to address the threat of It will include vehicle and equipment hantavirus, which is present in many older storage, supplies and materials storage, storage facilities throughout the park. offices, and a meeting room. The facility will occupy a site totaling approximately I. BACKCOUNTRY CLOSURE 40,000 square feet. Utilities and roads will The backcountry of Sunset Crater Volcano be extended to the site, and a parking National Monument (defined as all areas area will be constructed. beyond designated roads, trails, or F. O’LEARY PEAK ROAD CLOSURE developed facilities within the monument) is closed to unguided entry. Unguided The USFS will gate the road up O’Leary entry to areas other than the Sunset Crater Peak to prevent nonofficial vehicle access cinder cone was allowed until 1998 beyond the campground. A portion of the General Management Plan discussions route, ending at a scenic viewpoint, will be determined that the impacts were highly available for hikers seeking a view down visible and potentially damaging to into Sunset Crater. sensitive resources. The number of visitors G: ACCESSIBILITY requesting such access is small, and similar experiences are available on nearby USFS The National Park Service will remain lands. The closure will be made permanent committed to increasing accessibility to through the formulation and publishing of facilities, programs, and services for all a special regulation. While various visitors, including those with disabilities. alternatives may allow guided activities to New construction and modifications to continue in the park backcountry, there existing public facilities will comply with will be no unguided access. the Americans with Disabilities Act and other requirements. To the extent feasible, ALTERNATIVE DESCRIPTIONS access will be provided to natural and cultural resource features through No-Action Alternative: modification of existing trails, pullouts, Existing Conditions and so on. Occasional vehicular access may be allowed, by special arrangement with With its graceful contours and dramatic the USFS, to a portion of the O’Leary Peak regional context, Sunset Crater Volcano Road to accommodate visitors with provides inspiring scenery and provokes disabilities. Where terrain or other curiosity about the area’s volcanic history. constraints prevent physical access to As the youngest of 600-800 volcanic major features, efforts will be made to features within the San Francisco Peaks provide alternative experiences through Volcanic Field, it is a natural attraction for exhibits, photographs, electronic virtual the scientific and academic communities as tours, or other means. well as the general public. H. SAFETY Entrance to Sunset Crater Volcano National Monument is via FR545, both Necessary actions will be taken in the ends of which connect with US89, creating course of all activities to ensure employee a loop drive that also serves Wupatki (see

38 ALTERNATIVES

Existing Conditions map). An orientation overlook, a small picnic area constructed wayside immediately adjacent to US89 by the Forest Service and jointly operated provides introductory information about under a cooperative agreement. the monument. A pullout about one mile The NPS and USFS have long worked east of the US89 junction provides a scenic cooperatively in the areas of law view of Bonito Park and an interpretive enforcement, wildland fire, resource exhibit. A visitor center and protection and management, maintenance/housing area are one mile interpretation, and facility management at further east, on Coconino National Forest Sunset Crater Volcano, and will continue land near the monument boundary. These to do so. NPS staff frequently assists facilities were constructed and are visitors in finding suitable USFS lands on operated by NPS under an agreement with which to engage in recreational and other the Forest Service. Associated with the activities that may not be suitable on NPS visitor center are park residences, a lands. Conversely, USFS staff direct visitors maintenance facility, and a maintenance who are looking for more structured storage area. The existing use and interpretive visits to NPS lands. development is based on planning Cooperation extends to the sharing of initiated in the late 1950s and put into equipment and staffing, administration of place in the late 1960s. Additional details special use permits, research permits, and a regarding the current use and variety of other areas. Maintenance and development of the monument can be administration of the Painted Desert picnic found in the Affected Environment, area and USFS portions of FR545 are Operational Efficiency section. primarily the responsibility of the NPS Sunset Crater Volcano is operated as a day- through an agency Memorandum of use area, and the park is closed, but not Understanding. The distinct missions of the gated, at night. Entrance fees are required two agencies offer a greater range of at Sunset Crater Volcano National opportunity for many visitor activities. Monument; access is limited to established Visitor satisfaction with the current park trails, roadways, and developed facilities. experience is high as measured by the Areas not designated and identified for Visitor Survey Card responses. (Machlis public activities are closed to unguided 2000) The 2000 survey showed that 98% of entry. visitors were satisfied with opportunities In 1967, the 44-unit Bonito Campground for “learning about nature, history or was constructed by the Forest Service culture” and 97% were satisfied with across from the visitor center. It is being “sightseeing opportunities.” Eighty-four expanded to include group sites. percent were satisfied with outdoor recreation (camping, bicycling, boating, A 20-car parking area and rest room are hiking, etc.) opportunities. provided near the Lava Flow Trail. The one-mile Lava Flow Trail is a self-guided Alternative 1 (Preferred): loop exploring a variety of volcanic Focus on Extended Learning formations. The one-mile Lenox Crater Trail provides an opportunity to climb a GENERAL CONCEPT cinder cone. The goal of this alternative is to provide The Cinder Hills overlook near the eastern increased educational opportunities and boundary of the monument provides a diverse experiences both within and view of numerous cinder cones in the area. outside of park boundaries. The park About 3.5 miles east is the Painted Desert would be viewed as a destination for

39 ALTERNATIVES education and learning. Partnerships with FR545 and US89. Before the specific the USFS, affiliated tribes, and educational location is determined, additional institutions would provide interpretation environmental analysis and and more consistent management of sites coordination with the USFS would be and features outside the park that are necessary. The new visitor center would primary to the park purpose. Minor provide visitor orientation for both boundary adjustments would be made for park and forest visitors before they ease of management and to align park encounter sensitive resources. A special boundaries and associated fencing with use permit with the USFS will be topographic features rather than along required. The existing housing and section lines. Geologic features would be maintenance area would be retained; better protected within a single the maintenance area would be jurisdiction, and management of existing rehabilitated. The USFS lands on which USFS secondary roads would be clarified. these NPS facilities are located will be Most existing uses would continue. The transferred to the park service to park would remain day-use only, with 24- simplify management and operations. hour access on FR545, and visitor use • The existing visitor center would be would be spread throughout more retained for office space and adapted resources. A new multiagency visitor for use as an education center, with center would be built near US89 to serve facilities for group presentations, as the primary location to orient and serve workshops, and similar programs. visitors. The existing visitor center would • be adapted for use as an education center. A hiking trail would be formalized between Bonito Campground and the This alternative responds to requests to Lava Flow Trail. not limit access and to emphasize • Additional extended learning activities, education, outreach, and local both self-guided and guided, would be involvement. It acknowledges that, from a developed in conjunction with the new visitor viewpoint, there is little distinction visitor center/Bonito Park vicinity. New between national park and national forest media, programs, and workshop boundaries. Increased partnerships for presentations would be possible using visitor orientation and educational the existing visitor center and new activities would more efficiently provide group campground facilities. contact with the missions and personnel of • both agencies. With the new visitor center, A broader range of resources would be both park and forest users would be better interpreted in an Extended Learning oriented before entering public lands, and Zone in the vicinity of the Lava Flow encountering sensitive resources. Through and Lenox Crater Trail system. this alternative, visitors would be provided • Consistent with the concept of this with information and opportunities that alternative, efforts would be made to would encourage greater stewardardship provide a broader range of educational of public lands. and interpretive programs aimed at in- depth learning. Some of these KEY ACTIONS experiences would be provided • Vehicle access via FR545 would remain through partnerships with USFS, the same as it is now. affiliated tribes, organizations, • The Park Service and USFS would institutions, and/or other agencies. jointly construct and operate a new • Park boundaries would be adjusted for visitor center near the intersection of ease of management.

40 ALTERNATIVES

AREAS OF THE PARK NOT ZONED Alternative 2: Emphasize FOR ADMINISTRATIVE OR VISITOR Quiet Natural Setting while USE WOULD BE CLOSED TO PROTECT Providing Diverse RESOURCES.BOUNDARY EXPANSION Opportunities for Visitor Use Current boundaries for the monument are mostly drawn along section and property GENERAL CONCEPT ownership lines. Often they do not This alternative would extend a high coincide with the terrain or topography degree of protection for park resources by features, and cut across drainages, ridges, removing and relocating some facilities cinder cones, and other similar features. and would provide more diverse The boundaries also cut across a number experiences than the No-Action of secondary Forest Service roads. Alternative (see Alternative 2 map). To This alternative proposes that take advantage of this visitor experience approximately 695 acres of land would require slightly more effort than administered by the U.S. Forest Service under the No-Action Alternative. Primary adjacent to the monument be transferred points of interest would be reached as to the National Park Service. This limited destinations rather than roadside expansion and adjustment of monument attractions. Visitors would be better boundaries would primarily be for insulated from modern day intrusions. The management purposes and would be desired outcome is that visitors would solely an administrative change of spend more time engaged in in-depth landownership between the National Park learning activities than at present. The Service and the U.S. Forest Service. increased diversity of experience would be provided via new trails and new The minor boundary adjustment would interpretive media and activities. The park result in the inclusion within monument road would be gated at night. A new boundaries of entire minor topographic visitor center and campground would be features that directly contribute to the constructed south of Sunset Crater significance of the park, and eliminate Volcano, and both park and forest some of the existing impacts associated orientation would be provided at this with the management and maintenance of location. the existing boundary lines and delineating fencing. The expanded As in Alternative 1, visitors would be in boundary would include monument contact with employees from both NPS facilities to the east that are located on and USFS. Short roads to key areas of the forest service land. This simplifies park would eliminate the current drive- administrative and operational needs. The through experience. More of the expansion would also eliminate a number monument would be experienced by trail of forest roads that cross in and out of the and self-guided activities. Visitors would monument boundaries and place them be able to connect the stories of Sunset entirely within Forest Service ownership. Crater Volcano and Wupatki National None of the OHV area would be closed to Monuments by experiencing the dramatic OHV use in this alternative. landscape changes along FR545, as well as through interpretive media within the The U.S. Forest Service agrees with the monuments and at waysides. minor administrative boundary adjustments presented in this alternative. Boundaries would be adjusted for administrative purposes, as described in Alternative 1, and would include

41 ALTERNATIVES significant resources located at Bonito Park • A portion of FR545 beyond the Lava and south of existing park boundaries. Flow Trail at the base of Sunset Crater Removing all administrative and visitor Volcano would be rehabilitated and facilities (except toilets) from the heart of converted to a foot trail. An additional the park would allow for restoration of hiking trail would be constructed damaged critical resources and provide a around Bonito Park. more pristine experience. The ability to • Additional extended learning activities, close the park at night would further both self-guided and guided, would be protect fragile park features. Rerouting developed in the vicinity of, and in the entrance road would allow for conjunction with, the Lava Flow Trail, placement of the visitor center so that the Lenox Crater trail, and the northwest public could be oriented before exploring side of Sunset Crater Volcano. the park, while maintaining a drive • between Sunset Crater Volcano and Park boundaries would be expanded to Wupatki National Monuments. Should the west to include the Bonito Park visitation levels dictate, numbers of people area and to the south to include the could be controlled through use of a new visitor center location. shuttle or reservation system. This • Areas of the park not zoned for alternative includes concepts described in administrative or visitor use would be the third newsletter as Combined closed to protect resources. Alternative 1. BOUNDARY EXPANSION KEY ACTIONS This alternative proposes that • Entry to the park would be via a new approximately 3,677 acres of land paved road system using FR776. FR414, administered by the U.S. Forest Service which is currently an unimproved road, surrounding the monument be transferred would be converted to the to the National Park Service. The monument’s main entrance road. This alternative would expand the boundaries road would be closed at night. Portions to accommodate administrative needs, as of FR545 between Bonito Park and the described for Alternative 1, and would Lava Flow Trail would be retained as include Bonito Park and land to the south dead-end spurs to these features. to accommodate a new visitor center Visitors could reconnect to FR545 just location. Both of these areas contain east of the park and continue toward resources that contribute to the Wupatki. significance of the park and afford exceptional views of most of the primary • A new visitor center would be built resources of the park, specifically Sunset south of Sunset Crater Volcano, affording dramatic views and increased Crater Volcano. Most importantly, this educational opportunities (exhibits, proposal would allow the removal of all administrative and visitor facilities from media, auditorium, curatorial the heart of the park and would allow for storage/research, etc.). The existing visitor center and associated facilities restoration of damaged critical resources would be removed and the area and provide a more pristine experience. It would remove a major commuter road rehabilitated. Bonito Campground through the park and allow the park to be would be removed from its present location, and the NPS would construct closed at night, further protecting fragile a new campground south of the park, park features. Rerouting the entrance road would allow the visitor center to be near the new visitor center.

42 ALTERNATIVES

located so that the public could be open 24 hours. Visitor use would be spread oriented before entering the park. throughout more resources. A new multiagency visitor center would be Approximately 240 acres of the OHV area constructed near US89 to serve as the would be closed to OHV use in this primary location to orient and serve alternative. visitors to both park and forest lands. The The U.S. Forest Service has objections to existing visitor center would be adapted the expansion of park boundaries for use by educational groups. Diverse considered in this alternative. Their experiences would be provided via new preference is to exercise all options trails and new interpretive media and available to protect the resources that activities in a quieter natural setting. contribute to the significance of the park, Guided tours would be provided to key without having to transfer administrative geologic features, following completion of jurisdiction to the NPS. resource inventories and impact assessments. Untrailed hiking and a Alternative 3: Expand Park greater degree of solitude would be Boundaries to Preserve Park- possible in specified areas. Related Resources and KEY ACTIONS Provide Diverse Opportunities • FR545 would remain open 24 hours a for Visitor Use day, and new pullouts would be GENERAL CONCEPT constructed to provide views of the Kana-A lava flow. This alternative would extend NPS • A new multiagency visitor center management and protection by expanding would be constructed near the junction park boundaries to the southeast to of FR545 with US89. Before the specific include key features of the eruption and location is determined, additional geologic story of the Sunset Crater environmental analysis and volcanic chain (see Alternative 3 map). coordination with the USFS would be Boundaries of Sunset Crater Volcano necessary. The existing visitor center National Monument were drawn in 1930, would be modified to serve as an before scientific study revealed the full education center for groups. extent of geologic features related to the eruption. This alternative would provide • The new visitor center would provide consistent protection of these resources, visitor orientation for both NPS and including the entire Bonito and Kana-A USFS facilities, resources, and lava flows, the red-topped cinder cones regulations, and would provide in- along the Cinder Hills fissure, Vent 512, depth interpretation of natural and and Double Crater and would allow cultural resources at a regional level. visitors to experience the entire geologic Construction of new facilities would story. Partnerships with USFS would provide locations for interpretive continue for visitor orientation and programs and workshops for a variety educational activities near the new visitor of audiences. Both NPS and USFS would center, resource preservation at Bonito be represented at the new visitor Park, and cooperative management of center, and information/interpretation neighboring lands. would be presented to visitors in a cohesive manner. Most existing uses would continue. The • developed areas of the park would be Extended learning opportunities would managed for day use only. FR545 would be be available in the visitor center/Bonito

43 ALTERNATIVES

Park vicinity, in the area between the landscape are part of Sunset Crater’s Lenox Crater and Lava Flow Trails, and eruption. This proposal seeks to expand in the Cinder Hills area. the boundaries of the park to include all • A hardened trail would be constructed the geologic features that are part of the between Bonito Campground and the Sunset Crater eruption. Approximately Lava Flow Trail to provide a convenient 8,590 acres of land administered by the pedestrian route for campers. A new U.S. Forest Service would be transferred to trail would be established into the the National Park Service. fissure zone, providing access to Gyp This expansion would include a significant and/or Double Craters. The trailhead portion, approximately 5,000 acres, of the would be located on FR776 near the Cinder Hills OHV Area. National junction with FR545. FR776 would be monument status would afford a higher gated beyond that point and level of protection to these geologic and designated for administrative use only. ethnographic features by excluding OHV • Park boundaries would be expanded in use, mining, and other consumptive uses cooperation with the USFS, to include on these lands. key resources northeast and southeast Trails and interpretive sites in the of existing boundaries. OHV use would expanded monument would allow visitors cease on the portions of the USFS OHV greater opportunities to experience these area included within the new features. Along with rehabilitation of the boundaries, and extensive geological features, protection of natural rehabilitation would be undertaken. processes would make it possible for • The area within the expanded park visitors to experience the full story of the boundaries would be zoned as Guided Sunset Crater eruption. Adventure, with the exception of the The U.S. Forest Service has objections to Hiking Zone to Double Crater and the the expansion of park boundaries Discovery Zone at Cinder Hills. A considered in this alternative. Their Discovery Zone in the Cinder Hills area preference is to exercise all options would provide opportunities for available to protect the resources that exploration in a more wilderness-like contribute to the significance of the park, setting. without having to transfer administrative • Areas of the park not zoned for jurisdiction to the National Park Service. administrative or visitor use would be This would be accomplished by increased closed to protect resources. management use requirements on the OHV area. BOUNDARY EXPANSION Alternatives Considered But This proposal calls for the expansion of park boundaries to accommodate Eliminated From Detailed administrative needs, as described for Evaluation Alternative 1 and to ensure that natural resources that contribute to the SUNSET CRATER significance and primary purpose of Sunset VOLCANO/WUPATKI: EMPHASIZE Crater Volcano National Monument are PRESERVATION AND LIMIT contained within park boundaries. In MOTORIZED SIGHTSEEING contrast with the situation in 1930, today General Concept we have accurate dating of volcanic features that are part of the eruptions and This alternative (identified in the third can definitively identify which features in newsletter as Combined Alternative 2)

44 ALTERNATIVES

would extend a high degree of protection to Wupatki) and recommendations to to park resources. Consistent with a restrict access and control use to ensure preservation emphasis, fewer areas of the that resources are adequately protected. parks would be seen by car, and in some This is consistent with scoping suggestions cases, visitors would have to exert more that placing certain areas off-limits would effort to see sites at Wupatki. No new sites be acceptable if they could be seen by would be opened to visitation. Ranger- other means and explanations were guided backcountry tours to Crack-in-Rock provided. This alternative also would would cease. New wayside exhibits would reduce the impact caused by facilities and be limited, and the parks would be developments in prime resource areas and physically closed at night. The number of would simplify managed visitor use facilities would be reduced and relocated (shuttle systems, reservations, ticketing), to less-sensitive areas. Although there should a future need arise. An increase in would be impacts from construction of funding would be needed to build new new facilities, buildings would not intrude facilities; however, NPS would not spend on cultural and natural landscapes and as much time and money as it does now impact sites as they do now. providing 24-hour emergency service and maintaining multiple residences and 36 The parks would not be connected by a miles of FR545. loop drive. Visitors would enter the parks at the existing US89 entrances and return Key Actions via the same route. The new visitor centers would be located at the park entrances, At Wupatki: and visitors would be oriented before • Visitors would enter the park at the encountering park resources. Visitors existing north entrance and return via would experience a more natural, the same route. FR545 would end at undisturbed, and quiet Sunset Crater the junction with the Wukoki Road, Volcano with the removal of a portion of and the remainder of the road to the the park road. In both parks, emphasis south entrance would eventually be would be placed on opportunities for removed and rehabilitated. (A portion learning about the parks via self-guided or of the road would be retained for ranger-led activities at existing sites and access to the Peshlakai residence until trails. Boundaries would be adjusted to expiration of this special use permit). incorporate Coconino National Forest land The road would be gated at the north containing administrative facilities and entrance and closed at night. Provisions some features essential to the monument’s would be made for emergency access. story; at Wupatki, the emphasis of • Access to the current developed sites boundary expansions would be on (Lomaki, Citadel, Doney Mountain, acquiring lands to enhance the Wupatki, and Wukoki) would remain preservation of cultural and natural as it is now. Vehicle access could systems rather than on providing for more become managed if crowding/visitor diverse visitor experiences. The Combined experience indicators were exceeded Alternative 2 map shows how the parks and control of visitor numbers would be zoned and how boundaries warranted. would be changed. • The road to Black Falls Crossing would This alternative responds to scoping be maintained for access to the Navajo concerns about the need to educate Reservation, and consistent with the visitors before they encounter park concept of the alternative, would be resources (especially at the north entrance used for administrative use. Access to

45 ALTERNATIVES

the park via FR150 would be At Sunset Crater Volcano: eliminated. • Vehicle access on existing FR545 would • To better accomplish visitor be from US89 to the Lava Flow Trail orientation/education, a new visitor parking area only. Visitors would exit center would be built at the north the park via the same route. O’Leary junction of FR545 and US89. Park Peak Road would be closed to administrative offices, maintenance motorized access and promoted as a facility, and minimal housing would be hiking opportunity. Off-trail part of this complex. All existing backcountry hiking would not be maintenance, storage facilities, and permitted. park housing would be removed, • Consistent with the concept of day use, except for one historical structure Bonito Campground would be (residence #1), and the areas would be removed. The Park Service would seek rehabilitated. Offices would be an agreement with USFS to relocate removed from the existing visitor camping to the west side of US89, near center, creating space for curatorial the junction of FR545. Park housing, storage/research. maintenance facilities, and • Existing picnic areas would be retained, administrative offices would be but rest rooms would be upgraded to removed and the areas rehabilitated. environmentally sound, sanitary The existing visitor center, which is facilities (e.g., use of dehydrating or inadequate, would also be removed composting systems, waterless soap, and a new visitor center built west of etc.). Bonito Park, affording a view of the • To make the most of existing sites volcano and increased educational developed for visitation, new opportunities. Minimal administration, interpretive media (guides, brochures, maintenance, and housing facilities etc.) and programs would be would be part of this complex. developed. • To acquire associated features, the • The function of the existing visitor proposed boundary would incorporate center would shift from visitor sections 21 and 22, and portions of orientation to being a museum with sections 12, 15, 16, 17, and 20 of T23N, additional display of collections, new R8E. exhibits, and interpretive media, some • In addition to the current self-guided of which would allow visitors to and ranger-led activities, FR545 from experience and “see” sites and the Lava Flow Trail parking to the resources that are otherwise eastern park boundary would revert to inaccessible or closed. a hiking trail with ranger-led activities • Consistent with the concept of this and self-guiding interpretive media. alternative, overnight backpacking Lenox Crater, Bonito Lava Flow, and trips to Crack-in-Rock and backcountry pithouses near Bonito Park would be guided day hikes would be interpreted via a variety of media and discontinued. Off-trail backcountry activities. Wayside exhibits would be hiking would not be permitted. The developed for the park road. A contact existing primitive road to Crack-in-Rock station and waysides would provide would be retained for patrol/ resource improved orientation to the Lava Flow protection functions. Trail and new extended learning opportunities accessed from that location.

46 ALTERNATIVES

Basis for Rejection of This based on acquiring features, sites, and Alternative landscapes primary to park purposes and on protecting park viewsheds, values, and This alternative was rejected because the resources of these associated lands. significant public input discouraged Such an expansion would enhance closing the connecting loop road between interpretation of park themes, provide the monuments. There was concern about diverse visitor experiences, and transfer access to the private property between the from the Forest Service to the National monuments and to the Navajo Park Service land that is in many ways Reservation. There was also concern about perceived as part of the parks by virtue of losing the link between the two proximity. . The goals of the NPCA monuments’ stories and about losing the recommendation could also be achieved transition from ponderosa pine into the through partnership with USFS, rather lower desert environment and the scenic than through boundary expansions. vistas that are available along FR545. Basis for Rejection of This REGIONAL PLANNING Alternative CONSIDERATION Analysis of this alternative indicated that General Concept joint planning/management with USFS The National Parks and Conservation could achieve the same goals without Association (NPCA), in an earlier letter, actual transfer of lands. Elements of this urged the Park Service to expand alternative were incorporated into boundaries at Sunset Crater Volcano and Wupatki Alternative 3 and Sunset Crater Wupatki National Monuments to include Volcano Alternative 3. all the land between the two monuments. (See Regional Planning Consideration map.) The NPCA recommendation was

47

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MITIGATING MEASURES measures such as silt fences and/or sand bags would also be used to minimize any Under any of the action alternatives potential soil erosion. proposed, there would be mitigating Potential compaction and erosion of bare measures used to reduce the effects of soils would be minimized by conserving actions. They include the following. topsoil in windrows. The use of conserved Preservation, rehabilitation, and topsoil would help preserve micro- restoration, as well as the daily, cyclical, organisms and seeds of native plants. The and seasonal maintenance of cultural topsoil would be respread in as near to the resources, would be undertaken in original location as possible, and accordance with the Secretary of the supplemented with scarification, mulching, Interior’s Standards for the Treatment of seeding, and/or planting with species Historic Properties. native to the immediate area. This would reduce construction scars and erosion. Wherever possible, new facilities would be located to avoid impacts to important park Although soil side-cast during construction resources and values. In many areas soils would be susceptible to some erosion, such and vegetation are already impacted to a erosion would be minimized by placing silt degree by various human and natural fencing around the excavated soil. activities. Construction would take Excavated soil may be used in the advantage of these previously disturbed construction project; excess soil would be areas wherever possible. stored in approved areas. If used, silt fencing fabric would be inspected weekly All new construction would be completed or after every major storm. Accumulated utilizing sustainable practices, such as the sediments would be removed when the use of environmentally friendly materials, fabric is estimated to be approximately sustainable building materials, and 75% full. efficient utility systems. Components of such projects would also be assessed for Revegetation plantings would use native visual quality. Utilities and support species from genetic stocks originating in functions, such as water, sewer, electricity, the park. Revegetation efforts would be to roads, and parking areas will be evaluated reconstruct the natural spacing, and designed to mitigate visual impacts. abundance, and diversity of native plant species. All disturbed areas would be Temporary impacts associated with restored as nearly as possible to construction would occur, such as soil and preconstruction conditions shortly after vegetation disturbance and the possibility construction activities are completed. The of soil erosion. In an effort to avoid principal goal is to avoid interfering with introduction of exotic plant species, no hay natural processes. bales would be used. Hay often contains seed of undesirable or harmful alien plant Some petrochemicals from construction species. Therefore, on a case-by-case basis equipment could seep into the soil. To the following materials may be used for minimize this possibility, equipment would any erosion control dams that may be be checked frequently to identify and necessary: rice straw, straws determined by repair any leaks. Any blasting would NPS to be weed-free (e.g., Coors barley conform with NPS-65, Explosives Use and straw or Arizona winter wheat straw), Blasting Program (1991), specifications. All cereal grain straw that has been blasting would use the minimum amount fumigated to kill weed seed, and wood necessary to accomplish the task. All excelsior bales. Standard erosion control

55 ALTERNATIVES blasting would be used to shatter, not Should construction unearth previously distribute, any material. undiscovered archeological resources, work would be stopped in the area of any Construction zones would be identified discovery and the park would consult with and fenced with construction tape, snow the State Historic Preservation fencing, or some similar material prior to Officer/Tribal Historic Preservation Officer any construction activity. The fencing and the Advisory Council on Historic would define the construction zone and Preservation, as necessary, according to confine activity to the minimum area §36 CFR 800.13, Post Review Discoveries. In required for construction. All protection the unlikely event that human remains are measures would be clearly stated in the discovered during construction, provisions construction specifications and workers outlined in the American Indian Graves would be instructed to avoid conducting Protection and Repatriation Act (1990) activities beyond the construction zone as would be followed. defined by the construction zone fencing. The Park Service would ensure that all Prior to any land-modifying activity, a contractors and subcontractors are qualified professional archeologist would informed of the penalties for illegally inspect the present ground surface of the collecting artifacts or intentionally proposed development site and the damaging archeological sites or historic immediate vicinity for the presence of properties. Contractors and subcontractors cultural remains, both prehistoric and would also be instructed on procedures to historic. Should newly discovered or follow in case previously unknown previously unrecorded cultural remains be archeological resources are uncovered located, additional investigations would during construction. Equipment traffic be accomplished prior to earth-disturbing would be minimized in the area of the activities. Similarly, in those areas where site. Equipment and materials staging subsurface remains appear likely, an areas would also avoid known archeologist would be on hand to monitor archeological and ethnographic resources. land-modifying actions. Efforts to identify ethnographic resources Construction activities would affect the will continue in consultation with uppermost layers of earth as vehicles traditionally associated tribes. A compact the soils and alter the horizontal traditional use study will be conducted to and vertical distribution of buried understand how associated tribes have archeological remains. These activities used park resources in the past and will would also destroy surface sites by need to continue to use them in the damaging and destroying artifactual future. Based on the results of the study, remains and their contextual agreement documents will be developed environments. Loss of these resources with associated tribes to ensure access to could be partially mitigated through traditionally used resources in keeping excavation and curation prior to with NPS policies Executive Order 13007. construction. Additional archeological Tribal consultation will continue to take investigations, including recording and place with the implementation of mapping, and a rigorous program of individual undertakings pursuant to the sampling/collecting/testing of NHPA to ensure that previously archeological features and artifacts would unidentified ethnographic resources are be performed in those areas where not affected. cultural remains would be affected by the plan. The flow of vehicle traffic on roads would be maintained as much as possible during

56 ALTERNATIVES

construction periods. Construction delays The CBA process instead asks which would normally be limited. There may be alternative gives the greatest advantage. some periods when the nature of the To answer this question, relevant facts construction work may require temporary would be used to determine the road closures. All efforts would be made advantages the alternatives provide. To to reduce these as much as possible and to ensure a logical and trackable process, the alert park staff as soon as possible if delays criteria used to evaluate the alternatives longer than normal are expected. Visitors were derived from the impact topics in the would be informed of construction EIS. Alternatives were evaluated to see activities and associated delays. Traffic how well they: would be managed to ensure timely access • MAXIMIZE PROTECTION OF CULTURAL to private residents and ranches along the RESOURCES (long-term integrity of road. archeological resources and cultural Contractors would coordinate with park landscapes, historic character of the staff to reduce disruption in normal park built environment, long-term integrity activities. Equipment would not be stored of ethnographic resources) along the roadway overnight without • MAXIMIZE PROTECTION OF NATURAL prior approval of park staff. Construction RESOURCES (long-term integrity of workers and supervisors would be natural systems and processes, informed about the special sensitivity of threatened and endangered species park values, regulations, an appropriate and sensitive species, long-term housekeeping. integrity of geological features, SELECTION OF THE PREFERRED floodplains, and riparian habitat) ALTERNATIVE • EXPAND DIVERSITY OF VISITOR EXPERIENCE (ability to experience full In order to develop proposed actions, all range of resources related to of the alternatives for each park were significance, provide a diversity of evaluated. To minimize the influence of opportunities to experience park individual biases and opinions, the team resources, and perceived wild used an objective analysis process called character) “Choosing by Advantages” (CBA). This • LIMIT EFFECT ON NEIGHBORS (park process, which has been used extensively neighbors; local, state, and tribal land by government agencies and the private management; land/resource managing sector, evaluates different choices (in this agencies) case, the alternatives for each park) by • IMPROVE OPERATIONAL EFFICIENCY identifying and comparing the relative (health and safety, conservation, advantages of each according to a set of distance to work, management of criteria. resources, communication) One of the greatest strengths of the CBA Alternatives for each of the three system is its fundamental philosophy: monuments were rated on the attributes decisions must be anchored in relevant relating to each of the factors just listed. facts. For example, the question “Is it more Then the advantages of the attributes important to protect natural resources or were compared and the alternative with cultural resources?” is “unanchored,” the most advantages was selected. Costs because it has no relevant facts on which for each alternative versus advantages to make a decision. Without such facts, it is provided were compared and analyzed. impossible to make a defensible decision.

57 ALTERNATIVES

A GMP provides a framework for proactive different alternatives are included in decision making, including decisions on Appendix C. Those costs are included in visitor use, natural and cultural resource Table 1: Summary of Comparative Costs. management, and park development. The Costs identified in the GMP are not plan prescribes resource conditions and intended to replace more detailed visitor experiences that are to be achieved consideration of needs, sizes, and amounts and maintained over time. Park of future development. They should not development is considered in general be used as a basis for money requests until needs rather than in specifics. For the further analysis has been completed. Costs purposes of cost estimating, general and items considered are shown in assumptions are made regarding amounts appendix C. and sizes of development. These assumptions are then carried across to all Comparative costs for the alternatives alternatives so that comparable costs can include both initial development costs and be considered for each alternative. total life cycle costs. Initial development costs are the estimated construction costs Staffing considerations are considered to of the alternatives. Demolition, labor, and be a part of life cycle costing. The existing materials for buildings, roads, trails, staff for the three monuments totals 42, exhibits, and parking are included. which includes shared management, Estimated costs are based on costs for division chiefs, and administration. similar types of development in other Approximating a breakdown between the parks from the Denver Service Center Class parks, the staffing is Wupatki, 16, Walnut “C” Estimating Guide. Life cycle costs Canyon, 14, and Sunset Crater Volcano, 12. consider the costs of each alternative over The current staffing provides minimal a period of time. Life cycle costs include resource protection and visitor service, and the costs of operating buildings, the many tasks within the monuments are staffing required, maintenance, and being deferred. The parks’ 5-year FTE replacement costs of alternative elements. projection increases staffing levels in all The life cycle costs below are for a 25-year three monuments by one-third. By park, period. It is important to note that all the staffing would be Wupatki, 21.3, estimates are general, in keeping with the Walnut Canyon, 18.7, and Sunset Crater general nature of GMP alternatives, and Volcano, 16. These figures are base should be used for comparison purposes staffing needed for the no-action only. alternative. Staffing increases needed by

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Choosing by Advantages

300 Alternative 3 268

250

200

Alternative 2 151.7 150 Alternative 1- Preferred 125 100 ADVANTAGE RATING

50

0 $0 $1,000,000 $2,000,000 $3,000,000 $4,000,000 $5,000,000 $6,000,000

INITIAL CONSTRUCTION COSTS (Net)

Selection of the preferred alternative $2,450,000 in costs was not justified by the considers the advantages provided by each minimal additional resource protection. alternative (from the CBA) as compared with the cost of the alternative. The chart ENVIRONMENTALLY above summarizes the results. Alternative PREFERRED ALTERNATIVE 1 is the least expensive and provides a higher quality visitor experience than the The environmentally preferred alternative No-Action Alternative. Alternative 3 is determined by applying the criteria provides substantial additional advantages suggested in the National Environmental for natural resources, due to the increased Policy Act of 1969 (NEPA), which is guided land base and proposed use changes. by the Council on Environmental Quality However, there was little support for the (CEQ). The CEQ provides direction that boundary changes proposed in that “[t]he environmentally preferable alternative. Alternative 2 provided slightly alternative is the alternative that will more advantages than Alternative 1, promote the national environmental primarily in cultural and natural resource policy as expressed in NEPA’s Section protection. However, the additional 101:(1) fulfill the responsibilities of each generation as trustee of the environment

59 ALTERNATIVES for succeeding generations; (2) assure for the Mission 66 designed visitor experience all Americans safe, healthful, productive, the diversity for educational opportunities and aesthetically and culturally pleasing and the protection of natural and cultural surroundings; (3) attain the widest range resources is limited. Protection of natural of beneficial uses of the environment and cultural resources would not be as without degradations, risk to health or enhanced as under Alternatives 2 and 3. safety, or other undesirable and The No-Action Alternative does not impact unintended consequences; (4) preserve access to neighboring lands, unlike important historic, cultural, and natural Alternatives 2 and 3. The No-Action aspects of our national heritage, and Alternative does not fully realize maintain, wherever possible, an provisions 3, 4, 5, and 6 of the goals. environment which supports diversity, and Alternative 1 provides increased variety, of individual choice; (5) achieve a educational opportunities and diverse balance between population and resource experiences both within and outside park use which will permit high standards of boundaries. With the construction of a living and a wide sharing of life’s new visitor center, both park and forest amenities; and (6) enhance the quality of users would be better oriented before renewable resources and approach the entering public lands and encountering maximum attainable recycling of sensitive resources. Increased partnerships depletable resources.” for visitor orientation and educational “Generally this means the alternative that activities would more efficiently provide causes the least damage to the biological contact with the missions and personnel of and physical environment. It also means both agencies, meeting goals 3 and 5. the alternative that best protects, Visitors would be provided with preserves, and enhances historic, cultural, information and opportunities that would and natural resources.” (Council on encourage greater stewardship of public Environmental Quality, “Forty Most Asked lands meeting national environmental Questions Concerning CEQ’s National policy goal 4. Significant geologic Environmental Policy Act Regulations” (40 resources related to the history of Sunset CFR 1500-1508), Federal Register Vol. 46, Crater Volcano would not become part of No. 55, 18026-18038, March 23, 1981: the park, but would be protected and Question 6a) interpreted through partnerships with the USFS, partially fulfilling goal 6 of the The No-Action Alternative represents the National Environmental Policy Act. current management direction for Sunset Crater Volcano National Monument. The Alternative 2 strives to limit motorized existing use and development of the park sightseeing in the park and focus on is based on planning initiated and longer and more intensive educational implemented during the Mission 66 programs to enhance the protection of program. Personal services interpretation cultural and natural resources meeting and resource protection patrols are national environmental policy goal 6. This sporadic at the four interpreted areas alternative restricts the visitor experience (Bonito Park Pullout, Lenox Crater Trail, by eliminating the drive through Lava Flow Trail, and Cinder Hills Overlook) experience in favor of a longer intensive and the Painted Desert picnic area. For stay. This alternative also limits access by resource protection purposes, areas of the park neighbors to the OHV area and by park not zoned for administrative or Navajo residents and Alpine Rancho visitor use are closed to unguided entry. residents who use FR545 to commute to Since the No-Action Alternative maintains Flagstaff. National environmental policy

60 ALTERNATIVES

goals 3, 4, and 5 are not fully realized After careful review of potential resource under this alternative to the same extent and visitor impacts, and developing as they are under Alternative 3. In proposed mitigation for impacts to natural addition, Alternative 2 does not fully and cultural resources, the realize provisions 3 and 5 of the goals as environmentally preferred alternative is compared with Alternatives 1 and 3. Alternative 1. Alternative 1 surpasses the other alternatives in best realizing the full Alternative 3 would extend NPS range of national environmental policy management and protection by expanding goals as stated in § 101 of the National park boundaries to include USFS land to Environmental Policy Act. Although other the southeast to include key features of alternatives may achieve greater levels of the eruption and geologic story of the individual protection for cultural or Sunset Crater volcanic chain. The inclusion natural resources, or better enhance visitor of the entire Bonito and Kana-A lava experience, Alternative 1 overall (1) flows, red-topped cinder cones along the provides a high level of protection of Cinder Hills fissure, Vent 512 and Double natural and cultural resources while Crater would allow visitors to experience concurrently attaining the widest range of the entire geologic story, meeting national neutral and beneficial uses of the environmental policy goal goals 1 and 2, environment without degradation; (2) and partially fulfilling goal 4. The maintains an environment that supports developed areas of the park would be diversity and variety of individual choice; managed for day use only, and FR545 and (3) integrates resource protection with would remain open 24 hours. Visitor use an appropriate range of visitor uses. would be spread throughout more resources, and a new multiagency visitor center would be constructed near the junction of US89 and FR545 to orient visitors prior to interacting with sensitive park and forest resources. The existing visitor center would be adapted for use by educational groups, and diverse experiences would be provided via new trails and new interpretive media and activities in a quieter natural setting meeting goal 3 and partially meeting goals 4 and 5. The proposed expansion would substantially reduce the boundaries of the Cinder Hills OHV Recreation Area. OHV use would cease on the portions of the USFS OHV recreation area included within the new boundaries. Extensive rehabilitation would be undertaken. National environmental policy goals 5 and 6 would not be fully realized under this alternative.

61

ALTERNATIVES

Table 2: Summary of Alternatives Alternative 3: Expand Park Alternative 2: Emphasize Quiet Boundaries to Preserve Park- No-Action Alternative: Existing Altenative 1 (Preferred): Focus on Natural Setting while Providing Related Resources and Provide Conditions Extended Learning Diverse Opportunities for Visitor Diverse Opportunities for Visitor Use Use The No-Action Alternative would The goal of the preferred alternative is Alternative 2 would extend a high Alternative 3 would extend NPS involve no new construction, additional to provide increased educational degree of protection for park resources management and protection by ex- trail developments or realignments opportunities and diverse experiences by removing and relocating some panding park boundaries to the other than planning that is under way both within and outside of park facilities and would provide more southeast to include key features of the to meet immediate operational needs boundaries. The park would be viewed diverse experiences than the No-Action eruption and geologic story of the that would continue to exist for all as a destination for education and Alternative. Visitor experience would Sunset Crater volcanic chain. Boundaries alternatives. These are continuation of learning. Partnerships with the USFS, require slightly more effort than under for the monument were drawn before partnerships with USFS, State of affiliated tribes, and educational the No-Action Alternative. Primary the full extent of geologic features Arizona and private landowners for the institutions would provide points of interest would be reached as related to the eruption was known. This protection of cultural and natural interpretation and more consistent destinations rather than roadside alternative would provide consistent resources; new wayside and museum management of sites and features attractions. Visitors would be better protection of these resources, including exhibits; expansion of Bonito outside the park that are primary to the insulated from modern day intrusions. the entire Bonito and Kana-A lava Campground by USFS; a new curatorial park purpose. Minor boundary The desired outcome is that visitors flows, the red-topped cinder cones building in the administrative area for adjustments would be made for ease of would spend more time engaged in in- along the Cinder Hills fissure, Vent 512, long-term care and preservation of management and to align park bounda- depth learning activities than at and Double Crater, and would allow museum objects and specimens from all ries and associated fencing with to- present. The increased diversity of visitors to experience the entire three Flagstaff Area monuments, with pographic features rather than along experience would be provided via new geologic story. Partnerships with USFS associated utilities and a road extended section lines. Geologic features would trails and new interpretive media and would continue for visitor orientation to the site; a new maintenance, be better protected within a single activities. The park road would be and educational activities near the new resources management, and ranger jurisdiction, and management of gated at night. A new visitor center and visitor center, resource preservation at support facility at the Sunset Crater existing USFS secondary roads would campground would be constructed Bonito Park, and cooperative Volcano administrative area, including be clarified. Most existing uses would south of Sunset Crater Volcano, and management of neighboring lands. vehicle, equipment, supplies, and continue. The park would remain day- both park and forest orientation would Most existing uses would continue. The materials storage, offices, a meeting use only, with 24-hour access on FR545, be provided at this location. Visitors developed areas of the park would be room, also with associated utilities, and visitor use would be spread would be in contact with employees managed for day use only. FR545 would parking area, and a road extended to throughout more resources. A new from both NPS and USFS. Short roads to be open 24 hours. Visitor use would be the site. All construction/modifications multiagency visitor center would be key areas of the park would eliminate spread throughout more resources. A will comply with Americans with built near US89 to serve as the primary the current drive-through experience. new multiagency visitor center would Disabilities Act and other requirements location to orient and serve visitors. More of the monument would be be constructed near US89 to serve as and will be designed to upgrade and The existing visitor center would be experienced by trail and self-guided the primary location to orient and serve improve safety features. adapted for use as an education center. activities. Visitors would be able to visitors to both park and forest lands. connect the stories of Sunset Crater The existing visitor center would be Volcano and Wupatki National adapted for use by educational groups. Monuments by experiencing the Diverse experiences would be provided dramatic landscape changes along via new trails and new interpretive FR545, as well as through interpretive media and activities in a quieter natural media within the monuments and at setting. Guided tours would be

63 ALTERNATIVES

Table 2: Summary of Alternatives Alternative 3: Expand Park Alternative 2: Emphasize Quiet Boundaries to Preserve Park- No-Action Alternative: Existing Altenative 1 (Preferred): Focus on Natural Setting while Providing Related Resources and Provide Conditions Extended Learning Diverse Opportunities for Visitor Diverse Opportunities for Visitor Use Use waysides. Boundaries would be provided to key geologic features, adjusted for administrative purposes, as following completion of resource described in Alternative 1, and would inventories and impact assessments. include significant resources located at Untrailed hiking and a greater degree Bonito Park and south of existing park of solitude would be possible in boundaries. Removing all administrative specified areas. Off highway vehicle use and visitor facilities (except toilets) from would be removed withing the the heart of the park would allow for expanded NPS boundaries. FR776 south restoration of damaged critical of the Double Crater trailhead would resources and provide a more pristine be gated for administrative use only. experience. The ability to close the park at night would further protect fragile park features. Rerouting the entrance road would allow for placement of the visitor center so that the public could be oriented before exploring the park, while maintaining a drive between Sunset Crater Volcano and Wupatki National Monuments. Should visitation levels dictate, numbers of people could be controlled through use of a shuttle or reservation system.

64 ALTERNATIVES

Table 3: Summary of Major Impacts Alternative 3: Expand Park Alternative 2: Emphasize boundaries to Preserve Park- No-Action Alternative: Alternative 1 (Preferred): Quiet Natural Setting while Related Resources and Existing Conditions Focus on Extended Learning Providing Diverse Provide Diverse Opportunities Opportunities for Visitor Use for Visitor Use Archeological There would be no major impacts In comparison to existing condi- Alternative 2 would have a Under Alternative 3, there would Resources to archeological resources under tions, Alternative 1 would have a moderate adverse effect on the be major, long-term, adverse the No-Action Alternative. In major, adverse effect on a rela- long-term integrity of ar- effects to the integrity of 12-15 addition to those mentioned, tively small but concentrated cheological resources located in archeological resources located in there would be other, less severe number of archeological resources the vicinity of Bonito Park and proximity to the new visitor effects as a result of located near the new visitor center the new visitor center. These center and expanded implementing this alternative. and Extended Learning Zone. Al- effects would be minimized by campground. Relative to existing though the exact number of careful placement of the trail conditions, , the cumulative archeological resources that would system and facilities. Most effects of this alternative on the be affected by this alternative is unknown (because an intensive impacts would be indirect, long-term integrity of a majority archeological inventory has not resulting from increased visitor of archeological resources would been completed and specific use of these areas. Although be minor and beneficial, because locations for new facilities have not there would be an overall of the elimination of OHV been decided), a larger number of reduction in archeological impacts within the expanded resources would be impacted in integrity, it would not be to the park boundaries, the increased Alternative 1 than under existing extent that the resources would NPS and USFS presence in the conditions. The adverse impacts become ineligible for listing in area, and the zoning of a large would be offset to some degree by the National Register of Historic area of the expanded monument the benefits of an increased USFS Places. In addition to those for long-term preservation pur- presence and increased oppor- mentioned, there would be other poses. In addition to those tunities to orient and educate minor and moderate effects, both mentioned, there would be visitors before they encounter beneficial and adverse, to the other, less severe effects as a sensitive resources. The net effect, integrity of archeological re- result of implementing this however, would be major and sources as a result of this alter- alternative. adverse for the long-term integrity native. In addition to those of specific archeological resources. mentioned, there would be In addition to those mentioned, there would be other, less severe other, less severe effects as a effects as a result of implementing result of implementing this this alternative. alternative. Historic Character The No-Action Alternative would Alternative 1 would have long- Alternative 2 would have long- Alternative 3 would have long- of the Built have long-term moderate adverse term moderate adverse impacts term major adverse impacts to term moderate adverse impacts Environment impact on the prehistoric and on the prehistoric and Mission 66 the Mission 66 designed land- and long-term major benefits on Mission 66 landscapes. There landscapes. There would be an scape, and long-term major the prehistoric landscape, and would be an overall reduction of overall reduction of integrity in benefit and long-term moderate would have long-term moderate historic integrity of both both landscapes, but not to the adverse impact to the prehistoric adverse impacts on the Mission 66

65 ALTERNATIVES

Table 3: Summary of Major Impacts Alternative 3: Expand Park Alternative 2: Emphasize boundaries to Preserve Park- No-Action Alternative: Alternative 1 (Preferred): Quiet Natural Setting while Related Resources and Existing Conditions Focus on Extended Learning Providing Diverse Provide Diverse Opportunities Opportunities for Visitor Use for Visitor Use landscapes, but not to the extent extent that they would no longer landscape. There would be an landscapes. There would be an that they would no longer be be eligible to be listed in the overall reduction of historic overall reduction of historic in- eligible to be listed in the National Register of Historic integrity in the Mission 66 tegrity in the landscapes, but not National Register of Historic Places. Any future alterations to landscape, but not to the extent to the extent that they would no Places. Any future alteration to the prehistoric and Mission 66 that it would no longer be longer be eligible to be listed in the prehistoric and Mission 66 landscapes, in conjunction with eligible to be listed in the the National Register of Historic landscapes, in conjunction with the moderate adverse, National Register of Historic Places. Any future alterations of the moderate, adverse cumulative impacts of previous Places. Any future alterations of the landscapes, in conjunction cumulative impacts of previous changes and this alternative the Mission 66 landscape, in with the adverse cumulative changes and this alternative could result in moderate, adverse conjunction with the adverse, impacts of previous changes and could result in moderate, adverse cumulative impacts to the prehis- cumulative impacts of previous this alternative, could result in cumulative impacts to both de- toric and Mission 66 designed changes and this alternative, major, adverse cumulative signed landscapes. In addition to landscapes. In addition to those could result in major, adverse impacts to the prehistoric and those mentioned, there would be mentioned, there would be cumulative impacts to the Mission Mission 66 landscapes. In addition other, less severe effects as a other, less severe effects as a 66 landscapes. In addition to to those mentioned, there would result of implementing this result of implementing this those mentioned, there would be be other, less severe effects as a alternative. alternative. other, less severe effects as a result of implementing this result of implementing this alternative. alternative. Ethnographic The No-Action Alternative would Alternative 1 would have Alternative 2 includes actions that Alternative 3 includes actions that Resources continue to have some moderate moderate to major long-term will have both beneficial and will have mainly beneficial and to major adverse impacts to some beneficial impacts to ethno- adverse effects on ethnographic some adverse effects on ethnographic resources, but the graphic resources, with the resources. The effects of some ethnographic resources and actions common to all development of agreements proposed actions will need landscapes. The effects of some alternatives would improve many among the NPS and associated additional evaluation in proposed actions will need ad- existing conditions and have a tribes for continued tribal in- conjunction with associated ditional evaluation in conjunction moderate to major beneficial volvement in park management tribes. The effects of the actions with associated tribes. The effects effect on some ethnographic re- and interpretive planning, common to all alternatives would of the actions common to all sources and the cultural values Moderate to major adverse be the same as those described alternatives would be the same as that give them significance. None impacts include visual under the No-Action Alternative. described in the No-Action of the adverse impacts would changes such as tracks and None of the adverse impacts Alternative. None of the adverse constitute an impairment as lack of vegetation caused by would constitute an impairment impacts would constitute an defined by NPS management OHVs and visitors presence as defined by NPS management impairment as defined by NPS guidelines. In addition to those on Lenox Crater. None of the guidelines. In addition to those management guidelines. In mentioned, there would be adverse impacts would mentioned, there would be addition to those mentioned, other, less severe effects as a constitute an impairment as other, less severe effects as a there would be other, less severe result of implementing this defined by NPS management result of implementing this effects as a result of

66 ALTERNATIVES

Table 3: Summary of Major Impacts Alternative 3: Expand Park Alternative 2: Emphasize boundaries to Preserve Park- No-Action Alternative: Alternative 1 (Preferred): Quiet Natural Setting while Related Resources and Existing Conditions Focus on Extended Learning Providing Diverse Provide Diverse Opportunities Opportunities for Visitor Use for Visitor Use alternative. guidelines. In addition to those alternative. implementing this alternative. mentioned, there would be other, less severe effects as a result of implementing this alternative. Natural Systems There would be no major impacts Under Alternative 1, there would Under Alternative 2, there would Alternative 3 would have a major and Processes under the No-Action Alternative. be no major impacts to the long- be no major impacts to the long- beneficial effect on preserving Minor and moderate impacts are term integrity of natural systems term integrity of natural systems the long-term scientific integrity caused by the existing road of Sunset Crater Volcano and processes at Sunset Crater of natural systems and processes through the monument and by National Monument Some minor Volcano National Monument. within the monument. The minor visitor use in concentrated areas and moderate impacts would be Some minor to moderate impacts adverse impacts that would such as the Lava Flow Trail and caused by the road through the would occur with construction of accompany development of the the Lenox Crater Trail. In addition monument, construction of the new facilities and new trails, but new visitor center and extended to those mentioned, there would new visitor center, and some trail these would be mostly offset by learning zone would be be other, less severe effects as a construction and visitor use removal and rehabilitation of substantially offset by the result of implementing this impacts in the Extended Learning buildings and road segments in benefits of more visitor alternative. Zones. In addition to those other areas. In addition to those orientation at the new visitor mentioned, there would be mentioned, there would be center, increased NPS/USFS other, less severe effects as a other, less severe effects as a presence in the area, inclusion of result of implementing this result of implementing this additional very significant alternative. alternative. resources within monument boundaries, and zoning of large areas within the monument for long-term preservation purposes. In addition to those mentioned, there would be other, less severe effects as a result of imple- menting this alternative. Threatened, Under current NPS management Alternative 1 would cause no Alternative 2 would cause no Alternative 3 would have a major Endangered, and there are no major adverse major effects to threatened, major impacts to threatened, beneficial impact by preserving Sensitive Species impacts to threatened, endangered, or sensitive species endangered, or sensitive species. more habitat for sensitive plant endangered, or sensitive species. or unique habitats. There is the Some negligible to minor effects species in particular. There would There are some negligible to possibility of minor adverse to sensitive plant species would be some negligible to minor minor effects to sensitive plant impacts to sensitive plant species occur from construction of new effects to both sensitive plant and and animal species and unique where new trails and facilities facilities and hiking trails. animal species from construction habitats from current visitor use would be constructed, however, Moderate impacts may occur to of new facilities and trails. In and NPS facilities. In addition to surveys prior to these activities pronghorn movement and use of addition to those mentioned,

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Table 3: Summary of Major Impacts Alternative 3: Expand Park Alternative 2: Emphasize boundaries to Preserve Park- No-Action Alternative: Alternative 1 (Preferred): Quiet Natural Setting while Related Resources and Existing Conditions Focus on Extended Learning Providing Diverse Provide Diverse Opportunities Opportunities for Visitor Use for Visitor Use those mentioned, there would be would minimize any impacts. Bonito Park as a fawning area. In there would be other, less severe other, less severe effects as a There could be minor to addition to those mentioned, effects as a result of result of implementing this moderate impacts to pronghorn there would be other, less severe implementing this alternative. alternative. antelope use of Bonito Park as a effects as a result of im- fawning area due to disruption plementing this alternative. of movement corridors and human disturbance. In addition to those mentioned, there would be other, less severe effects as a result of implementing this alternative. Geological Sunset Crater Volcano has been Alternative 1 would likely have Alternative 2 would cause no Alternative 3 would likely have Resources impacted by past visitor use, re- no major impacts to geologic major impacts to geological fea- no major impacts to geologic sulting in deep scars eroded into features within Sunset Crater tures within Sunset Crater features within Sunset Crater the steep cinder cone slopes that Volcano National Monument. National Monument. The bound- Volcano National Monument. are still visible today. Existing NPS Many of the impacts associated ary of the monument would be Visitor use impacts to geologic operations and visitor use in the with this alternative, including expanded to approximately 6,700 resources within the original Lenox Crater, southwestern potential cumulative impacts, are acres, effectively doubling the monument boundary are very Bonito Lava Flow perimeter, and very similar to those described area within the monument. As similar to the No-Action Alter- Lava Flow Trail area are resulting for the No-Action Alternative. In- much as 8% of the expanded native. The boundary would be in long-term, negligible to minor creased visitor-use impacts monument area would be used expanded to include significant adverse impacts to large-scale within the proposed Extended for road and trail access, visitor geologic resources associated cinder cone and lava flow geo- Learning Zone between the Lava support and NPS administrative with the eruption of Sunset logic features, and long-term, Flow Trail, Lenox Crater, and facilities, and visitor activities. The Crater Volcano. Increased visitor moderate impacts to smaller fea- southern edge of the Bonito Lava remaining 92% would be closed use impacts within the proposed tures, such as spatter cones and Flow could result in long-term, to protect sensitive geologic Extended Learning Zone between lava flow surfaces. Development minor adverse impacts to large- resources. The new visitor center, the Lava Flow Trail, Lenox Crater, and recreational use of lands sur- scale geologic features, such as campground facilities, and and southern edge of the Bonito rounding the monument are cinder cones and lava flows, but upgraded entrance road along Lava Flow could result in long- causing long-term moderate ad- could result in long-term, moder- FR414 would be constructed in a term, minor adverse impacts to verse impacts to the cinder cones ate adverse impacts to heavily impacted recreational use large-scale geologic features, adjacent to Sunset Crater, and uninventoried, small, and unique area and likely have negligible such as cinder cones and lava long-term, major adverse impacts geologic features. In addition to impacts to geologic resources. A flows, but could result in long- to the geologic features associ- those mentioned, there would be new trail around Bonito Park term, moderate adverse impacts ated with the Sunset Crater other, less-severe effects as a would also likely have negligible to uninventoried, small, and Volcano eruption. The scientific result of implementing this impacts to geologic resources. unique geologic features. geological value of Sunset Crater alternative. Increased visitor use within the Dispersed guided and unguided Vl Nti lM t Et ddL i Z d hiki ti it ld b

68 ALTERNATIVES

Table 3: Summary of Major Impacts Alternative 3: Expand Park Alternative 2: Emphasize boundaries to Preserve Park- No-Action Alternative: Alternative 1 (Preferred): Quiet Natural Setting while Related Resources and Existing Conditions Focus on Extended Learning Providing Diverse Provide Diverse Opportunities Opportunities for Visitor Use for Visitor Use Volcano National Monument Extended Learning Zone and hiking activity would be should become even greater as trails within the central permitted within most of the associated and irreplaceable monument area would have boundary expansion area. The geologic features within the long-term, minor adverse impacts impacts of off road vehicles and eastern San Francisco Volcanic to large-scale geologic features, sustained visitor use are difficult Field continue to be permanently but could cause long-term, to predict, and would depend impacted. In addition to those moderate adverse impacts to upon the user numbers and the mentioned, there would be smaller, more unique geologic primary season of use. While other, less severe effects as a features unless they are fully large-scale geologic features result of implementing this mapped and inventoried, and use would likely continue to recover alternative. within the area carefully planned. from vehicle impacts, dispersed In addition to those mentioned, hiking activity could cause long- there would be other, less severe term minor adverse impacts to effects as a result of imple- these geologic features. In menting this alternative. addition, dispersed hiking activity could cause long-term, moderate adverse impacts to smaller, more unique geologic features unless they are fully mapped and inventoried, and use within the area is carefully planned. In addition to those mentioned, there would be other, less severe effects as a result of implementing this alternative. Ability to Experience The No-Action Alternative would Alternative 1 would provide Alternative 2 would provide ma- Alternative 3 would result in major Park Resources continue to provide major bene- major benefits to both park and jor benefits to both park and for- benefits to both park and forest fits to some visitors, particularly forest visitors seeking compre- est visitors seeking comprehen- visitors seeking comprehensive those wanting a brief introduc- hensive information on and in- sive information on and interpre- information on and interpretation tion to the volcanic landscape, terpretation of regional resources tation of regional resources and of regional resources and with emphasis on major features and recreational opportunities. recreational opportunities. It recreational opportunities. It would visible from the road or from Construction of a multiagency would be of particular benefit to be of particular benefit to park short trails. Park facilities and visitor center with new exhibits, park visitors wanting to experi- visitors wanting to explore the full range of volcanic features sig- many features would remain ac- conversion of the existing visitor ence resources in a quieter, more nificant to the story of Sunset cessible; recent construction of an center to an education center, pristine environment, because fa- Crater Volcano. accessible paved loop on the Lava and installation of new wayside cilities would be removed from Flow Trail would provide access exhibits would provide major the heart of the park, and the Construction of a new multiagency visitor center conversion of the

69 ALTERNATIVES

Table 3: Summary of Major Impacts Alternative 3: Expand Park Alternative 2: Emphasize boundaries to Preserve Park- No-Action Alternative: Alternative 1 (Preferred): Quiet Natural Setting while Related Resources and Existing Conditions Focus on Extended Learning Providing Diverse Provide Diverse Opportunities Opportunities for Visitor Use for Visitor Use to representative volcanic fea- benefits to visitor understanding drive-through experience would visitor center, conversion of the tures and views for visitors with of resources and the ability to be eliminated. Construction of a existing visitor center to an physical disabilities and others see the “real thing.” Benefits of new multiagency visitor center education center, and installation whose time or abilities are not accessibility would remain similar would provide major benefits to of new wayside exhibits would suited to the cinder surface of the to those identified under the No- visitor understanding of resources provide major benefits to visitor longer trail loop. The ability to Action Alternative. Ability to and the ability to see the “real understanding of resources and the look at scenery, especially along experience scenery would be en- thing.” Changes to the road sys- ability to see the “real thing.” New FR545 en route to Wupatki, enjoy hanced slightly and would re- tem, rehabilitation of disturbed longer trails would provide access to a full range of features, an uncrowded park setting, and main a major benefit to visitors. areas, and construction of new including intact cinder cones, vol- listen to natural sounds would Traditional interpretive programs trails would provide access to a canic vents, lava bombs, and the continue as major benefits, at would continue as a moderate greater variety of natural and broad volcanic scene within the least in the near future. Con- benefit, and new programs cultural resources, while enhanc- Cinder Hills, which make up the tinuation of traditional inter- would be offered, using facilities ing ability to experience scenery beginning of the Sunset Crater pretive programs, such as talks, of the new visitor center, and a less altered environment. In Volcano story. Rehabilitation of guided walks, and campground education center, and expanded most areas of the park, natural resources damaged by OHV use programs would provide campground. The types and soundscapes would be enhanced, would provide major long-term moderate benefits for visitors. degrees of impact by the OHV because of the lack of passing benefits to visitors’ ability to experi- Distant views of some features area would be unchanged from traffic, and visitors would feel less ence a minimally altered envi- would remain available from the those described under the No- crowded. These benefits would ronment, and natural sounds would Cinder Hills overlook. This impact Action Alternative. . The new extend to visitors with disabilities, prevail, both along trails and at the would be minor depending on visitor center, despite its major since facilities and most trails Cinder Hills Overlook. Traditional the time of the year. Other visual benefits to visitor understanding, would be designed for full acces- interpretive programs would intrusions would remain, both in- would present the possibility of sibility. Traditional interpretive continue as a moderate benefit, side the park and within the moderate adverse impacts on programs would continue as a and new programs would be viewshed. These range from NPS uncrowded visitor experiences, moderate benefit, with addi- offered, using facilities of the new visitor center, education center, and facilities to distant mines, but all by funneling greater numbers tional opportunities at the new campground. Additional guided present moderate adverse im- into existing parking areas and visitor center and campground. hikes might be offered into the pacts to the ability to experience trails. This effect would be ac- This alternative would result in Kana-A lava flow, an area not a minimally altered environment. centuated at times by the moderate adverse impacts by available under the No-Action The existing visitor center would presence of greater numbers and continuing to limit access to vol- Alternative. Access for visitors with continue in use, limiting the organized groups in the canic resources closely related to disabilities would be similar to that space available for interpretive campground. In addition to those park significance but located out- described for the No-Action exhibits and contributing to in- mentioned, there would be side park boundaries. Types and Alternative. All facilities and complete visitor understanding of other, less severe effects as a degrees of OHV impact would existing trails would remain park resources-a moderate ad- result of implementing this remain similar to those described accessible, but, because of terrain, verse impact. As park visitation alternative. in the No-Action Alternative the Cinder Hills experience would increases, crowding in this small OHV users would be impacted by probably be available only from the

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Table 3: Summary of Major Impacts Alternative 3: Expand Park Alternative 2: Emphasize boundaries to Preserve Park- No-Action Alternative: Alternative 1 (Preferred): Quiet Natural Setting while Related Resources and Existing Conditions Focus on Extended Learning Providing Diverse Provide Diverse Opportunities Opportunities for Visitor Use for Visitor Use structure would further impact closure of the area west of FR776. overlook. This alternative would visitor experience. In addition to The area is relatively small, result in major long-term adverse those mentioned, there would be therefore, the impact would be impacts to OHV recreational users. other, less severe effects as a minor. There could be moderate Approximately 25% of the desig- result of implementing this adverse impacts on personal nated OHV area would be removed alternative. freedoms in the future, if from use, including some of the reservation or shuttle systems most heavily used routes.. The new were implemented to control visitor center, despite its major benefits to visitor understanding, numbers of visitors. In addition to would present the possibility of those mentioned, there would be moderate adverse impacts on un- other, less severe effects as a crowded visitor experiences, by result of implementing this funneling greater numbers into the alternative. park. This effect would be ac- centuated at times by the presence of greater numbers and organized groups in the campground. However, the new access to the Cinder Hills would disperse some of this use from existing developed areas. In addition to those mentioned, there would be other, less severe effects as a result of implementing this alternative. In addition to those mentioned, there would be other less severe effects as a result of implementing this al- ternative. Park Neighbors Within existing conditions, the Under Alternative 1, there would Under Alternative 2, there would Under Alternative 3, there would management actions of the NPS be minor to moderate, short- and be major, short- and long-term be major, short- and long-term provide many beneficial impacts long-term, adverse impacts to the adverse impacts to the Forest adverse impacts to the Forest to other agencies and neighbors. Forest Service, resulting from Service, resulting from their Service, resulting from their Existing conditions result in only their participation in the participation in the development participation in the development minor, long-term, adverse im- development and operation of a and operation of a new visitor and operation of a new visitor pacts to the workload of others new visitor facility, including facility, including planning, facility, including planning, in terms of additional administra- planning, construction, and construction, and staffing construction, and staffing tive tasks, interpretive planning, staffing commitments. There commitments. There could be a commitments, and resulting from agreement reviews, and joint could be a number of beneficial number of beneficial impacts the reduction in size and

71 ALTERNATIVES

Table 3: Summary of Major Impacts Alternative 3: Expand Park Alternative 2: Emphasize boundaries to Preserve Park- No-Action Alternative: Alternative 1 (Preferred): Quiet Natural Setting while Related Resources and Existing Conditions Focus on Extended Learning Providing Diverse Provide Diverse Opportunities Opportunities for Visitor Use for Visitor Use planning efforts. There could be impacts such as those discussed such as those discussed in the No- potential relocation of the OHV minor, long-term adverse impact in the No-Action Alternative. In- Action Alternative. Visitor ac- recreational area. There could be to park neighbors in terms of in- creased congestion and contact tivities and hiking in new areas a number of beneficial impacts as creased congestion on FS545. In with others would have a could have moderate, long-term discussed in the No-Action addition to those mentioned, moderate, long-term impact on impacts on American Indian tribes Alternative. Increased congestion there would be other, less severe American Indian tribes seeking seeking traditional cultural uses. and contact with others would effects as a result of implement- traditional cultural uses. The The closure of FR545, increased have a moderate, long-term ing this alternative. management actions of the NPS traffic on FR766 and would have adverse impact on American may result in minor to moderate, moderate, long-term impacts on Indian tribes seeking traditional short and long-term, adverse some park neighbors. Shared cultural uses.. In addition to those impacts to the workload of maintenance of FR766 and FR545 mentioned, there would be others in terms of additional could have major, long-term other, less severe effects as a administrative tasks, interpretive impacts on the Forest Service result of implementing this planning, agreement reviews, and/or Coconino County. The alternative. and joint planning efforts. There implications of development of could be minor adverse impact to Roden Crater would be the same as park neighbors in terms of in- identified in the No-Action Alterna- creased congestion on FR545. In tive. In addition to those men- addition to those mentioned, tioned, there would be other, less there would be other, less severe severe effects as a result of effects as a result of implementing this alternative. implementing this alternative. Operational The No-Action Alternative would Changes resulting from im- Implementation of Alternative 2 Changes resulting from imple- Efficiency result in no substantial change in plementing Alternative 1 would would have long-term, major menting Alternative 3 would the operations of the park from have an overall benefit on benefits to the operational have an overall long-term benefit existing conditions. There would operational efficiency. There efficiency of the park. There on operational efficiency. There be long-term minor to major would be long-term, minor to would be long-term, minor to would be long-term, minor to beneficial effects from the new major beneficial effects from the major beneficial effects from the major beneficial effects from the waysides, new facility new waysides, new facility new waysides, accessibility, and new waysides, new facility construction, accessibility, and construction, accessibility and health and safety improvements, construction, accessibility and health and safety improvements, health and safety improvements, and the backcountry closure. health and safety improvements, and the backcountry closure. and the backcountry closure. Im- Improvements and additions and the backcountry closure. Most of the major roads provements and additions would would be made to facilities that There would be moderate providing access to the park be made to facilities that would would protect visitors and adverse impacts resulting from would likely see an increase in protect visitors and improve staff improve staff health and safety construction of the proposed new visitor and commuter traffic, health and safety concerns. There concerns. Most of the issues visitor center and trails. Major which would result in additional would be moderate, adverse regarding visitor access would be efforts would be needed to effect

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Table 3: Summary of Major Impacts Alternative 3: Expand Park Alternative 2: Emphasize boundaries to Preserve Park- No-Action Alternative: Alternative 1 (Preferred): Quiet Natural Setting while Related Resources and Existing Conditions Focus on Extended Learning Providing Diverse Provide Diverse Opportunities Opportunities for Visitor Use for Visitor Use congestion and a likely increase impacts resulting from the reduced or eliminated. Access to the rehabilitation of newly in accidents. Maintenance needs construction of the new visitor the park would be managed, acquired land that has been im- would increase. Increased use of center, curatorial, and mainte- which would increase the pro- pacted by OHV use. These actions all roads leading to the park nance/resources management tection and preservation of park would create short-term, major, would increase the difficulties facility and the trails proposed to resources and reduce the need adverse impacts; however, that already exist in protecting connect Bonito Campground to for law enforcement patrols and following construction and park resources, including entry the Bonito Lava Flow. These the need for 24-hour emergency rehabilitation activities, there into areas of the park that are actions would create moderate, response. This alternative would would be minor to moderate closed to visitation and inten- short-term adverse impacts; dramatically improve the facilities adverse impacts to operational tional and unintentional damage however, following construction that are used in park operations efficiency. Most impacts would be to resources. The effects to they would have minor to and provide staff with functional in the form of increased facilities, utilities, and staffing moderate impacts on operational facilities and a safe working maintenance needs for facilities would be long term and adverse, efficiency. Most impacts would environment. Major costs would and trail systems and increased with small to measurable be in the form of increased be associated with the proposed resource protection and changes. Without improvement maintenance needs for facilities construction of new facilities, preservation needs. Major long- to the visitor center or utilities, and trail systems and increased new paved roadways, and the term benefits would be realized conditions would worsen. Many resource protection and preser- rehabilitation of areas that would with the expansion of park improvements are needed to vation needs. This alternative no longer be used for park boundaries, which would include protect visitor and staff health would not fully address road operations. This would have resources that contribute to the and safety. Current staff levels issues, which would continue to moderate, short-term adverse significance of the park. The have achieved a certain level of have minor to moderate adverse impact on operational efficiency. alternative would align efficiency; however, limitations impacts on operational efficiency. Following construction, there boundaries logically along do exist that inhibit the park’s This proposal would also include would be a negligible to minor topographic features, and would ability to provide adequate levels a limited expansion of park adverse impact on operational result in a reduction in impacts to of resource protection and boundaries to accommodate efficiency. In addition to those the park’s primary resources.. In preservation, maintenance of administrative needs, which mentioned, there would be addition to those mentioned, existing facilities, and visitor would have a major beneficial other, less severe effects as a there would be other, less severe services. In addition to those effect on operational efficiency. result of implementing this effects as a result of mentioned, there would be The most significant would be alternative. implementing this alternative. other, less severe effects as a that the expansion would align result of implementing this park boundaries logically along alternative. topographic features. In addition to those mentioned, there would be other, less severe effects as a result of implementing this alternative.

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Table 4: Objectives Met by Alternatives Objective No-Action Alternative: Alternative 1 (Preferred): Alternative 2: Emphasize Alternative 3: Expand Park Existing Conditions Focus on Extended Quiet Natural Setting while Boundaries to Preserve Park- Providing Diverse related Resources and Learning Opportunities for Visitor Use Provide Diverse Opportunities for Visitor Use 1. Maximize Protection of Access to the park is limited to The NPS and USFS would The existing visitor center and Park boundaries would be Cultural Resources established trails, roadways, construct and operate a joint campground would be removed expanded in cooperation with and developed facilities. visitor center near the and the areas rehabilitated. The the USFS, to include key Orientation waysides, visitor intersection of FR545 and US new visitor center would resources northeast and center exhibits and NPS 89. The new visitor center provide visitor orientation for southeast of the existing personnel provide visitors with would provide visitor both park and forest visitors boundaries. OHV use would be protection and preservation orientation for both park and before they encounter sensitive eliminated, and the area would messages. forest visitors before they resources. Park boundaries be rehabilitated. Areas of the encounter sensitive resources. would be expanded to the west park not zoned for Areas of the park not zoned for to include the Bonito Park area administrative or visitor use administrative or visitor use and to the south to include the would be closed to protect would be closed to protect new visitor center location. resources. The new multiagency resources. Corresponding adjustments visitor center would provide would be made to the boundary visitor orientation for both NPS of the USFS OHV area. Areas of and USFS resources and the park not zoned for regulations. administrative or visitor use would be closed to protect resources. 2. Maximize Protection of Access to the park is limited to The NPS and USFS would con- The existing visitor center and Park boundaries would be Natural Resources established trails, roadways, struct and operate a joint campground would be removed expanded in cooperation with and developed facilities. Orien- visitor center near the intersec- and the areas rehabilitated. The the USFS, to include key tation waysides, visitor center tion of FR545 and US 89. The new visitor center would pro- resources northeast and exhibits and NPS personnel pro- new visitor center would pro- vide visitor orientation for both southeast of the existing vide visitors with protection and vide visitor orientation for both park and forest visitors before boundaries. OHV use would be preservation messages. park and forest visitors before they encounter sensitive re- eliminated and the area would they encounter sensitive sources. A portion of FR545 be- be rehabilitated. Areas of the resources. Areas of the park not yond the Lava Flow Trail at the park not zoned for zoned for administrative or base of Sunset Crater Volcano administrative or visitor use visitor use would be closed to would be rehabilitated and would be closed to protect protect resources. converted to a hiking trail. Park resources. The new multiagency boundaries would be expanded visitor center would provide to the west to include the visitor orientation for both NPS Bonito Park area and to the and USFS resources and south to include the new visitor regulations. tl tiC di

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Table 4: Objectives Met by Alternatives Objective No-Action Alternative: Alternative 1 (Preferred): Alternative 2: Emphasize Alternative 3: Expand Park Existing Conditions Focus on Extended Quiet Natural Setting while Boundaries to Preserve Park- Providing Diverse related Resources and Learning Opportunities for Visitor Use Provide Diverse Opportunities for Visitor Use center location. Corresponding adjustments would be made to the boundary of the USFS OHV area. Areas of the park not zoned for administrative or visitor use would be closed to protect resources. 3. Expand Diversity of The one-mile Lava Flow Trail is The existing visitor center Additional extended learning The new visitor center would Visitor Experience a self-guided loop exploring a would be retained and adapted activities, both self-guided and provide visitor orientation for variety of volcanic formations. for use as an education center guided, would be developed in both NPS and USFS facilities, re- The one-mile Lenox Crater Trail with facilities for group presen- the vicinity of, and in sources, and regulations, and provides an opportunity to a tations, and workshops. A hik- conjunction with, the Lava Flow would provide in-depth inter- climb a cinder cone. The Cinder ing trail would be formalized Trail, Lenox Crater, and the pretation of natural and cul- Hills overlook provides a view between Bonito Campground northwest side of Sunset Crater tural resources at the regional of numerous cinder cones in the and the Lava Flow Trail. Addi- Volcano. A portion of FR545 level. Construction of new area. tional extended learning activi- beyond the Lava Flow Trail at facilities would provide loca- ties, both self-guided and the base of Sunset Crater tions for interpretive programs guided, would be developed in Volcano would be rehabilitated and workshops for a variety of the vicinity of and in conjunc- and converted to a hiking trail. audiences. Both NPS and USFS tion with the new visitor would be represented at the center. A broader range of new visitor center, and infor- resources would be interpreted mation/ interpretation would be in an Extended Learning Zone presented to visitors in a co- in the vicinity of the Lava Flow hesive manner. Extended Trail and Lenox Crater Trail learning opportunities would be system. available in the visitor center/ Bonito Park vicinity, in the area between Lenox Crater and Lava Flow Trails, and in the Cinder Hills area. A trail would be constructed between Bonito Campground and the Lava Flow Trail. A new trail would be es- tablished in the fissure zone providing access to Gyp and/or Double Crater.

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Table 4: Objectives Met by Alternatives Objective No-Action Alternative: Alternative 1 (Preferred): Alternative 2: Emphasize Alternative 3: Expand Park Existing Conditions Focus on Extended Quiet Natural Setting while Boundaries to Preserve Park- Providing Diverse related Resources and Learning Opportunities for Visitor Use Provide Diverse Opportunities for Visitor Use 4. Limit Effect on The Cinder Hills Off-Highway Vehicle access via FR545 would Entry to the park would via a FR545 would remain open 24 Neighbors Vehicle (OHV) Area is about remain the same as it is now. new road system using FR776. hours a day. Park boundaries 13,500 acres on USFS lands The NPS and USFS would jointly FR414, which is currently an would be expanded in immediately southeast of the construct and operate a new unimproved road, would be cooperation with the USFS, to monument. The visitor center, visitor center. Boundaries of the converted to the monument’s include key resources northeast housing, and maintenance area OHV area are not impacted.. main entrance road. Portions of and southeast of existing are located on Coconino FR545 between Bonito Park and boundaries. OHV use would be National Forest land and were the Lava Flow Trail would be eliminated on the portions of constructed and are operated retained as dead-end spurs to the OHV area included within by the NPS under an agreement these features. A new visitor the new boundaries, and with the USFS. center would be jointly rehabilitation would be constructed and operated by undertaken. the NPS and USFS. Park boundaries would be expanded to the west and the south. Corresponding adjustments would be made to the boundary of the USFS OHV area. 5. Improve Operational The NPS and USFS work Park boundaries would be A new visitor center would be A new multiagency visitor Efficiency cooperatively in areas of law adjusted for ease of jointly constructed and center would be constructed enforcement, resource management. Corresponding operated by the NPS and USFS. near the junction of FR545 and protection and management, adjustments would be made to Park boundaries would be US 89, and the existing visitor interpretation and facility the boundary of the USFS OHV expanded to the west to include center would be modified to management. area. The NPS and USFS would the Bonito Park area and to the serve as an education center for jointly construct and operate a south to include the new visitor groups. new visitor center at the center location. The existing junction of FR545 and US 89. visitor center and associated facilities would be removed from its present location and relocated south of the park near the new visitor center.

76

AFFECTED ENVIRONMENT

LONG-TERM INTEGRITY OF Dr. Harold Colton, founder of the Museum ARCHEOLOGICAL RESOURCES of Northern Arizona (MNA), first recognized the connection between Sunset Crater and the nearby buried Impact topics were identified through the pithouse ruins in the early 1930s, several scoping process. Concerns covered by this years after Sunset Crater National section include maintaining the long-term Monument was established. Research by scientific integrity and culturally sensitive MNA archeologists revealed that the values of archeological sites, including people who built these pithouses had prehistoric and historic architecture, witnessed Sunset Crater’s birth in 1064. It shrines, cultural modified landforms, was tree-ring dating of timbers found in agricultural field systems, rock art, and these pithouses and the nearby pueblo other cultural features. structures of Wupatki that gave geologists Region a more definitive date for the beginning of the Sunset eruption. The high arid Colorado Plateau region of the American Southwest is world- According to Colton’s reconstruction of renowned for its abundant, well-preserved events, the Sinagua farmers soon archeological resources. Archeological discovered that the deep cinder/ash fall in remains in the region reflect several the immediate vicinity of Sunset Crater distinct lifeways and adaptive strategies, was not farmable, but as they moved including hunting and gathering, northward and the depth of ash horticulture, livestock grazing and, after diminished, the cinder cover acted as a the mid-19th century, participation in the beneficial moisture-retaining mulch. This Euro-American global economy. mulching effect allowed drier, lower elevation areas that were previously Prior to the eruption of Sunset Crater, the unsuitable for farming to produce area in and immediately surrounding the successful crops. At the same time, monument was occupied by farmers who favorable climatic conditions coincident lived in small, scattered hamlets adjacent with the volcanic activity may have to their fields. When Sunset Crater increased the desirability of these lower erupted, the prehistoric inhabitants of the elevation areas for farming. Today, most area, whom archeologists call Sinagua, archeologists believe that the eruption of apparently moved out of harm’s way. No Sunset Crater, with its consequent evidence has been found indicating that displacement of local settlers from what the people were surprised by the was once a heavily occupied farming area, eruptions, and no human remains have in conjunction with the creation of new been found indicating deaths occurred as farmland to the north, was a primary a direct result of the volcanic activity. reason for the noticeable geographical However, numerous pithouse dwellings shift of 12th-century settlements and were burned and filled with cinders from subsequent development of the the eruption. Many of these “pre- multiethnic complex culture in what is eruptive” sites have been found on Forest today Wupatki National Monument. Service lands surrounding the monument.

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Park intensity, including most of the NPS administrative area, the USFS campground, Although not specifically set aside to and some of the forested terrain adjoining preserve archeological remains, Sunset Bonito Park. These nearby inventories Crater Volcano protects an important provide a general basis for predicting the piece of prehistory relating to the impact types and numbers of sites likely to be th of the 11 -century Sunset Crater Volcano found within monument boundaries. eruption on the prehistoric occupants of the southern Colorado Plateau. The Three prehistoric archeological sites are development of the prehistoric Sinagua located within the maintenance yard culture in the Flagstaff area was behind the visitor center and two others profoundly affected by the geologic forces are in close proximity to the visitor center. that formed Sunset Crater. The importance A prehistoric pottery cache was found by of Sunset Crater Volcano as a geologic visitors within the Bonito Lava Flow, and feature cannot be separated from its at least one Hopi shrine is known to exist significance as a key influence in the in the Lava Flow area. Undoubtedly, there evolution of human cultures in the are additional post-eruptive archeological Flagstaff region. The relationship between sites within the monument boundaries the archeological and geological resources that await future discovery. of Sunset Crater National Monument is Approximately 68 archeological sites have reciprocal: previous studies of been recorded within one mile of the archeological sites in the vicinity of Sunset current monument boundaries. The Crater have been instrumental in majority of these sites (41) are buried improving our understanding of the Sinagua pit structures dating between A.D. geologic processes and timing of events 650-1065. In addition, there are at least that shaped Sunset Crater while, at the five prehistoric masonry structures, one same time, current studies of the volcano cave containing a prehistoric pottery and associated lava flows are helping us to cache, and 13 artifact scatters without decipher the sequence of events that associated architecture. There are also shaped human prehistory in the region. several historic sites, including a logging Furthermore, the area retains importance railroad grade, a collapsed homestead to numerous American Indian tribes living cabin, and a shade structure. in the area today. Therefore, although Sunset Crater Volcano National Monument No archeological resources are currently was originally set aside to protect and interpreted to visitors within the interpret a geologic phenomenon, its monument boundaries or adjacent forest cultural significance is at least equally areas; however, there are plans to develop important. at least one previously excavated pithouse site on USFS lands for future interpretive Only a handful of archeological sites have purposes. been documented within the boundaries of Sunset Crater Volcano or on the HISTORIC CHARACTER OF THE adjoining administrative lands. This low BUILT ENVIRONMENT number of documented sites reflects the fact that only about 1 percent of the 3,040 Region acres in the monument has been intensively inventoried for archeological The historic built environment of the resources. Some nearby areas lying outside region has been shaped like that of many monument boundaries on USFS lands have small Western towns, by timber, cattle been inventoried at various levels of grazing, and the mining industry (Cline

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1994). A few grand homes survive in the review by a Mission 66 review board. area, constructed by Flagstaff’s first Proposed changes are reviewed by the entrepreneurs in the late 19th century. The board, and a determination to proceed majority of structures built during with construction can be granted, based Flagstaff’s early days represent the upon criteria (e.g., the significance of the working class. Areas like Milton (mill town) structure, how any character-defining housed mill workers and their families features of the structure would be (Cline 1976). affected, and whether or not the work would be done in accordance with the Science and education also shaped the Secretary of the Interior’s Standards for historic built environment of the region. In the Treatment of Historic Properties). In 1894 Flagstaff was chosen as the site for addition, the eligibility of Mission 66 era Lowell Observatory, and in 1899 Northern structures for listing in the National Arizona Normal School (now Northern Register of Historic Places can be Arizona University) opened as a determined by the review board prior to preparatory school for teachers. completion of the context study. The Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC) Visitors currently experience the Mission added much to the region, constructing 66 visitor center and exhibits remaining roads, trails, fences, phones lines, and a from that period. Two trails developed golf course clubhouse in Flagstaff (Cline during this period are also available: the 1994). Lava Flow Trail and the Lenox Crater Trail. The landscapes of the region are many and Cultural landscapes at Sunset Crater span great lengths of time. Landscapes Volcano have never been identified. A from the prehistoric Sinagua culture cultural landscape inventory (CLI) needs to overlap with other prehistoric groups, be conducted to identify issues such as including the Kayenta Anasazi and historic land uses and the location and Cohonina. Melded in this region are character of significant resources. A CLI is natural features and cultural elements needed to avoid adverse effects and/or loss shared by historic Navajo and Paiute of unidentified cultural landscapes. groups, early cattle and sheep ranchers, and lumbermen. LONG-TERM INTEGRITY OF Park ETHNOGRAPHIC RESOURCES The Sunset Crater Volcano visitor center Region complex (maintenance outbuildings, visitor center, and apartments) was constructed as part of the NPS Mission 66 construction NPS guidelines describe ethnographic program, and few alterations have resources as “objects and places, including occurred at the visitor center complex. A sites, structures, landscapes, and natural metal roof was added to the visitor center resources, with traditional cultural in the early 1990s, and portions of the meaning and value to associated people” enclosed maintenance yard were roofed to (NPS 2002). “The decision to call resources cover heavy equipment, but, on the whole, ‘ethnographic’ depends on whether the complex remains close to its original associated peoples perceive them as design and layout. A general Service-wide traditionally meaningful to their identity moratorium has been placed on major as a group and the survival of their changes to structures built during the NPS lifeways. When natural resources acquire Mission 66 era, but in the Intermountain meaning according to the different Region this has been modified to include cultural constructs of a particular group,

79 AFFECTED ENVIRONMENT they become ethnographic and thus Sunset Crater as sacred and connected to cultural resources as well” (NPS 1997). Wupatki, the Little Colorado River, the San Francisco Peaks, the Grand Canyon and Sunset Crater Volcano National Monument entire surrounding region. Within this in north-central Arizona is part of a region landscape, cinder cones are particularly lying between extensive high-altitude culturally sensitive, as are all cinder cones national forest lands to the southwest and at Sunset Crater, particularly Sunset Crater semi-desert mesas of the Hopi and Navajo itself and the lava rock associated with it. Indian Reservations to the northeast. The In addition to Sunset Crater and other latter forms the largest block of Indian cinder cones, the ice cave is an important tribal lands in the United States, including ethnographic resource, as is O’Leary Peak more than 25,000 square miles. These and eagles that might be associated with it contemporary reservations are only a small and Bonito Park and particular plant portion of the customary lands occupied species within it. aboriginally and historically by the tribes, and to which the tribes retain deeply Similarly to the Hopi Tribe, the Pueblo of rooted traditional associations. The three Zuni considers the area encompassed by Flagstaff Area monuments are an integral Sunset Crater Volcano National Monument part of this larger traditional landscape. as part of a much larger, interconnected Many of the geographic features and sacred landscape. The Pueblo of Zuni also natural and cultural resources identified by shares concerns about the places identified the tribes as culturally significant within by the Hopi Tribe as culturally significant. the three monuments are historically or In addition, the Pueblo of Zuni specifically ceremonially interconnected with other identified the sensitivity of a particular landscape elements, geographic features, stand of aspen trees within the boundaries and archeological sites throughout the of Sunset Crater Volcano National tribes’ entire customary land bases. In Monument, as well as any springs that addition to the Hopi and Navajo Tribes, might occur there. who currently occupy the tribal lands The Navajo Nation also identifies the adjacent to or near the monuments, many Sunset Crater landscape as part of a of the other tribes originally consulted regional ceremonial landscape, and early in the GMP planning process retain considers cinder cones throughout the customary associations with many of the general region to have particular cultural same resources and places throughout the significance. Sunset Crater itself has been region. A good literature-based overview mentioned in Navajo ethnographic of tribal associations with the Flagstaff literature since 1897 as a place related to Area monuments and surrounding region the travels of particular Navajo clans. can be found in Brandt (1997). Navajo Nation researchers for this GMP Park identified Sunset Crater itself, Bonito Park, and eight specific plant species as the In addition to the literature-based ethnographic resources within Sunset overview of tribal associations with the Crater Volcano National Monument about park proposed by Brandt, the Hopi, Zuni, which the Navajo Nation has concerns. and Navajo Tribes each conducted fieldwork and provided synopses of sensitive ethnographic resources at the park specifically for this GMP. The Hopi Tribe describes the entire landscape related to the eruption of

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LONG-TERM INTEGRITY OF sandstone and white limestone. The area NATURAL SYSTEMS AND surrounding the monument is also characterized by an extensive volcanic field PROCESSES (the San Francisco Volcanic Field) with the prevalent remains of the San Francisco The integrity of the natural systems and Volcano, surrounding smaller cinder cones, processes within Sunset Crater Volcano and lava flows. The Painted Desert National Monument depends upon stretches east of the volcanic field to conserving native plant and animal Petrified Forest National Park. Soil types communities and maintaining natural also vary within the region, depending geomorphic and soil formation processes. upon whether they are derived from The monument is a very small natural area weathered limestone, sandstone, shale, or within a regional framework of lands that volcanic bedrock. are primarily managed by the U.S. Forest Service for ecologically sustainable, The climate of the region varies multiple uses. Preserving the integrity of tremendously with elevation above sea the monument’s natural systems requires level. Fifteen miles to the north, the Little close coordination with the Coconino Colorado River flows at 4,300 feet National Forest to ensure that the full elevation along the eastern boundary of complement of plant and wildlife species Wupatki National Monument. Wupatki within the monument are conserved. receives approximately 6 to 7 inches of During the public and agency scoping precipitation per year and experiences process, specific environmental impact temperatures from -4° to 105° F. At Sunset issues were identified, including: Crater Volcano, the visitor center is located preserving unfragmented natural systems; at 7,000 feet elevation and receives about conserving wildlife populations; 20 inches of precipitation annually and maintaining the natural generally has colder winters and milder character/condition of ponderosa pine summers. Above 10,000 feet on the forest and pinyon woodland vegetation; adjacent San Francisco Mountains, annual controlling the spread of invasive, precipitation exceeds 40 inches, nonnative plant species; and, maintaining temperatures are considerably cooler, and the integrity of natural systems for the growing season is remarkably shorter. ecological research. Additional summaries The impressive array of geologic, of affected threatened, endangered, and elevation, and climatic differences within a sensitive species, unique habitats, and relatively small geographic area has geologic resources are presented in contributed to a considerable diversity of separate sections below. plant communities. This diversity is exhibited by the range of vegetation from Region alpine tundra on top of the San Francisco Sunset Crater Volcano National Monument Peaks to Sonoran Desert at the bottom of is located in the southern part of the the Grand Canyon. Within Sunset Crater Colorado Plateau. In this general region Volcano, Wupatki, and Walnut Canyon north of the Mogollon Rim, elevations vary National Monuments surrounding from a low of 2,400 feet above sea level at Flagstaff, one can observe many of the the bottom of the Grand Canyon, to a dominant vegetation types. Pinyon-juniper high of 12,670 feet above sea level at the woodland, ponderosa pine forest, and lava San Francisco Peaks, less than fifty miles flow and cinder barrens are common at away. The plateau was shaped by erosion Sunset Crater Volcano. A short distance to reveal geologic outcrops of red away at Wupatki, one finds juniper

81 AFFECTED ENVIRONMENT woodlands, Colorado Plateau grasslands, differences in forest function and habitat and Colorado Plateau desert scrub value. In extensive areas of fire-adapted communities. Walnut Canyon contains a ponderosa pine stands, tree densities have narrow stand of broadleaf deciduous risen dramatically because fire no longer forest along the bottom of the canyon, thins young trees from the stands. In some mixed-coniferous forest on north-facing areas, tree densities have increased so slopes, and ponderosa pine forest and drastically that there is severe risk of parkland above the canyon rim. Higher catastrophic fire. This type of fire is a elevations harbor aspen groves, and spruce dramatic contrast to the low-level natural and fir forests. fires that existed when pine stands were open and fires burned primarily in the Prehistoric, historic, and current land uses understory. have undoubtedly played a major role in shaping the landscape of the area as well. Ecologists theorize that ranching activity In addition to relying heavily on and grazing pressure caused or agricultural land use, prehistoric peoples contributed to a wide range of historic used native plants and animals and used changes in ecosystems throughout the fire to modify the environment. Regional Southwestern United States, including loss Navajo sheepherding dates to the period of grassland cover and plant species of Spanish settlement of the Southwestern diversity; reduction or extirpation of United States. A number of tribes, grassland-dependent wildlife; extirpation including the Navajo and the Hopi, or extinction of predators; accelerated soils continue to use plants, animals, and other erosion and gullying of intermittent natural resources in the region. drainage systems; decreasing wildfire size and frequency; and loss of cottonwood- Historic and modern influences, including willow riparian vegetation, which has had logging, agriculture, cattle ranching, significant adverse impacts to both hunting, mining, fire suppression, migratory and breeding birds, and community development, and road and development of artificial water sources utility construction have together greatly and alteration or elimination of natural affected and fragmented regional natural surface waters for native plant and animal systems and processes. Although some species. Grazing also favors the dense forest stands still remain at the establishment of nonnative species. highest elevations of the San Francisco Environmental changes may be more Peaks and on steep terrain along the apparent at lower elevations, where there Mogollon Rim, most accessible, old-growth is a documented increase in desert forest has been extensively logged. In vegetation and noxious plants. Ranching order to protect endangered species, and cattle stocking rates are changing as a logging on most public lands is now result of widespread concerns over these restricted. Forests are now being managed impacts. Even though many of the changes for ecologically sustainable multiple uses, to regional natural systems are likely and large areas of impacted forests are permanent, ranching activity is trending proposed for eventual restoration to more toward long-term ecological presettlement conditions. sustainability within the region. Fire has played a major role in shaping the Juniper woodland has been rapidly vegetation in the entire region, as it has in expanding into grasslands during the last most of the Southwestern United States. century, but the underlying causes are the Forest management efforts to suppress subject of scientific debate. Many wildfires during the last century are now ecologists believe that cattle grazing, in known to have caused significant

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combination with range-fire suppression, off-road driving and possible road closure, is favoring juniper encroachment into removal of fence segments, and joint fire grasslands. Cattle remove much of the management. grass and forbs and enhance the ability of A large area of the region belongs to juniper seedlings to germinate and sovereign American Indian tribes. Their establish in what were once continuous cultures are traditionally tied to their grassland areas. Other scientists believe lands, but little information is generated that we are witnessing a natural succession or available to understand the process in which junipers are returning to environmental impacts of tribal land formerly occupied habitat. Human management. occupation of much of the region certainly must have included the use of any Large areas of arid lands within available wood sources for fuel and Southwestern United States have been construction purposes. invaded by nonnative plant species. On the Colorado Plateau, much of the remaining Modern landownership patterns and uses grasslands have been extensively invaded have also resulted in increased habitat by nonnative annual bromegrasses, fragmentation within the region. Fences, drastically altering natural fire regimes, especially double-fenced highway rights- displacing native perennial bunchgrasses, of-way, prevent the regional movement of and reducing or eliminating forage or numerous wildlife species, including cover for grassland-dependent wildlife pronghorn antelope. Roads throughout species. Riparian vegetation has been the area serve as conduits for the spread severely altered by tamarisk invasion, of exotic weedy plants. which has outcompeted most native Much of the land within the region is cottonwood and willow stands and managed by the U.S. Forest Service for particularly affected both migratory and sustained multiple uses, including hunting, breeding birds. firewood collecting, grazing, off-highway vehicle use, backpacking, and hiking. The Park Coconino National Forest currently Sunset Crater Volcano National Monument manages the 13,500-acre Cinder Hills Off- is dominated by a volcanic landscape. The Highway Vehicle (OHV) Recreational Area Sunset Crater cinder cone and the close to the southeastern boundary. The northern half of Lenox Crater cinder cone NPS remains concerned that heavy off- lie at the southeastern and southwestern road vehicle use immediately adjacent to corners of the monument, respectively. the monument may be adversely affecting Most of the surface area north of the two sensitive species populations, such as cones is covered by either the Bonito Lava Penstemon clutei and Phacelia serrata, and Flow or deep volcanic cinder deposits, disturbing most wildlife populations that including an area of tall cinder hills within transcend the monument boundary. The the northeastern quarter of the NPS hopes to alleviate these concerns monument. Sunset Crater is very young in through increased communication, geologic time and one of the few monitoring ecosystem conditions, and undisturbed cinder cone volcanoes within better participation in the U.S. Forest northern Arizona. The volcanic features Service planning process. If successful, within the monument harbor a small but these efforts could mitigate certain unique natural area of relatively adjacent land use impacts on resources undisturbed vegetation and wildlife within the monument, including habitats. The volcano also offers unique enforcement of regulations with regard to insight into fresh lava and cinder

83 AFFECTED ENVIRONMENT weathering processes, soil formation, and in the past, which promoted native pioneering vegetation establishment. herbaceous cover and biodiversity, thinned trees, and prevented deadwood An inventory of natural resources within accumulation and intensely hot fires. Sunset Crater Volcano was completed Limited management-ignited fires may be during the late 1970s (Bateman 1976, proposed, mainly to restore the role of fire 1979). This study remains the best to local forests and meadows. Prior to available documentation of the conducting test burns, the NPS must monument’s flora and fauna. Research has prepare a fire management plan and also examined plant succession in the area accompanying environmental assessment following the volcano’s eruption (Eggler to review potential impacts. 1966). The vegetation is currently being mapped (Thomas 2001). Vegetation is Of the total 3,000 acres within the relatively sparse within the monument, monument, approximately 5% is currently but soil pockets on cinder cone slopes, affected by fences, roads, trails, NPS lava, and deep cinder deposits are operations, and visitor activity. Most NPS dominated by ponderosa pine trees. An operations and visitor support facilities, area of pinyon pine woodland dominates including the visitor center, campground, the northwestern corner. There are also a employee housing, maintenance shops, few small aspen stands on the north slopes and utilities, occupy approximately 130 of the cinder cones and around the acres of Coconino National Forest land ½ perimeter of the lava flow. Given the small mile to the west of the monument area within the monument, it is relatively boundary. The current paved access road rich in plant species, with 166 documented (FR545) may somewhat hinder the species. The sparse vegetation cover movement of pronghorn and other probably provides little forage and cover wildlife through the Coconino National for wildlife. The Bonito Lava Flow, which Forest between Bonito Park and grassland dominates more than 25% of the surface habitat to the north (Bright and Van Riper area within monument, is extremely III 2000). Within the monument, the paved inhospitable to foot travel and probably road crosses fractured volcanic rocks or does not provide habitat for larger deep cinder deposits, and there is little animals. Habitat for larger animals, such as evidence of disruption of surface drainage deer, is probably restricted to the western, patterns because water percolates rapidly southern, and northern margins of the into the soil. There is one closed and monument. Surface water resources are abandoned primitive road along the base almost nonexistent within the monument, of Lenox Crater in the southwestern corner except for local catchments upon lava of the monument. The road is within the flows and seepage areas around the backcountry closure area and will likely perimeter of lava flows. There are remain as a scar on the natural landscape relatively deep aquifers beneath the for decades. monument, one of which is used for Visitor use is currently concentrated drinking water. between the campground and the western Although the area within the monument is margin of the Bonito Lava Flow outside highly fragmented by expanses of barren the monument and around the southern lava and cinder deposits, the pockets of margin of the Bonito Lava Flow, Lenox mature ponderosa pine forest and pinyon Crater Trail, Lava Flow Trail, and Cinder woodland could sustain a small wildfire. Hills Overlook within the monument. Forest vegetation surrounding the Visitor-use impacts are primarily localized monument likely burned more frequently around these areas and include cinder

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surface disturbance, vegetation trampling, anticipated in the near future. Many unplanned trail development, minor species can potentially be controlled with alterations in drainage patterns, noise, and persistent efforts to remove plants and disturbance to wildlife. control root systems with herbicides. Success in controlling an invasive species In 1998 most of the area within the would be predicated on early detection of monument was closed to public access to infestations before they grow out of protect sensitive resources. Until that time, control, or on the availability of backcountry use was readily permitted, ecologically sound and affordable but the effect on natural systems is technology. difficult to assess because the NPS maintained no statistics on visitation The natural systems and processes numbers or commonly visited areas. surrounding the monument boundary Backcountry access continues for have been influenced by historical logging authorized special uses, such as research and timber management practices, and to and educational activities. There is a lesser degree, by former ranching occasional unguided hiking within the activity, game hunting, and predator backcountry closure area, including the control. The monument is a very small area to the north of the Bonito Lava flow natural area within a regional framework and the cinder hills in the northeast corner of lands that are primarily managed by the of the monument. This will likely continue U.S. Forest Service for ecologically because there is insufficient staff to ensure sustainable, multiple uses. Preserving the frequent patrols. integrity of the monument’s natural systems requires close coordination with There currently is little information on the the Coconino National Forest to ensure distribution or impacts of nonnative plants that the full complement of plant and within the monument. Nonnative plant wildlife species within the monument are infestations, predominantly mullen conserved. Primitive roads through the (Verbascum thapsus), are generally surrounding Coconino National Forest confined to road corridors, developed provide vehicle access within ¼ mile for areas, or areas of heavy visitation. These approximately 51/2 of the total 7 miles of species benefit from the additional runoff boundary around the monument. associated with paved surfaces and often Concerns remain that convenient driving out-compete native vegetation along road access promotes incidents of off-road shoulders. Nonnative plants may also vehicle use, poaching, and unauthorized rapidly colonize areas where the ground hiking within the closed area of the surface is heavily disturbed by equipment monument. or heavy foot traffic. One patch of Camelthorn (Alhagi maurorum), a THREATENED, ENDANGERED, tenacious shrub species, and diffuse AND SENSITIVE SPECIES knapweed (Centauea diffusa) are known to occur along FR545. Some nonnative This section complements the preceding species have been planted by employees section on natural systems and processes around their residences, but none of these and is intended to specifically address are believed to be naturalizing and compliance with the Endangered Species escaping into the surrounding Act. In addition to legally protected environment. The monument currently threatened and endangered species, a few lacks sufficient staff or funding to actively “species of concern” occur within the monitor or attempt to control nonnative monument and surrounding region, and species, however, attention to this issue is their status is regularly assessed by

85 AFFECTED ENVIRONMENT regional federal, state, and tribal agencies. Mountains, including the San Francisco During the public and agency scoping Peaks groundsel (Senecio franciscianus), process, pertinent impact issues were listed as threatened. The Sunset Crater identified regarding the conservation of penstemon (Penstemon clutei) and cinder federally listed threatened and lady’s tresses (Phacelia welshii) are locally endangered species, candidate species, endemic to the volcanic cinder deposits and designated critical habitats that might surrounding the San Francisco Volcanic be affected by a proposed action. The Field. Riparian areas also harbor numerous potential impacts to other sensitive plant plant species of concern, such as Navajo and animal species and unique habitats sedge (Carex specuicola), Alkali grass are also considered. (Puccinella parishii ), which occurs at lower elevations in wetter sites north of the Region Little Colorado River, Mogollon columbine The diversity of landscapes and habitats in (Aquilegia desertorum), which occupies the region naturally provides for seeps and springs, and alcove bog orchid impressive species diversity. Habitats range (Platanthera zothecina). A number of from alpine tundra on the San Francisco species, such as the Flagstaff pennyroyal Peaks to Sonoran Desert at the bottom of (Hedeoma diffusum), inhabit ponderosa the Grand Canyon. Old-growth coniferous pine parklands, and likely depend upon forests and other vegetation communities fire to maintain an open forest canopy so in the region, combined with that sunlight penetrates to the ground. physiographic features such as canyons Many species within the cactus family and mountains, provide habitat for a occupy very limited habitats and are number of threatened, endangered, and sensitive to disturbance, including livestock sensitive species. Within Coconino County, grazing. Because of their popularity with Arizona, there are 5 plant, 9 animal horticulturists, all cactus species within (including fish), and 1 invertebrate species Arizona are protected under state law. that are formally listed as threatened or The threatened Mexican spotted owl (Strix endangered. There are another 54 plant, occidentalis lucida) is found within the 51 animal (including fish), and 5 region in dense, mixed-conifer forests, invertebrate species that may be particularly in canyons. The U.S. Fish and exceedingly rare and are being monitored Wildlife Service is in the process of by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, designating critical habitat for the species. Arizona Game and Fish Dept., U.S. Forest The owl occurs along the Grand Canyon, in Service, and Navajo Natural Heritage Walnut Canyon, and near Sunset Crater Program (Arizona Heritage Data Volcano. The Southwestern willow Management System 2001). flycatcher, an endangered bird species, Among all biological groups within the depends on very specific riparian habitat region, fish are threatened to the greatest conditions along perennial streams within extent. Several other plant, animal, and the region. Relatively large numbers of invertebrate species also require perennial bald eagles (Haliaeetus leucocephalus) streams, wetlands, or riparian habitats, winter in the region, especially near Lake reflecting the widespread alteration of Mary, Mormon Lake, and Marshal Lake. entire region’s freshwater ecosystems. Although recently removed from the endangered species list by the U.S. Fish Of the region’s rare plant species, several and Wildlife Service, the peregrine falcon are endemic to the Mogollon Highlands (Falco peregrinus anatum) inhabits steep region, including Bebb’s willow (Salix cliff sites in the region. Even though the bebbiana), and the San Francisco species is no longer considered threatened,

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population levels will continue to be extirpated in the Southwestern United monitored for a period of five years. Other States. The continuing decline is primarily raptors that are considered species of attributed to habitat fragmentation concern include the northern goshawk and caused by conventional range fences, ferruginous hawk (Buteo regalis). which antelope do not jump over and therefore must find weak sections of fence Although the golden eagle (Aquila to cross under. Pronghorn herds are chrysaetos) is not formally listed or effectively confined and prevented from considered a species of concern, wildlife moving to water and forage during managers and the general public are drought years or to lower elevations concerned about it, because of its low during severe winters. Other causes of population density, ecological importance decline include road mortality and as predators and indicators of continuing loss of grassland habitat. environmental quality, and traditional Wildlife managers are concerned about importance to American Indians. As with the pronghorn decline in the population in other wide-ranging raptor species, golden northern Arizona over the past few eagles have declined as a result of habitat decades, including the herd west of loss, historic predator control programs, Wupatki and north of the San Francisco and power line electrocution. Eagles are Mountains (Bright and Van Riper III 2000). legally protected from being killed or Local coyote populations have been taken under the Eagle Protection Act. The controlled to protect pronghorn fawns U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service administers from predation (Terry Miller, AZGF, pers. this act and annually issues permits to comm.). American Indian tribes to take specified numbers of golden eagles and feathers for Park ceremonial use. Golden eagles are solitary animals, and little is known about their The Arizona Heritage Database (Arizona distribution, number, and status around Game and Fish Department 2001) was Wupatki. Although the U.S. Fish and consulted via the Internet to generate a Wildlife Service recently proposed a study list of threatened and endangered species to assess the status of the species and other species of concern for Coconino throughout the Western United States, County, Arizona. This list was compared there is no regional management with the inventory of natural resources framework for ensuring the species within Sunset Crater Volcano completed remains viable. by Bateman (1976, 1979), which remains the best available documentation of the Bat species are considered to have monument’s flora and fauna. In addition, specialized habitat requirements and a survey for special status plants at the sensitivity to environmental impacts. Flagstaff Area National Monuments, Twelve species are currently monitored as including Sunset, was just completed species of concern. (Huisinga et al. 2000). Currently, no Although not formally listed or considered federally listed threatened or endangered a species of concern, pronghorn antelope plant or animal species are known to occur (Antilocapra americana) are the focus of in Sunset Crater Volcano National considerable wildlife management effort Monument. because they are attractive large One endangered species, the Mexican herbivores and an important game species, spotted owl, is known to occur on nearby and the public is concerned about their U.S. Forest Service lands. The species lives continued survival. The species was and nests in dense, old-growth forest on historically overhunted and nearly steep mountain slopes or in deep canyons.

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Suitable habitat conditions are not likely Sunset Crater Volcano, but suitable nesting found within the monument, but the habitat is found on nearby U.S. Forest Mexican spotted owl may rarely cross into Service lands, and golden eagles may the monument in search of prey. The U.S. forage within the monument. They are Fish and Wildlife Service recently proposed known to be sensitive to human presence. to designate critical habitat for the species, If disturbed by noise or rapid movements, but did not include any forest lands in adult birds may fail to use a nest site or proximity to the monument. temporarily abandon their eggs or chicks, which exposes them to undue cold At Sunset Crater, there are two plant temperatures and/or predators. Some species of concern-Penstemon clutei and biologists recommend establishing a ¼- to Phacelia serrata. Both are short-lived 2-mile-diameter buffer zone around nests. wildflowers that are only found on cinder deposits within the San Francisco Volcanic Although not formally listed as a species of Field. Populations of both species have concern, the pronghorn antelope been documented from numerous (Antilocapra americana) herd within the locations within the monument, including region was identified as a management the area of heavy visitor use along the issue during the public and agency scoping Lava Flow Trail. Recent studies have shown process. The species is being affected by that Penstemon clutei is adapted to fire large-scale habitat fragmentation and loss, and other types of disturbance within and the regional pronghorn population ponderosa pine forest (2000 Southwest has declined during the last few decades Rare Plant Conference Proceedings, in (Bright and Van Riper III 2000). Although press). However, the NPS is uncertain pronghorn are not known to occur within about potential impacts resulting from the existing boundary of the monument, current visitation and only recently they are known to use nearby Bonito Park proposed routine monitoring of these as a fawning ground. The proposed species. management alternatives include various boundary, access road, and visitor use An additional bird species of concern, the changes that could have a range of effects northern goshawk, is known to occur on upon Bonito Park and local movement nearby U.S. Forrest Service lands. The corridors for this sensitive animal species. species is widespread but solitary across much of the United States and southern In addition to sensitive species, three Canada (Association for Biodiversity unique habitats within the monument Information 2000). It nests and breeds in a were identified during the scoping wide variety of habitats, including process—pioneering vegetation stands agricultural areas and formerly logged isolated in the middle of the lava flows, forests. In Arizona, goshawks prefer forest pioneering vegetation islands on deep interior stands of large ponderosa pine cinder deposits, and the downslope trees. Suitable habitat conditions are not perimeter of lava flows where water likely found within the monument, but the seepage may be more prevalent. Localized northern goshawk may rarely cross into stands of isolated vegetation are found on the monument in search of prey. the relatively young and harsh surface terrain of the Bonito Lava Flow. These Although they are not formally listed as a areas are relatively undisturbed and may species of concern, the status of golden have scientific value for studies of the eagles (Aquila chrysaetos) within the unique ecological process of pioneering region was identified during the public plant establishment and vegetation and agency scoping process. There are no succession. Other localized vegetation records of golden eagle nests within

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“islands” of ponderosa pine, pinyon pine, geologic province, which covers over and aspen effectively float on the 130,000 square miles and includes the relatively young, deep cinder deposits. Soil “Four Corners” area of Arizona, Colorado, formation is precarious on the cinder Utah, and New Mexico. The Colorado deposits because weathered soil particles Plateau represents a huge block of the must accumulate between the cinders in earth’s crust that has remained relatively order for plants to germinate and survive. intact through hundreds of millions of In the early stages, this process is easily years. The bedrock of the plateau is disrupted by disturbance that dislodges predominantly formed of thick the particles and causes them to sift into sedimentary rock sequences of limestone, the cinders too deep to support plant sandstone, and shale. The deposits germination and establishment. Around originally accumulated under a series of the “toe” of the lava flows, areas of water seaways that inundated Western North seepage may provide a unique America during the Paleozoic and early microhabitat for plants. Water likely Mesozoic ages. During the last 65 million collects upon the hardened lava surface years, the sedimentary formations were and is channeled through fracture systems raised more than a mile above sea level to the perimeter of the flow where it may along with the uplift of the Rocky locally benefit plant life before quickly Mountains and the Sierra Madre of percolating deep into the adjacent cinder Mexico. As the uplift occurred, numerous barrens. These isolated vegetation island volcanic centers erupted through the habitats likely support Penstemon clutei sedimentary formations and built the and Phacelia serrata. All three unique higher mountain ranges of the region. The habitats likely harbor numerous plants, forces of erosion have since weathered the provide scarce wildlife habitat that would land surface into a broken landscape of not otherwise be found, and greatly eroded volcanoes, expansive mesas, sharp contribute to overall biodiversity within ridges, and narrow canyons between 4,000 the monument. and 13,000 feet above sea level. The edges of various individual plateaus are defined LONG-TERM INTEGRITY OF by differential erosion rates of over- and GEOLOGIC RESOURCES underlying rock formations, displacement along major faults, or structural Sunset Crater Volcano National Monument deformation and folding associated with was established to protect significant monoclines, anticlines, and synclines. The geologic resources. Impact topics were regional drainage pattern and stream identified through the scoping process, systems are also significantly controlled by and concerns covered by this section the same underlying geological principals. include: (1) preserving unique geologic The major geologic subprovinces that features such as cinder volcanoes, lava surround Sunset Crater Volcano National flows, lava tubes, ice cave, cinder barrens, Monument are the Mogollon-Coconino and spatter cones; (2) managing visitor use Plateau highlands to the south and west, impacts to these features, especially the and the Little Colorado River Basin-Painted sensitive cinder barrens and ice cave; and, Desert lowlands to the east and north. The (3) preserving the integrity of geological Coconino Plateau is a lava-capped resources to further scientific research. highland bounded on the south by the Region Mogollon Rim, the major geologic structural break between the Colorado Sunset Crater Volcano is located near the Plateau of northern Arizona and the lower southern margin of the Colorado Plateau elevation, “Basin-and-Range” province of

89 AFFECTED ENVIRONMENT southern Arizona. The Coconino Plateau is Sunset Crater was first named Sunset deeply incised by several canyons, Mountain by John Wesley Powell in the including Walnut, Oak Creek, and 1880s. It is the youngest dated volcano in Sycamore Canyons. Sequences of Arizona-it erupted from A.D. 1064 or 1065 sedimentary rock are exposed in cross until at least 1180, and was the last of section on the inner canyon walls, typically more than 550 known basaltic vents in the beneath lava caps. The San Francisco San Francisco Volcanic Field. Around the Mountains and associated San Francisco monument boundary, portions of older Volcanic Field punctuate the Coconino volcanoes, lava flows, and ash deposits are Plateau. The San Francisco Mountains, at weathered and eroded, and are partially 12,700 feet, are the eroded remnants of a or completely buried beneath the more massive composite volcano. Large intrusive recent volcanic events. Sunset Crater is igneous rock domes and pyroclastic flows viewed as unique by geologists, primarily formed the mountains less than 5 million because it is such a fresh and unweathered years ago. They have been sculpted by example of volcanic activity both within glaciers during the last 80,000 years. the San Francisco Volcanic Field and within the continental United States. The Little Colorado River has eroded the Painted Desert basin over a large area to Sunset Crater Volcano is a classic example the northeast of Sunset Crater Volcano. of a cinder cone volcano. During the The river basin is dominated by sandstone eruption cycle, volcanic magma was and shale formations, which are relatively ejected from a vent and thrown into the softer and more easily eroded than the air while still in a hot, liquid state. The adjacent volcanic highlands. Local ejected magma cooled, crystallized, and sandstone spires, buttes, mesas, and fell as ash, cinder, and popcorn-sized “badlands” are the predominant particles (called “scoria”). Larger material landforms resulting from differential (called “bombs”) as much as 3 feet in erosion between sandstone and shale diameter was also ejected. Larger, heavier beds. material accumulated around the vent to build a cone-shaped volcano with a crater Park depression centered over the vent. The Sunset Crater Volcano is located in two cone is approximately 1,000 feet high and physiographic subprovinces: (1) the more than a mile wide at the base. The Coconino Plateau and: (2) the Little crater is about 400 feet deep and 2,250 Colorado River Basin, both of which lie feet from rim to rim. Gaseous fumeroles at along the southern margin the Colorado the crest of the cinder cone left distinct Plateau. The Coconino Plateau is a white, yellow, and pink mineral deposits. highland bordered by several deep A blanket of ash and cinders ejected canyons and rimrock, and is characterized during the eruption covered more than by expanses of lava flows and cinder 800 square miles around the cinder cone. cones. Extensive volcanic flows, domes, ash While Sunset Crater Volcano was erupting, deposits, and cinder cones form the San two basalt lava flows originated at the Francisco Peaks and associated volcanic base of the cinder cone. The Kana-A Flow field. (outside the monument boundary on the Sunset Crater Volcano lies on the eastern Coconino National Forest), an a’a type lava perimeter of the San Francisco Volcanic flow, extruded near the eastern base of Field (Holm and Moore 1987). The local Sunset Crater. The Kana-A flowed more terrain is rugged and dominated by than six miles to the northeast, filling a basaltic cinder cones and lava flows. narrow valley. The Bonito Lava Flow, a

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composite pahoehoe and a’a lava flow, human trampling, which hinders the extruded from the northwest base of development of soils and survival of Sunset Crater. The Bonito locally pooled vegetation (Eggler 1966). Inside the park, over a 2-square-mile area between the some areas receiving heavy visitor use west side of the cinder cone and five older suffer from severe erosion on steep cinder volcanic domes and cones. The Bonito is cone slopes, and the breakage, collapse, believed to have accumulated, during at and loss of lava and spatter cone surfaces. least three separate flows, to as much as This is particularly evident on the 100 feet thick. While the Bonito lava was abandoned Crater Overlook Trail and flowing away from the base of Sunset along the Lava Flow Trail. Certain reaches Crater, portions of the cinder cone were of the Lava Flow Trail have recently been carried on top of the flow as far as a mile rerouted to protect unique features, and to the northwest (Holm 1987). The cinder the NPS is currently considering the cone quickly rebuilt itself through strategic placement of handrail barriers continued eruption as the lava flowed, and improved information on unique or which is evidenced by the cinder blanket sensitive geologic features. The NPS is in on top of both the Kana-A and Bonito need of a detailed geologic map and flows. In all, an estimated billion tons of inventory of specific volcanic features material were erupted from the cinder within the monument in order to cone and extruded in the two lava flows. determine their relative uniqueness and assess current damage levels. Studies of The basaltic magma that erupted from the deep cinder deposits are also needed Sunset Crater Volcano flowed to the to determine if existing levels of off-trail surface through a deep fracture in the trampling and trespass off-road vehicle use earth’s crust. The surface geologic are seriously retarding natural soil expression of this fracture was a six-mile- formation and vegetation establishment long volcanic fissure, trending northwest processes. With this information, the NPS to southeast. Sunset Crater erupted at the may take appropriate management action northwest end. During the peak of to deter further damage to unique volcanic activity, at least nine other cinder volcanic features. cones, numerous smaller spatter cones and fumeroles, and three lava flows were Most of the geologic features associated simultaneously active along the fracture, with the entire Sunset “Ring-of-Fire” forming a “ring-of-fire” style eruption eruption are on neighboring Coconino much like those observed today in Hawaii. National Forest lands and are being Most of the fracture, cinder cone, and lava eroded within the Cinder Hills OHV Area. flow system associated with Sunset Crater lies outside of the monument on the ABILITY TO EXPERIENCE PARK Coconino National Forest, and currently RESOURCES comprises about 25% of the Cinder Hills Off-Highway Vehicle (OHV) Recreation The scoping process identified the visitors’ Area. ability to experience park resources related to park significance as an issue. Concerns Geologic resources in the monument are include access to park resources by the adversely affected by disturbance to the general public, access to information unique cinder cone, lava flow, spatter provided by museum collections and cone, and other volcanic features caused ability to see the “real thing” (actual by human activities inside and outside artifacts, dwellings, etc., as opposed to park boundaries. In addition, the deep replicas or simulations); minimally altered cinder deposits are easily disturbed by environment; access to a full spectrum of

91 AFFECTED ENVIRONMENT park resources for visitors with disabilities; while inappropriate on NPS lands, are both ability of the public to understand park appropriate and encouraged elsewhere. resources; ability to experience scenic, Within a 175 mile radius of Flagstaff are 13 recreational, and educational pursuits; areas providing for OHV use. These visitor understanding of regional context; include over 48,000 acres and 5,000 miles uncrowded visitor experiences; visibility of of OHV accessible area. night skies and natural soundscapes; and ability to hear natural sounds. Concerns also include personal freedom (inside and As population and development increase outside park boundaries); traditional both locally and regionally, demand for employee/visitor experiences recreational opportunities on public lands (interpretation through personal services, will increase accordingly. NPS access to favorite sites); and traditional information/education efforts are recreational activities (biking, climbing, designed as part of a cooperative etc.). interagency effort to direct visitors to the best locations for their desired activities, Region whether on NPS, USFS, or other lands. The Flagstaff Area monuments are The public’s ability to experience park relatively small enclaves of National Park resources is thus closely related to Service management located within a availability of resources on nearby non- geographic area dominated by the much NPS lands. Interpretation of park resources larger Coconino National Forest. Although as part of a regional system is crucial, but natural and cultural resources within the not currently being accomplished. In all monuments are recognized and protected three Flagstaff Area monuments, wayside for their special significance, they cannot and museum exhibits are outdated and be separated from their regional context. inaccurate and fail to emphasize the The geologic, natural, historic, and desired big picture. A major interpretive prehistoric stories of these places continue planning effort to replace wayside across monument and forest boundaries interpretive signs along trails and and throughout much of northern roadsides and to redo museum exhibits in Arizona; they can be fully appreciated and the visitor centers is under way, concurrent understood only as part of this larger with this GMP. The new exhibits will picture. present a cohesive story, linking the Similarly, outdoor recreational natural and cultural resources of these opportunities abound in northern Arizona, three monuments with NPS, USFS, and on lands managed by a variety of agencies. other sites throughout the region. They The Flagstaff Area monuments are will be designed for full accessibility, to managed in accordance with the NPS serve visitors with disabilities and/or mandate “to conserve the scenery and the different learning styles. And they will natural and historic objects and the enhance visitors’ ability to see the “real wildlife therein and to provide for the thing,” using the actual structure, feature, enjoyment of the same in such manner or artifact whenever possible, or models, and by such means as will leave them electronic images, virtual tours, or other unimpaired for the enjoyment of future means when necessary. Programmatic generations.” Concerns about traditional accessibility for visitors with vision, and proposed visitor experiences and hearing, and mental impairments is being recreational activities in the parks are addressed in the Comprehensive evaluated in this context; it is recognized Interpretive Plan. that certain activities, such as OHV use,

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The opportunity to present this type of be achieved only from the gravel road up interpretive message in a comprehensive O’Leary Peak, on USFS lands. manner is great, since travel patterns of The NPS visitor center is located by visitors to the Flagstaff Area monuments cooperative agreement on USFS land. are fairly well defined. Visitor surveys Several hands-on interactive exhibits (1998) indicate that the majority of Sunset demonstrate basic geological processes, Crater Volcano/Wupatki visitors travel and samples of volcanic rock are on from south to north along FR545, the 36- display. A fully functioning seismograph mile scenic road connecting the two parks. records worldwide seismic activity and Most (68-70%) are engaged in a longer provides tangible evidence of the dynamic trip and are en route to Grand Canyon forces that helped create Sunset Crater National Park and/or points north. Of Volcano. A seven-minute video explains Wupatki visitors, 92% also go to Sunset the basics of the eruption and depicts Crater Volcano and 35% to Walnut people living in the area at the time. Canyon; for 68% this is part of a longer Interpretive programs, both talks and trip. guided walks, are offered as staffing Park permits. As described in the Purpose and Need The self-guided Lava Flow Trail provides section, Sunset Crater’s purpose is to the primary opportunity to experience the “preserve and protect Sunset Crater volcanic environment. This one-mile loop Volcano National Monument’s geological interprets a variety of geologic features formations, features, and resources for (a’a and pahoehoe lava flows, spatter scientific interests and research, and for cones, squeeze-ups, lava bubbles, the public interest including scenic, mouth of a lava cave, a lava tube, an earth educational, and recreational pursuits.” crack, xenoliths, etc.) and relates the significance of the volcano to the rest of For many visitors, Sunset Crater Volcano is the San Francisco Volcanic Field. The slow largely a drive-through experience, often progression of plant succession is also in conjunction with a visit to Wupatki evident on the volcano and lava flow. One National Monument. A typical visit segment of the Lava Flow Trail is paved includes stops at the visitor center, one or and meets accessibility standards. An ice two roadside pullouts, and the Lava Flow cave located along the Lava Flow Trail was Trail. Much of this experience is available open for visitor exploration until the mid- to visitors with mobility impairments. 1980s, when it was closed because of Spectacular views of the volcano, lava resource protection and safety concerns. flow, nearby mountains, and the San Francisco Peaks are available to all visitors, Nearby, a steep half-mile hike up Lenox and make up a highly significant element Crater, an older cinder cone, provides of the visitor experience. interpretation of the volcanic terrain visible below. Other noteworthy Sunset Crater Volcano, the primary geological features (lava bombs, several geological feature, is a prominent hills that rafted away from Sunset Crater landmark for miles around. The trail to the on the lava flows, caves, and a ¼-mile-long top was closed in 1973, owing to highly crack filled with squeeze-ups) are located visible impacts from heavy use. However, in difficult terrain; because of sharp many visitors still expect to see the jumbled lava rock and steep cinder hills, “crater,” and continuing demand for a most visitors do not venture far. view of this aspect of the primary resource is unmet within the park. Such a view can

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The Sunset Crater experience is parking lot, rest room, and ranger kiosk at complicated by the fact that not all the Lava Flow Trail trailhead intrude upon resources related to park significance occur the volcanic landscape at the base of the within the boundary. Other features of volcano. Scars from the long-closed trail up significance to the geology of Sunset Sunset Crater remain as a reminder of the Crater Volcano lie partially or completely delicacy of this environment. Evidence of outside park boundaries: 1) Lenox Crater is logging, fire suppression, and farming are a cinder cone much older than Sunset also evident within the park viewshed, as Crater. 2) The Kana-A lava flow, the first of are mines at the base of the San Francisco the two major lava flows that emanated Peaks. from the base of Sunset Crater, is visible According to recent visitor surveys, visitors along FR545. 3) The Cinder Hills, near the are generally satisfied with their monument’s eastern and southern experience in the park. Most are boundaries, provide geological evidence incorporating their trip to Sunset Crater for the curtain of fire activity that Volcano into a larger travel plan, and the culminated in the Sunset Crater Volcano. vast majority are on their way to or from They are visible from an overlook along Wupatki and Grand Canyon National Park. FR545. Many visitors want to explore lava flow The Cinder Hills are also heavily used by features and to satisfy their curiosity. off-highway vehicle (OHV) enthusiasts in Visitors also expressed a desire to view the USFS-managed Cinder Hills OHV Area. scenery and to share the park with others The Forest Service estimates usage by (many visitors are locals who are giving a approximately 30,000 individuals annually. tour to family and/or friends). Frequent Affects on geological features and comments by return visitors attest to fond vegetation are visually evident. The OHV memories of climbing the volcano. community is passionate about keeping this opportunity available and has PARK NEIGHBORS; LOCAL, expressed willingness to work toward STATE, AND TRIBAL LAND protection of fragile environments, in MANAGEMENT PLANS; AND order to keep this special use area open. LAND/RESOURCE MANAGING Other recreational opportunities, including AGENCIES hiking, horseback riding, off-road vehicle use, and camping, are available on nearby Impact topics were identified through the USFS lands. Bonito Campground (USFS scoping process, and concerns covered by operated) allows for an overnight stay this section include effects on neighbors’ near the park, and provides the chance to access and emergency response, economic view night skies and encounter crepuscular contribution of the park to local and nocturnal wildlife. Cyclists use FR545 economies, access to culturally sensitive as a training route and for recreational areas by traditional users, traditional land biking; occasional use of FR545 by uses external to park boundaries, and organized auto or motorcycle groups is possible conflicts between the proposed permitted. action and local, state, or Indian tribal land The general lack of structures and roads use plans, policies, or controls. lends an impression of a fairly pristine environment. However, there are visual Region intrusions on the landscape. The road itself Sunset Crater Volcano NM is north of the slices through the middle of the lava flow City of Flagstaff, Arizona. Phoenix, a and onto the flank of the volcano. A rapidly growing metropolitan complex of

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more than two million people, is 150 miles pumice, gypsum, miscellaneous clays, south of Flagstaff. Flagstaff, a major sulfur, and uranium, are reported in the community of northern Arizona, has a area surrounding the park, and meteorites population of approximately 55,000 and and meteorite diamonds have been offers numerous services for the extensive reported in the vicinity. It is unknown to ranching, lumber, and tourist activities of what extent, if any, these minerals exist at northern Arizona. The area between commercially valuable levels in the Flagstaff and Sunset Crater Volcano and monument. A cinder quarry operation is Walnut Canyon is being subjected to located outside Sunset Crater Volcano, increasing residential and business northwest of the visitor center. The haul development. The remainder of the region road for this operation crosses the main surrounding the monuments is sparsely park road (FR545) near US89. populated, although a private Woodcutting, shooting/hunting, and off- development (called “Alpine Ranchos”) is road vehicle activities are evident increasing in population northeast of throughout Forest Service areas adjacent Sunset Crater Volcano, leading to to the monument. Occasionally, these substantial increases in nonpark travel on activities spill over onto monument park roads. property and present illegal and Land use in the region varies from the incompatible use. expanding urban influences of Flagstaff The location of the monument within this near Sunset Crater Volcano and Walnut regional complex of public lands is one of Canyon to low-intensity grazing at the most important aspects determining its Wupatki. The Coconino National Forest, visitation pattern, as well as its resource which borders Wupatki on the south and management problems and programs. west, is under multiple-use management. The primary uses near the monuments are Land management plans exist for some of recreation and grazing. the areas surrounding the monument. This general management plan will be Information from the U.S. Geological compatible with the City Open Survey indicates that some lands in the Space/Greenway Plan, the County Regional vicinity of the monuments are Plan, the Forest Service Flagstaff Lake prospectively valuable for oil and gas, Mary Ecosystem Analysis (FLEA), the Forest geothermal steam, and associated Management Plan, and with the land and geothermal resources. Because of the lack resource management plans of Babbitt of surface indications and drilling data, the Ranches, now called the Coconino Plateau potential for geothermal energy Natural Reserve Lands. The Ranch has development and for discovery of oil and entered into an agreement with the gas in the area is unknown at the present Navajo and Hopi Tribes to manage their time. The Coconino National Forest and lands professionally with respect to the adjacent region are currently being environment and resources conservation. studied by the U.S. Geological Survey and The 1995 “Hopit Potskwaniat,” Hopi Tribe private corporations for potential Consolidated Strategic Plan, presents the geothermal development. Permits have goals of the Hopi Tribe to initiate sound been granted by the U.S. Forest Service to planning for the development of tribal energy-related firms for research on Forest land and resources for the benefit of the Service lands adjacent to the Wupatki Hopi People. The plan specifically boundary. Based on present information, addresses preservation of the Hopi way of there are no additional valuable leasable life and the protection of sacred places minerals. Minerals, including cinder, and subsistence gathering areas.

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There is no public transportation to any of Ranchos have expressed some concerns the three Flagstaff Area monuments. over any plans to terminate roads in the Sightseeing bus tours are operated by park, particularly as to effects on their Nava-Hopi Tours, Grayline Tours, and quality of life, increased commuting time, smaller commercial companies throughout and access to conveniences such as gas, the year. phone, mail, and groceries. In addition, residents of communities in Doney Park US89, a major north-south route through (including Black Bill, Timberline, Doney Arizona and Utah, and I-40 provide access Park, and Pioneer Valley) and adjacent to the parks from Flagstaff, which is served areas have expressed some concerns over by Amtrak rail service, bus service, any plans to route additional traffic via commercial airlines, and private vehicles FR776 or FR414, particularly as to effects via I-40 and I-17. on their quality of life, increased traffic, Park congestion, and noise. Sunset Crater Volcano National Monument Ten affiliated tribes have identified is entirely surrounded by Coconino traditional relationships and/or cultural National Forest. The NPS visitor center and properties within park boundaries and administrative, housing, and maintenance have concerns about public access to sites; facilities are situated on Forest Service some groups need access to restricted use lands through a memorandum of areas for plant gathering and traditional understanding (MOU). Also through the activities. Consultation with these tribes is MOU, NPS has responsibility for routine and ongoing. maintenance of FR545, the all-weather The NPS and USFS enjoy a cooperative road serving Sunset Crater and Wupatki relationship in regard to visitor National Monuments, and for providing information services. The two agencies visitor protection and response to traffic have jointly planned exhibits for the visitor incidents. Although both monuments are center and wayside exhibits along the park closed at night, FR545 is open at all times, road, and share in a joint agency effort except immediately following heavy snows that offers interpretive programs at both or other emergency conditions. NPS and USFS facilities. These include Various park neighbors, including Bonito Campground, located across the residents of Alpine Ranchos (a small road from the NPS visitor center. community primarily northeast of the The park has trained and commissioned monument), the Navajo Reservation, and law enforcement rangers and employees Chambers, as well as ranch employees of certified in emergency medical response the Coconino Plateau Natural Reserve and is usually the initial contact in an Lands, use FR545 for commuting to and emergency. Calls for assistance to Bonito from Flagstaff to the south and other Campground and the Cinder Hills OHV points to the north. This route is also used Area are common. Off-hours response is, by many off-highway vehicle users to however, minimal. Cooperative law reach the USFS Cinder Hills OHV Area. enforcement is performed through Although several miles distant, the existing written agreements with the residents of Alpine Ranchos identify with Coconino National Forest and the the monument and its services, often Coconino County Sheriff’s Office. All stopping at the visitor center to request commissioned park rangers are special assistance from law enforcement rangers, deputies of the County Sheriff’s Office. to report crimes, and so on. Residents of Cooperative agreements in fire, facility reservation communities and Alpine maintenance, and resources management

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also result in NPS personnel taking action and Hopi Reservations and local Flagstaff on USFS lands. residents who are employed in many of the smaller towns on the reservation. The National Park Service money generation model is a formula used to Because of the high speeds allowed on estimate the benefits attributed to the US89, visitors and employees are exposed local economy resulting from the number to dangerous situations when entering of visitors to national park areas. The and exiting the park on FR545. Traffic is estimates of those contributions to the controlled by a single stop sign on the greater Flagstaff economy from Sunset FR545 side of the intersection. Crater Volcano NM include tax revenue of The park entrance road, FR545, is a simple $180,963 and a total spending revenue of loop 2-way asphalt paved roadway. The $2,585,188 (based on the latest overall condition of FR545 is fair to poor, calculations from 1996). with large sections of thermal, The area is of great interest to various longitudinal, transverse, and block agencies involved in research, including cracking. In many locations, the shoulders the U.S. Geological Survey, Northern are too narrow and raveling. The road Arizona University, and others who, currently does not meet NPS standards. although they do not own or administer Accidents, although infrequent, are any lands, will have an interest in sometimes serious. Shoulder drop-offs management decisions affecting the could contribute to the severity of vehicle resources of the areas. accidents. One hazardous section is just beyond the east boundary of Sunset OPERATIONAL EFFICIENCY Crater, extending for approximately seven miles east. The section is moderately steep Operational efficiency refers to adequacy and narrow with S-shaped curves. A of the staffing levels and the quality and number of recorded accidents have effectiveness of the infrastructure used in occurred at this location. Most are the the operation of the park in order to result of excessive speed and failure to adequately protect and preserve vital park negotiate the road’s sharp curves. The resources and provide for an effective distance from medical response other than visitor experience. Also identified through NPS exacerbates this issue, although local the scoping process were concerns about care providers are generally responsive to employee and visitor health and safety NPS needs. and management of collections and other resources. The NPS currently has the primary responsibility for the maintenance of Roads and Trails FR545; however, funding deficits significantly limit the nature and Access to Sunset Crater Volcano National frequency of maintenance activities. Monument is primarily via US89 and Additional responsibilities include plowing FR545. US89, the primary route serving the roadway during the winter months. northern Arizona, the Four Corners area, Significant snowfall occurs at Sunset Grand Canyon National Park, Glen Canyon Crater, and the resultant icy conditions can National Recreation Area, and many of the cause serious road hazards. major national parks in southern Utah and southwestern Colorado, is being modified A number of forest roads provide access into a high-speed, four-lane divided around the park. Most are used by highway. US89 is also a major commuter hunters, woodcutters, off-highway vehicle route for residents living on the Navajo users, other recreationalists, and other

97 AFFECTED ENVIRONMENT users wanting to gain access to the Forest. accommodate residential law enforcement FR545e is the only exception. This road is and maintenance staff, 24-hour response, used predominately by “haul trucks” etc.). Encroachment into closed areas removing cinders and other material from along the east and south boundaries of mines in the area east of O’Leary Peak. the park by OHV enthusiasts occurs several These large trucks mix with visitor traffic. times a year. Although no accidents involving visitors Bonito Park wayside, located ¾ of a mile and haul trucks are known to have west of the visitor center, provides an occurred, the potential exists. excellent view of the San Francisco Peaks, FR776, the primary entrance to the Forest Bonito Park, and Sunset Crater Volcano. Service Cinder Hills Off-Highway Vehicle The parking area for Lenox Crater is one Recreation Area, begins at US89 three mile east of the visitor center, on the north miles south of the park and terminates at side of FR544. The ½-mile Lenox Trail starts FR545 east of the monument. on the south side of the highway and FR414 provides access to the southwest climbs to the top of Lenox Crater. The trail corner of the park, where it is closed at the offers an opportunity to climb up a cinder park boundary. A branch of FR414 cone and view the inside of a crater; the connects with FR545 east of the top of the crater provides a spectacular monument entrance station. FR546 view of the San Francisco Peaks. provides access to forest lands to the north The Lava Flow Trail is 1.5 miles from the and east of O’Leary Peak. FR545a ends at visitor center. The trailhead includes a the top of O’Leary Peak. It begins west of large parking lot with picnic tables and the monument entrance station, skirts the rest room facilities. It is the most heavily west boundary of the park and actually used trail in the park. The one-mile loop crosses a segment of the northwest corner. trail skirts the base of the volcano and Because of staffing limitations, use of loops through the associated lava field, FR545 is not regulated except when the providing spectacular views of the entrance station is in operation during the associated geologic features and the peak visitor season (May-September). Bonito Lava Flow. The trail also offers a Entrance fees for both Sunset Crater number of overlooks that provide views of Volcano and Wupatki are collected at this many of the geologic features in the area location. The fee collection operation is The Cinder Hills Overlook is at the moved into the visitor center during other northeast boundary of the park, at the months, resulting in the loss of visitor- end of a short spur road. It provides an orientation opportunities and significant excellent view of the geological features losses of fee revenues because of drive-bys. specifically associated with the eruption of Fees are not collected from commuters Sunset Crater Volcano. and forest users en route to forest lands beyond the park. Painted Desert Vista, eight miles east of the visitor center, contains a picnic area There is no ability to close the road and provides excellent views of the through the park. Parking lots at points of Painted Desert. interest are not gated, although park policy encourages daylight use only. This Limited visitor interpretation is presented makes protection of park resources through evening programs at Bonito difficult. This situation has resulted in Campground, which is located on USFS increased demands on funding and land and operated by a concessionaire staffing (for road maintenance, housing to contracted by the Forest Service. The NPS

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has cooperative agreements to provide Flagstaff Area parks. Maintenance facilities interpretive information. are attached to the south side of the visitor center and include a small There are no gas, food services, camping, maintenance office, a one-bay garage, and or concession operations in the park, but an open area for the storage of vehicles most of these services can be found in and small equipment. Routine tasks such Flagstaff, approximately 20 minutes away. as vehicle service and repairs, working on The visitor center does contain a bookstore snowplows, and so on, must be conducted operated by the Southwest Parks and outside in adverse weather conditions. The Monuments Association. entire facility is considered inadequate. A Generally, high summer temperatures pose new facility is needed to address the the most significant threat to visitors. In overall needs for equipment parking, addition, summer afternoon supplies and materials storage, and office thunderstorms expose visitors to a high and workspace. rate of lightning strikes and the potential The residential area consists of one single- for flooding. Winter storm conditions, family residence, three mobile homes, and including blowing and drifting snow, icy two apartments. Housing is inadequate to and snow packed roads, freezing park needs and is of substandard quality. temperatures, and extreme wind chill, can Trailer pads are located nearby. Three pose significant problems to visitors. employees are required to live in the park Visitors are exposed to uneven terrain on and provide minimal coverage for after- the Lenox Crater and Lava Flow Trails. hours protection and emergencies. Footing on and around the volcanic The maintenance storage area is south of formations can be treacherous, and falls the visitor center complex and impacts a on volcanic material can result in serious cultural resource on Forest Service land. cuts. Poisonous insects and reptiles are common, although interactions with Bonito Campground, a large developed humans are infrequent. campground managed by the Forest Service, is directly across from the visitor Facilities center on FR545. The visitor center, entrance station, and Utilities associated maintenance and housing areas are all located on USFS lands and are The monument uses a combination of operated under a memorandum of park-owned/operated and municipal understanding with USFS. The visitor utilities. Electrical service is provided by center/maintenance complex, vintage the Arizona Public Service Company. Mission 66 construction, is directly south of Water is provided by the Doney Park FR545, approximately ½ mile west of the Water Company but is stored in an monument. The facility contains a small elevated tank owned and maintained by museum and book-selling area, attached NPS. The wastewater (sewer) system is offices, and rest rooms. The small area NPS-owned and -maintained. Telephone available for employee workspace and service is provided by U.S. West and AT&T, interpretation in the visitor center although the monument owns its own contributes to a feeling of disorder and phone system. The park frequently crowding. experiences utility (electrical and phone service) outages, particularly during the The Sunset Crater maintenance facility summer monsoon season. This situation serves as the central office for the significantly impacts the park’s ability to maintenance functions for the three conduct business on a day-to-day basis, to

99 AFFECTED ENVIRONMENT use the Internet, and to connect with the collection station, it is often difficult to outside world via computer, and it provide staff at desired levels for patrols seriously impacts the staff’s quality of life. and interpretive programs. Cell phone coverage in the park is Maintenance for the three monuments extremely poor. tends to be concentrated in this area as The park is connected to the other well, with Sunset Crater employees Flagstaff Area monuments and the traveling to Walnut Canyon and Wupatki headquarters office via radio. The repeater as needed for projects beyond those parks’ for the radio is located on O’Leary Peak capabilities. One maintenance employee is adjacent to Sunset Crater Volcano and is a required occupant at Sunset Crater subject to lightning damage. Volcano. There is minimal staff to provide the necessary janitorial services. The monument provides removal of solid waste to the county landfill. The majority of museum collections (approximately 50,000 objects, including Staffing historic photographs, site files, archives, A central headquarters, located in natural history specimens, and Flagstaff, provides administrative services archeological, ethnographic, and historical for the three monuments and is the office items) for the Flagstaff Area National location for the superintendent and the Monuments have been relocated to division heads for administration, resource Wupatki, due to limited storage space and management, ranger activities and fee protection at Walnut Canyon and Sunset collection, maintenance, and the Crater Volcano. The storage environment cooperating association (Southwest Parks at Wupatki is also poor, although it does and Monuments Association). The facility provide a more secure location for the also serves as a visitor information center bulk of the collection. for the three Flagstaff Area monuments as All unprocessed collections, the rare book well as for other parks and points of collection, the research library, and interest in northern Arizona. computer support are housed at the Resources management activities are Flagstaff Area National Monuments accomplished by headquarters-based staff. headquarters office The resource management staff and park Employee health and safety issues include law enforcement staff have implemented potential exposure to hantavirus and other a resource monitoring and patrol program. diseases caused by rodent infestations in Resource management staff conducts government quarters and workspaces. limited research; however, the majority of Efforts to mitigate the presence of the the research is done by various agencies rodents are ongoing, but mice and other and institutions and selected and qualified rodents often get into buildings. During interested individuals. the winter months staff members are Interpretive and law enforcement staffing exposed to potentially dangerous driving is concentrated at the visitor center, and conditions if they need to conduct business visitors services are provided primarily at the other Flagstaff area parks or from that location. Because of the need to headquarters during inclement weather. operate both an information desk and fee

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METHODOLOGY have cumulative impacts. In order to determine cumulative impacts, a All alternatives were evaluated for their cumulative scenario was developed. That effects on the resources and values scenario included the following actions: determined during the scoping process, On Forest Service lands, there will besome and impact topics were developed. For reduction in roads. Monitoring of impacts each impact topic, impacts are defined in will continue, and existing activities will terms of context, intensity, duration, and continue unless monitoring shows resource timing. Direct, indirect, and cumulative damage or other problems. “’”Increased effects are discussed in each impact topic. growth of Flagstaff could mean more Definitions of intensity levels varied by visits/demands for use of parks. Flagstaff is impact topic, but, for all impact topics, the marketing the parks as part of their plan following definitions were applied. to attract more visitors. There are also Beneficial: A positive change in the increased tribal requests for use of condition or appearance of the resource or renewable/nonrenewable resources. a change that moves the resource toward The development of Roden Crater (near a desired condition. Alpine Ranchos) may increase traffic. Adverse: A change that moves the Subdivision of lots in Alpine Ranchos may resource away from a desired condition or increase the population of the area. detracts from its appearance or condition. US89 from Flagstaff to Wupatki’s south Direct: An effect that is caused by an boundary (and eventually north to Page) action and occurs in the same time and will be 4-lane. place. Expansion of utility lines is proposed from Indirect: An effect that is caused by an Glen Canyon to the southwestern part of action but is later in time or farther the Navajo Reservation. removed in distance, but is still reasonably There is a possibility that old pumice mines foreseeable. may be reactivated north of the Short-term: An effect that within a short monument. period of time (generally one or two years Changes at Grand Canyon National Park but no more than five years) would no could have implications for all three parks. longer be detectable as the resource The transportation plan restricts visitor use returns to its predisturbance condition or at the east entrance (visitors are no longer appearance; generally less than 5 years. allowed to stop, just drive through). This Long-term: A change in a resource or its could mean that visitors arriving in condition that does not return to Flagstaff after visiting Grand Canyon may predisturbance condition or appearance have more time to spend at and for all practical purposes is considered Wupatki/Sunset Crater. There may also be permanent. increased use by Grand Canyon visitors who want the drive-through experience All alternatives were also evaluated based they can no longer get at Grand Canyon. on external factors, which, together with However, there may be a decrease in the the actions of each NPS alternative, could

101 ENVIRONMENTAL CONSEQUENCES number of visitors, but more demand for integrity of the characteristics that qualify things to do by those who do come. the resource for the National Register. The monument anticipates more requests In order to analyze the effects of the GMP for individual business permits for various alternatives on archeological resources, all services (guides, horseback rides, etc.). available information on known archeological sites in the vicinity of Sunset Our ability to manage wildlife may be Crater Volcano National Monument was influenced by Arizona Game and Fish compiled (Downum and Gumerman 1998). Department objectives. There will be Map locations of archeological sites were increased ecosystem research (long-term compared with locations of proposed monitoring). developments, proposed modifications to Past activities like trail access to Sunset existing facilities, and proposed land uses. Crater and pothunting continue to have Predictions about short- and long-term effects. impacts to archeological sites from The use of off-road highway vehicles will visitation were based on previous studies continue to have effects on USFS land of visitor impacts to archeological sites adjacent to the monument and occasional (Cinnamon n.d.; Coder et al. 1995a, 1995b; incidents of vehicle trespass within Downum et al. 1996; Fawcett 1993; Gale monument boundaries are likely to 1985; Green and LaBlanc 1979; Lightfoot continue’Use of the USFS campground will and Francis 1978; Moore 1994; Nickens continue to affect the park. 1991; Nielsen 1991; U.S. General Accounting Office 1987; Wildesen 1982; LONG-TERM AND SCIENTIFIC Wood and Johnson 1978) and on recent INTEGRITY OF monitoring data from the Flagstaff Area National Monuments (Fairley 1998; ARCHEOLOGICAL RESOURCES Johnson 1999; O’Hara and Johnson 1997). Sociological studies comparing the Methodology deterrent effects of signs vs. ranger The National Historic Preservation Act presence on sites were also considered in requires agencies to take into account the this analysis (Clark 1976; Johnson and effects of their actions on properties listed Vande Kamp 1996; Johnson et al. 1994; or eligible for listing on the National Swearingen and Johnson 1994; Vande Register of Historic Places. The process Kamp et al. 1994;). begins with an identification and Archeological sites are continually evaluation of cultural resources for deteriorating, due primarily to the effects National Register eligibility, followed by of weather and gravity. Left alone, sites an assessment of effect on those eligible will inevitably degrade over time. Impacts resources, and concluding after a from human visitation and use contribute consultation process. If an action to the effects of natural agents of (undertaking) could change in any way the deterioration, and they can substantially characteristics that qualify the resource for increase the rate of site deterioration. In inclusion on the National Register, it is general, it is not possible to control the considered to have an effect. No adverse deterioration caused by natural elements. effect means there could be an effect, but In contrast, it is possible to control the the effect would not be harmful to those effects of human impacts through careful characteristics that qualify the resource for planning of activities and new inclusion on the National Register. Adverse developments, by educating visitors and effect means the effect could diminish the park staff, and by limiting or directing

102 LONG-TERM AND SCIENTIFIC INTEGRITY OF ARCHEOLOGICAL RESOURCES

locations of human activity in and around The impact is severe or of exceptional archeological sites. benefit. For a National Register eligible or listed archeological sites, the impact If we exclude impacts caused by deliberate changes a character defining features (s) vandalism or artifact collection, most of an archeological resource, diminishing impacts resulting from visitor use are the integrity of the resource to the extent relatively minor when considered on an that it is no longer eligible for listing in individual basis. However, for the purposes the National Register. of this plan, it is necessary to consider the cumulative effects caused by hundreds or Effects of the No-Action thousands of visitors at a given location Alternative: Existing over the life of this plan. Thus, for example, while a single guided tour to an Conditions archeological site may have a negligible IMPACT ANALYSIS effect on site integrity, the cumulative impact of hundreds of visitors over 10-15 The No-Action Alternative would involve years at dozens of sites can be substantial. no new construction, no additional trail In the following section, impacts are developments, and no road realignments. analyzed for each alternative based on the FR545 would remain open to two-way numbers of sites that would be affected in traffic 24 hours a day. conjunction with the cumulative effects of The continuing use of the existing visitor various types of activities over the life of center, roads and trails would directly and the plan. indirectly affect a few archeological For the purposes of this analysis, levels of resources located in the immediate vicinity impact to archeological resources were of these existing facilities. Archeological defined as follows: resources adjacent to or easily accessible from public access areas would continue to Negligible: The impact on archeological be vulnerable to surface disturbance, sites is at the lowest levels of detection, inadvertent damage, and vandalism. Loss barely perceptible and not measurable. of surface archeological materials, Minor: The impact on archeological sites is alteration of artifact distribution, and a measurable or perceptible, but it is slight reduction of contextual evidence would and localized within a relatively small area result. Impacts to archeological sites from of a site or group of sites. The impact does inappropriate visitor activities (artifact not affect the character defining features collection, graffiti, etc.) would continue to of a National Register of Historic Places be a moderate long-term adverse effect. eligible or listed archeological site and The impacts are considered to be would not have a permanent effect on the moderate because few archeological sites integrity of any archeological sites. are known to be located in or near the currently designated visitor-use areas. Moderate: The impact is measurable and These adverse impacts would be offset perceptible. The impact changes one or somewhat by the fact that no sites would more character defining feature (s) of an be adversely impacted by new trail archeological resource but does not developments or other new infrastructure diminish the integrity of the resource to improvements. the extent that its National Register eligibility is jeopardized. An upgrade/updating of interpretive media could improve long-term integrity Major: The impact on archeological sites is of archeological resources through substantial, noticeable, and permanent. improving education of visitors about the

103 ENVIRONMENTAL CONSEQUENCES significance and fragility of archeological The current backcountry closure policy resources and providing information on restricting visitor access to currently the various means of reducing visitor designated front country areas and impacts to park resources. The effect of requiring the issuance of permits for improved visitor education would be researchers and educational groups who moderately beneficial. have a special need to enter backcountry areas would remain in effect under the Construction of a new maintenance facility No-Action Alternative. In theory the and a curatorial facility in the closure should have a major beneficial administrative area would have a long- effect on archeological resources by term moderate adverse effect on substantially reducing impacts from archeological resources. The impact is unguided visitation, such as collection of considered moderate because only one artifacts, destabilization of walls, soil archeological site would be indirectly compaction, social trailing, vandalism, and impacted by these developments; so on, thereby reducing the need for however, this site would be severely future impact mitigation. However, impacted over the long-term due to the current operational requirements and proximity and inevitable enlargement of staffing limits do not provide sufficient activity areas surrounding the new facility. support staff to actively patrol and enforce These impacts would be partially mitigated the closure, and the inability to close the through conducting a program of park at night further hinders enforcement archeological data recovery. of the closure. Hence, some impacts to Bonito Campground would remain in its backcountry resources are likely to present location and be expanded under continue under the No-Action Alternative. the No-Action Alternative. Visitors using Resources in these areas would continue to the campground and picnic areas would be vulnerable to both inadvertent continue to compact soils in the vicinity disturbance and deliberate and illicit and would remove surface artifacts from disturbance in the form of digging and nearby sites. A loss of the surface collecting of archeological materials. archeological materials, alteration of The boundaries of the monument would artifact distribution, and a reduction of remain unchanged under the No-Action contextual evidence would result. Some of Alternative. Many archeological resources these impacts could be mitigated through that are indirectly related to the purpose rehabilitating social trails, and/or and significance of Sunset Crater Volcano systematically collecting surface artifacts would remain outside monument for long-term curation; however, over the boundaries, where they may be subject to long-term, these management actions impacts from multiple uses (mining, would have a moderate adverse effect on grazing, fuel wood harvesting, OHV archeological site integrity. impacts, etc.) that cause soil disturbance Closure and gating of the O’Leary Peak and/or compaction. Road may have a minor adverse effect on The exclusion of these resources from the archeological sites located in proximity to park could have a moderate adverse effect the road, as visitors moving at a more on their long-term and scientific integrity, leisurely pace while hiking on the road due to continued soil disturbance resulting would have a greater opportunity to from multiple uses over the long term. The observe and collect artifacts associated effect is considered minor, however, with these sites. because archeological site densities in the designated OHV area are relatively low

104 LONG-TERM AND SCIENTIFIC INTEGRITY OF ARCHEOLOGICAL RESOURCES

compared with some other nearby areas, archeological sites are degraded and and not all sites located in the OHV area destroyed outside the monument, the are subject to impacts from OHV activities. relative rarity and importance of the archeological resources within the CUMULATIVE EFFECTS monument would increase. Past management strategies have allowed Some Forest Service policies could have an unlimited visitor access to virtually all areas adverse impact on the long-term integrity of the monument. Recently, the of archeological resources within and backcountry areas of Sunset Crater south of the monument. Continuation of Volcano National Monument were the OHV area would continue to adversely formally closed to unguided entry because affect any archeological remains located in of concerns over impacts to geological that area because of compaction and features, sensitive habitats, and traditional erosion of soils, removal of stabilizing cultural sites. vegetation, and camping-related impacts. The continuing growth of Flagstaff and The Forest Service has indicated that it ongoing efforts by the Flagstaff Chamber might institute a recreational impact- of Commerce to advertise the Flagstaff monitoring program on lands south of Area National Monuments as local tourist Sunset Crater Volcano National attractions could result in increased Monument; however, monitoring by itself impacts to the monument’s archeological will not mitigate the effects of resources as well as to archeological sites recreational impacts on archeological in the immediate vicinity. These impacts resources. Currently, there are no plans to would primarily result from increased explicitly link monitoring results to specific recreational impacts (e.g., incidental management actions, so incremental artifact collection, inadvertent degradation of archeological resources destabilization of walls, social trailing, because of recreational impacts is likely to etc.), although impacts from vandalism continue. On the other hand, proposed and illegal excavations would likely road closures on Forest Service lands increase as well. Continued growth in adjacent to the park would have a long- Flagstaff is also likely to result in term, moderate beneficial effect on significant development of private lands archeological resources outside the park near the monument, which in turn is likely boundaries by reducing ease of access to to result in increased unauthorized sites and the concomitant impacts from visitation to backcountry areas of the vehicular soil compaction and erosion, monument. Rural residential growth artifact collecting, and camping on sites would also increase impacts to located close to the roads. archeological resources on neighboring CONCLUSION Forest Service lands. There would be no major impacts to Within the Flagstaff region generally, archeological resources under the No- construction of new roads, housing Action Alternative. In addition to those subdivisions, mines, and other mentioned, there would be other, less developments would continue to cause severe effects as a result of implementing destruction of individual archeological this alternative. sites. As the population of Flagstaff grows, recreational demands on USFS lands and Because there would be no major adverse resources would continue to increase, impacts to resources whose conservation is resulting in the potential for additional (1) necessary to fulfill specific purposes in degradation of archeological sites. As the establishing legislation or

105 ENVIRONMENTAL CONSEQUENCES proclamation for Sunset Crater Volcano visitor center to US89 would help to National Monument; (2) key to the natural ensure that most visitors would be or cultural integrity of the park or to adequately informed about the opportunities for enjoyment of the park; significance and fragility of resources both or (3) identified as a goal in relevant within and outside the monument and National Park Service planning documents, would be educated about means of there would be no impairment of the minimizing impacts from visitation before park’s resources or values. they encounter resources. Thus, the relocation could have a minor to Effects of Alternative 1 moderately beneficial effect on the long- (Preferred): Focus on term and scientific integrity of Extended Learning archeological resources. Conversion of the existing visitor center to an education IMPACT ANALYSIS center would not affect long-term and Impacts from installation of new waysides, scientific integrity of archeological upgrading of interpretive exhibits, resources directly, although there could be expansion of Bonito Campground, minor beneficial indirect impacts by construction of the maintenance and improving opportunities for in-depth curatorial facilities in the administrative education of the public on resource issues area, closure of the O’Leary Peak Road to and protection measures. vehicles, upgrading of facilities to improve Development of a new trail between accessibility and safety, and closure of the Bonito Campground and the Lava Flow backcountry areas of Sunset Crater Trail would impact one archeological site. Volcano National Monument to unguided The impact would be moderately adverse. entry would be the same as those The impact to this site would be partially identified for the No-Action Alternative. mitigated through a program of The Bonito Park area is known to contain photographic documentation. high densities of archeological sites, based The addition of a new Extended Learning on partial inventories of the surrounding Zone near US89 and the expansion of the area. Although the exact number of sites existing Extended Learning Zone near the that would be affected by proposed Lava Flow Trail would lead to increased construction of a new visitor center and impacts to archeological resources in development of a new Extended Learning proximity to those areas. With Zone and associated facilities is unknown, development of an interpretive trail and a conservative estimate is that at least a visitor center near Bonito Park, sites in this dozen archeological sites would be area would be subjected to increased impacted or completely destroyed by the impacts from visitation in the form of construction of a new visitor center, trail artifact collection, soil compaction, social system, and parking area adjacent to trailing, and increased erosion. These Bonito Park. Although the loss of resources impacts would be generally minor and could be partially mitigated through incremental, but cumulatively they would excavation and curation, the long-term be moderately adverse. effect would be permanent destruction, Under Alternative 1, the new visitor center and, hence, it would be considered a and associated Extended Learning Zone major adverse effect. and the hiking trail up O’Leary Peak would The adverse impacts of constructing a new be jointly managed with USFS. Joint visitor center would be offset somewhat management would have a moderately by the fact that the relocation of the beneficial effect on cultural resources

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outside the monument by increasing USFS integrity of the archeological resources presence and involvement in the located around Bonito Park. This is management and interpretation of these because a significant number of sites areas. Increased USFS involvement in the would gradually be degraded by incidental management of archeological resources artifact collection, destabilization of walls, would result in more direct protection of trampling of cultural deposits, and social these resources. trailing. Stabilization of these sites in order to withstand continuing visitor impacts Minor boundary adjustments would have a would eventually be necessary. beneficial effect on any cultural resources Cumulatively, the effects of Alternative 1 within proposed park additions by on long-term integrity of archeological protecting them from recreational resources would be major and adverse. damage. Because of the relatively small area involved and the very limited CONCLUSION likelihood of encountering archeological In comparison to existing conditions, resources in these areas, however, the Alternative 1 would have a major, adverse beneficial effect would be minor. effect on a relatively small but CUMULATIVE EFFECTS concentrated number of archeological resources located near the new visitor Cumulative effects would be the same as center and Extended Learning Zone. under the No-Action Alternative, with the Although the exact number of following exceptions: archeological resources that would be Past management strategies have allowed affected by this alternative is unknown visitor access to virtually all areas of the (because an intensive archeological monument. Recently, the backcountry inventory has not been completed and areas of Sunset Crater Volcano National specific locations for new facilities have Monument were closed to unguided entry not been decided), a larger number of because of concerns over impacts to resources would be impacted in geological features, sensitive habitats, and Alternative 1 than under existing traditional cultural sites. Implementation conditions. The adverse impacts would be of Alternative 1 would continue this policy offset to some degree by the benefits of within most of the monument boundary, an increased USFS presence and increased although there would be an expansion of opportunities to orient and educate the lava flow Extended Learning Zone and visitors before they encounter sensitive the addition of a new hiking trail. resources. The net effect, however, would Outside of current monument boundaries, be major and adverse for the long-term the development of a new visitor center, integrity of specific archeological trails, and parking area in the vicinity of resources. In addition to those mentioned, Bonito Park would have a major adverse there would be other, less severe effects as effect on archeological resources in that a result of implementing this alternative. area, both as a result of the construction Because there would be no major adverse activities themselves and from the impacts to resources whose conservation is associated visitor uses that would follow. (1) necessary to fulfill specific purposes in Although individual impacts from the establishing legislation or visitation would be mostly minor and proclamation for Sunset Crater Volcano incremental, the cumulative effects of National Monument; (2) key to the natural changing visitor use patterns proposed or cultural integrity of the park or to under this alternative would be opportunities for enjoyment of the park; moderately adverse to the long-term or (3) identified as a goal in relevant

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National Park Service planning documents, educated about means of minimizing there would be no impairment of park impacts from visitation before they resources or values. interact with the resources. Effects of Alternative 2: An unknown number of archeological sites Emphasize Quiet Natural would be impacted and/or destroyed as the result of constructing new facilities Setting while Providing under Alternative 2, based on an Diverse Opportunities for incomplete inventory of archeological sites Visitor Use within and outside the current monument boundaries. Although precise numbers are IMPACT ANALYSIS unknown at this time, probably considerably fewer sites would be Impacts from installation of new waysides, impacted from construction under upgrading of interpretive exhibits, Alternative 2 than under Alternative 1, but expansion of Bonito Campground, more would be impacted relative to construction of the maintenance and existing conditions. However, this is curatorial facilities in the administrative dependent on final siting of the new area, closure of the O’Leary Road to visitor center, roads, campground, trails, vehicles, upgrading of facilities to improve and associated facilities. We know that at accessibility and safety, and closure of the least one site would be impacted by backcountry areas of SUCR to unguided proposed development of a new parking entry are the same as those identified for area at the base of the O’Leary Peak Trail. the No-Action Alternative. However, under The loss of resources could be partially this alternative, Bonito Campground and mitigated through excavation and the new maintenance and curatorial curation. facility would be removed, resulting in additional effects. Under Alternative 2, the new visitor center and associated campground and the The park would be closed at night and hiking trail up O’Leary Peak would be gated at the new visitor center. Access jointly managed. Joint management from US89 via FR545 would be eliminated, would probably have a beneficial affect on as would access from the Cinder Hills cultural resources outside monument Overlook westward. Closure of the park at boundaries by increasing USFS presence night would probably have a minor and involvement in the management and benefit on the long-term and scientific interpretation of these areas. integrity of cultural resources by limiting after-hours access to sites in the park. Alternative 2 would involve removal of the existing visitor center, existing The visitor center and campground, park housing and administrative/maintenance facilities maintenance areas, plus removal of a would be relocated to an undeveloped section of FR545 north and west of Bonito area south of the monument along FR776. Park and another section north of Sunset The relocation of the visitor center to a Crater to the Cinder Hills Overlook. These new park entrance would theoretically areas would be rehabilitated. Removal and have a beneficial effect on preserving the rehabilitation of facilities around and long-term/scientific integrity of including the current visitor center would archeological resources, by ensuring that serve as a major benefit to preserving the most visitors are adequately informed long-term and scientific integrity of nearby about the significance and fragility of archeological sites (especially sites located resources within the monument and are in the current maintenance storage area).

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Also the lands north of FR776 would Park, west of FR776, and minor additions require some rehabilitation to mitigate on the east and north boundaries. In effects of past OHV use. At least two theory, boundary adjustments would have known archeological sites adjacent to the a beneficial effect on any archeological western section of FR545 and three sites resources within the proposed park near the visitor center could potentially be additions by proactively protecting them impacted by proposed rehabilitation from recreational damage other impacts activities and would require monitoring such as timber cutting. These benefits and /or mitigation. Rehabilitation of these would be offset somewhat by increased areas would have a moderate beneficial visitation impacts to some sites in the effect on the long-term integrity of a few expanded monument; however, the archeological resources. majority of sites would receive increased protection and reduced impacts as a result Closure of the road east of the Lava Flow of boundary expansion. Overall, the Trail and conversion to a trail would not boundary expansion would be a moderate benefit archeological resources, because benefit to archeological resources. this conversion would result in increased pedestrian access to areas that currently CUMULATIVE EFFECTS receive very little visitation owing to a lack Cumulative effects would be the same as of pullouts along that section of the road. under the No-Action Alternative, with the However, no archeological sites have been following exceptions: located within a previously inventoried 100-meter-wide corridor along this section Past management strategies have allowed of the road and hence, the effect would visitor access to virtually all areas of the be negligible. monument. Recently, the backcountry areas of Sunset Crater Volcano National Alternative 2 would add a hiking trail Monument were closed to unguided entry around Bonito Park, and it would greatly because of concerns over impacts to expand extended learning opportunities geological features, sensitive habitats, and between Lenox Crater and Sunset Crater. traditional cultural sites. Implementation These areas currently receive relatively of Alternative 2 would continue this policy little visitation. The areas around Bonito within most of the monument boundary, Park and along the western edge of the although there would be an expansion of Bonito Lava Flow are known to contain the Lava Flow Extended Learning Zone. high concentrations of archeological sites, The expansion of the Lava Flow Extended based on incomplete inventories of these Learning Zone is not likely to have any areas. These sites would be subjected to effect on archeological resources, as only increased impacts from visitation in the one is currently known to exist in that form of illegal artifact collection, soil area. compaction, social trailing and erosion, and inappropriate activities (digging, Outside of current monument boundaries, leaving New Age offerings, etc.) and the development of a new trail and ultimately might result in the need for parking area in the vicinity of Bonito Park mitigative actions. Most impacts from would have a major adverse effect to a visitation would be individually minor and few archeological resources in that area, incremental, but the cumulative result both as a result of the construction would be moderately adverse. activities themselves and from the associated visitor uses that would follow. Alternative 2 would involve significant Although individual impacts from expansion of current monument visitation would be mostly minor and boundaries to include areas around Bonito

109 ENVIRONMENTAL CONSEQUENCES incremental, the cumulative effects of CONCLUSION changing visitor use patterns proposed Alternative 2 would have a moderate under this alternative would be adverse effect on the long-term integrity moderately adverse to the long-term of archeological resources located in the integrity of the archeological resources vicinity of Bonito Park and the new visitor located around Bonito Park. This is center. These effects would be minimized because a significant number of sites by careful placement of the trail system would gradually be degraded by incidental and facilities. Most impacts would be artifact collection, destabilization of walls, indirect, resulting from increased visitor trampling of cultural deposits, and social use of these areas. Although there would trailing. Stabilization of these sites in order be an overall reduction in archeological to withstand continuing visitor impacts integrity, it would not be to the extent would eventually be necessary. that the resources would become Cumulatively, the effects of Alternative 2 ineligible for listing in the National on long-term integrity of archeological Register of Historic Places. In addition to resources would be moderately adverse. those mentioned, there would be other The development of a new visitor center minor and moderate effects, both and administrative area south of the beneficial and adverse, to the integrity of monument could adversely affect any archeological resources as a result of this archeological resources that might be alternative. located in that area, both as a result of the Because there would be no major adverse construction activities themselves as well impacts to resources whose conservation is as from the associated visitor uses that (1) necessary to fulfill specific purposes in would follow. However, few sites are likely the establishing legislation or to be present in this area, and most if not proclamation for Sunset Crater Volcano all of them could be avoided by proposed National Monument; (2) key to the natural construction activities, so adverse impacts or cultural integrity of the park or to from construction of new facilities would opportunities for enjoyment of the park; be minor. or (3) identified as a goal in relevant Alternative 2 would place a visitor center National Park Service planning documents, at the park entrance to ensure that visitors there would be no impairment of the receive a thorough orientation to park park’s resources or values. values prior to encountering the resource. The location of the visitor center, coupled Effects of Alternative 3: with the increased USFS presence in the Expand Park Boundaries to area, would serve as a benefit to Preserve Park-Related preserving long-term integrity of archeological resources. Resources and Provide Diverse Opportunities for Alternative 2 also involves a significant boundary expansion. The overall effects of Visitor Use boundary expansion would be a major IMPACT ANALYSIS benefit for archeological resources located in the expansion areas. When the various Impacts from installation of new waysides, beneficial and adverse impacts are upgrading of interpretive exhibits, weighed against each other, the expansion of Bonito Campground, cumulative effects of Alternative 2 on construction of the maintenance and long-term integrity of archeological curatorial facilities in the administrative resources would be minimally beneficial. area, closure of the O’Leary Peak Road to

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vehicles, upgrading of facilities to improve Under Alternative 3, as in Alternative 1, accessibility and safety, and closure of the the new visitor center and associated backcountry areas of SUCR to unguided Extended Learning Zone and the hiking entry are the same as in the No-Action trail up O’Leary Peak would be jointly Alternative. managed with USFS. Joint management would have a moderately beneficial effect The Bonito Park area is known to contain on cultural resources outside the high densities of archeological sites, based monument by increasing USFS presence on partial inventories of the surrounding and involvement in the management and area. Although the exact number of sites interpretation of these areas. Increased that would be affected by proposed USFS involvement in the management of construction of a new visitor center and archeological resources would result in development of a new Extended Learning more direct protection of these resources. Zone and associated facilities is unknown, a conservative estimate is that at least a The addition of a new Extended Learning dozen archeological sites would be Zone near US89, the expansion of the impacted or completely destroyed by the existing Extended Learning Zone at Lava construction of a new visitor center, trail Flow, and the formalization of two new system, and parking area adjacent to trails would lead to increased impacts to Bonito Park. Although the loss of resources archeological resources in proximity to could be partially mitigated through those areas. With development of an excavation and curation, the long-term interpretive trail and visitor center near effect would be permanent destruction, Bonito Park, sites in this area would be and, hence, it would be considered a subjected to increased impacts from major adverse effect. visitation in the form of artifact collection, soil compaction, social trailing, and The adverse impacts of constructing a new increased erosion. These impacts would be visitor center would be offset somewhat generally minor and incremental, but by the fact that the relocation of the cumulatively they would be moderately visitor center to US89 would help to adverse. The addition of a hiking trail to ensure that most visitors would be Double Crater would presumably have a adequately informed about the beneficial effect on any archeological significance and fragility of resources both resources in that vicinity, because removal within and outside the monument and of OHV activity would be prerequisite to would be educated about means of any pedestrian use of the Double Crater minimizing impacts from visitation before area. However, because few archeological they encounter resources. Thus, the sites are known to be present in this area, relocation could have a minor to the effect of this change on archeological moderately beneficial effect on the long- resources would be minor. term and scientific integrity of archeological resources. Development of a new trail between Bonito Campground and the Lava Flow Conversion of the existing visitor center to Trail would impact one archeological site. an education center would not affect The impact would be moderately adverse. long-term and scientific integrity of The impact to this site would be partially archeological resources directly, although mitigated through a program of there could be minor beneficial indirect photographic documentation. impacts by improving opportunities for providing in-depth education to the public The major boundary adjustments proposed on resource issues and protection in Alternative 3 would have a long-term, measures. major, beneficial effect on any cultural

111 ENVIRONMENTAL CONSEQUENCES resources located within proposed park withstand continuing visitor impacts additions by protecting them from“” would eventually be necessary. impacts resulting from mining, camping, On the other hand, elimination of a and timber cutting activities. These portion of the OHV area by including it benefits would be offset somewhat by within the monument will have a minor, increased visitation impacts to some sites beneficial effect on archeological remains in the expanded monument. However, the in that area, because of the elimination of sites would receive increased protection, OHV impacts such as compaction and resulting in overall major beneficial effects erosion of soils, destruction of vegetation, to the long-term integrity of archeological and camping-related impacts. resources. Cumulatively, the effects of Alternative 3 CUMULATIVE EFFECTS on long-term integrity of archeological resources would be moderately beneficial. Past management strategies have allowed visitor access to virtually all areas of the CONCLUSION monument. Recently, the backcountry Under Alternative 3, there would be areas of Sunset Crater Volcano National major, long-term, adverse effects to the Monument have been closed because of integrity of 12-15 archeological resources concerns over impacts to geologic located in proximity to the new visitor features, sensitive habitats, and traditional center and expanded campground. cultural sites. Implementation of Relative to existing conditions, however, Alternative 3 would continue this policy the cumulative effects of this alternative within most of the existing monument on the long-term integrity of a majority of area, although there would be an archeological resources would be minor expansion of the lava flow Extended and beneficial, because of the elimination Learning Zone and the addition of a new of OHV impacts within the significantly hiking trail between Bonito Campground expanded park boundaries, the increased and Lava Flow Trail. NPS and USFS presence in the area, and Outside of the current monument the zoning of a large area of the boundaries, however, the development of expanded monument for long-term a new visitor center, trails, and parking preservation purposes. In addition to those area in the vicinity of Bonito Park would mentioned, there would be other, less have a major adverse effect on severe effects as a result of implementing archeological resources in that area, both this alternative. as a result of the construction activities Because there would be no major adverse themselves and from the associated visitor impacts to resources whose conservation is uses that would follow. Although (1) necessary to fulfill specific purposes in individual impacts from visitation would the establishing legislation or be mostly minor and incremental, the proclamation for Sunset Crater Volcano cumulative effects of this alternative on National Monument; (2) key to the natural the long-term integrity of these or cultural integrity of the park or to archeological resources would be opportunities for enjoyment of the park; moderately adverse, because a significant or (3) identified as a goal in relevant number of sites would gradually be National Park Service planning documents, degraded by incidental artifact collection, there would be no impairment of park destabilization of walls, trampling of resources or values. cultural deposits, and social trailing. Stabilization of these sites in order to

112 LONG-TERM AND SCIENTIFIC INTEGRITY OF ARCHEOLOGICAL RESOURCES

Irreversible/Irretrievable Alternative 1 than under existing Commitments of Resources conditions. The adverse impacts would be offset to some degree by the benefits of As described under Unavoidable Adverse an increased USFS presence and increased Effects, the continuing use of existing opportunities to orient and educate visitor centers and trails would directly and visitors before they encounter sensitive indirectly affect archeological resources in resources. The net effect, however, would the immediate vicinity. Archeological be moderately adverse for the long-term resources adjacent to or easily accessible integrity of archeological resources. from public areas would continue to be Under Alternative 2, most impacts from vulnerable to surface disturbance, visitation would be individually minor and inadvertent damage, and vandalism. incremental, but the cumulative result Visitor use of campgrounds and picnic would be moderately adverse and could areas would moderately compact soils and result in an irretrievable loss of these would disturb surface artifacts. A loss of resources. the surface archeological materials, alteration of artifact distribution, and a Under Alternative 3, there would be major reduction of contextual evidence would long-term adverse effects to the integrity result. Under the No-Action Alternative, of 12-15 archeological resources close to impacts to archeological sites from the new visitor center and expanded inappropriate visitor activities (artifact campground. This could be mitigated collection, graffiti, etc.) would continue to through data recovery, but the loss of be a problem, because many visitors would some information could be irreversible. encounter park resources before receiving an orientation at the visitor center. Loss in Long-Term Availability Overall, the effects of the No-Action or Productivity of the Alternative would be moderately adverse Resource to Achieve Short- to the long-term integrity of the Term Gain archeological resources. Because these are nonrenewable resources, this is an Although there would be short-term irreversible/irretrievable loss of these effects from construction activities on resources. However, the most heavily used archeological resources, under all action front-country areas contain few known alternatives, data recovery efforts would archeological sites, so adverse impacts mean that there would be no long-term would have minimal effects. loss of site information. Under the No- Action Alternative, the continuation of In comparison with existing conditions, inadequate monitoring of cultural Alternative 1 would have a major adverse resources, combined with long-term visitor effect on a relatively small but use, would likely reduce the availability of concentrated number of archeological cultural resources sites for future resources located near the new visitor education, interpretation, and center and Extended Learning Zone. development. Although the exact number of archeological resources that would be Unavoidable Adverse Effects affected by this alternative is unknown (because an intensive archeological Under the No-Action Alternative, the inventory has not been completed and continuing use of existing visitor centers specific locations for new facilities have and trails would directly and indirectly not been decided), a larger number of affect archeological resources in the resources would be impacted under immediate vicinity. Archeological resources

113 ENVIRONMENTAL CONSEQUENCES adjacent to or easily accessible from public would be impacted from construction use areas would continue to be vulnerable under Alternative 2 than under Alternative to surface disturbance, inadvertent 1, but more would be impacted relative to damage, and vandalism. Visitor use of existing conditions. However, this is campgrounds and picnic areas would dependent on final siting of the new moderately compact soils and would visitor center, roads, campground, and disturb surface artifacts. A loss of the associated facilities. Closure of the road surface archeological materials, alteration east of the Lava Flow Trail would not of artifact distribution, and a reduction of benefit archeological resources, because contextual evidence would result. Impacts this road would be converted into a new to archeological sites from inappropriate walking trail, thereby resulting in visitor activities (artifact collection, graffiti, increased pedestrian access to areas that etc.) would continue to be a major long- currently receive very little visitation, term problem. Overall, the effects of the owing to lack of pullouts along that No-Action Alternative would be section of the road. Likewise, any benefits moderately adverse to the long-term from closure of the current entrance road integrity of the archeological resources. would be offset by the addition of trails around Bonito Park, which would In comparison with existing conditions, encourage pedestrian uses of areas that Alternative 1 would have a major adverse currently receive relatively little visitation. effect on a relatively small but Increased pedestrian use would likely concentrated number of archeological result in more visitation impacts to resources located near the new visitor resources in these areas (e.g., social center and Extended Learning Zone. trailing, illegal collection, inappropriate Although the exact number of uses, etc.) and ultimately could result in archeological resources that would be increased compliance actions, stabilization, affected by this alternative is unknown and need for mitigation. The areas around (because a complete archeological Bonito Park and along the western edge inventory has not been completed and of the Bonito Lava Flow (on the lower specific locations for new facilities have portion of O’Leary Peak Road) are known not been decided), a larger number of to contain archeological sites, based on resources would be impacted under incomplete inventories of these areas. Alternative 1 than under existing These sites would be subjected to conditions. The adverse impacts would be increased impacts from visitation in the offset to some degree by the benefits of form of illegal artifact collection, soil an increased USFS presence and increased compaction, social trailing and erosion, opportunities to orient and educate and inappropriate activities (digging, visitors before they encounter sensitive leaving New Age offerings, etc.). Most resources. The net effect, however, would impacts from visitation would be be moderately adverse for the long-term individually minor and incremental, but integrity of archeological resources. the cumulative result would be moderately An unknown number of archeological sites adverse. would be impacted and/or destroyed as Under Alternative 3, there would be major the result of constructing new facilities long-term adverse effects to the integrity under Alternative 2, based on an of 12-15 archeological resources located in incomplete inventory of archeological sites proximity to the new visitor center and within and outside the current monument expanded campground. These effects boundaries. Although precise numbers are would be similar to those described for unknown at this time, probably fewer sites Alternative 1. Unlike Alternative 1,

114 HISTORIC CHARACTER OF THE BUILT ENVIRONMENT

however, the adverse impacts to a Minor: The impact is slight, but detectable. relatively small number of sites would be The impact does not affect the character offset by the added protection afforded defining features of a National Register of the majority of sites located within the Historic Places eligible or listed historic expanded monument boundaries. structure, cultural landscape, or historic district. HISTORIC CHARACTER OF THE BUILT ENVIRONMENT Moderate: The impact is readily apparent. For a National Register eligible or listed historic structure, cultural landscape, or Methodology historic district, the impact changes a The National Historic Preservation Act character-defining feature(s) of the requires agencies to take into account the resource but does not diminish the effects of their actions on properties listed integrity of the resource to the extent that or eligible for listing in the National its National Register eligibility is Register of Historic Places. The assessment jeopardized. of impacts to the cultural resources Major: The impact is severe or of followed a three-step process: (1) exceptional benefit. For a National determining the area of potential effect of Register eligible or listed historic structure, the proposed actions; (2) identifying the cultural landscape, or historic district, the cultural resources within the area of impact changes a character defining potential effect that are either listed in or features(s) of the resource, diminishing the eligible for listing in the National Register integrity of the resource to the extent that of Historic Places (see Affected it is no longer eligible or listed in the Environment); and (3) assessing the extent National Register. and type of impacts the proposed action may have upon cultural resources. An Effects Of The No-Action impact on a cultural resource occurs if an Alternative: Existing action has the potential of altering in any Conditions way the characteristics that qualify the resource for inclusion in the National IMPACT ANALYSIS Register. If a proposed action diminishes Installation of new waysides exhibits the integrity of such characteristics, it is would have a minor visual impact on the considered to have an adverse effect. cultural landscape. To mitigate the impact, Impacts that may occur later than, or at a signs would be constructed of material distance from the location of a proposed that is compatible with the historic setting action are also potential impacts of the and the natural surroundings. New action, and are considered to be indirect museum exhibits would be constructed, impacts. but would not alter the distinguishing For the purposes of this analysis the characteristics of the Mission 66 visitor following will be used to describe impacts center. to the built environment and cultural The expansion of Bonito Campground landscapes at Sunset Crater Volcano would have long-term moderate adverse National Monument: impact on the prehistoric landscape. To Negligible: The impact is at the lowest partially mitigate the impacts (both visual levels of detection, barely perceptible and and physical), the campground would be not measurable. designed and sited to avoid landscape features and constructed with materials

115 ENVIRONMENTAL CONSEQUENCES compatible with the natural and cultural would be constructed of materials that are setting. compatible with the natural surroundings and historic setting. Both a curatorial facility and a maintenance/resource management Facilities would be upgraded to facility would be constructed at the Sunset accommodate and meet current Crater Volcano administrative area. The accessibility standards. Making historic curatorial facility would be constructed in buildings and structures accessible to the view of the existing visitor center and in mobility impaired could result in the loss an area that has been tested for of historic fabric or the introduction of archeological resources; no archeological new visual and nonhistoric elements, resources were found. There would be resulting in long-term minor adverse long-term moderate adverse visual impacts impacts. For example, the doorways of to the prehistoric landscape. buildings could require widening and ramps, or wheelchair lifts could be added Construction of the curatorial facility to the exterior of buildings. The park would not change, obscure, or destroy the would strive, however, to develop design Mission 66 landscape’s significant spatial solutions to accessibility requirements that organization, materials, and features. To minimize impacts to cultural resources. partially mitigate visual impacts, the curatorial facility would be designed and The Mission 66 visitor center would sited to reduce visual impacts and would remain, as would the Mission 66 be constructed of materials that are apartment complex and maintenance compatible with the natural surrounding facility. Because few modifications have and historic setting. To prevent the been made to the Mission 66 designed appearance of a reconstruction, the landscape and facilities, the integrity of curatorial facility would be compatible, yet the designed landscape remains intact differentiated from, the landscape’s (however, this landscape has yet to be historic character. Construction of the formally evaluated). curatorial facility would have a long-term CUMULATIVE EFFECTS moderate adverse impact on the Mission 66 designed landscape. The park boundaries represent the geographic area in which cumulative The maintenance/resource management impacts that affect the built environment facility would be constructed in an area and cultural landscapes at Sunset Crater that has not been previously disturbed. Volcano National Monument were Archeological resources are known to be identified. located in the area, but may be avoided through design and siting of the facility. During the Mission 66 program a visitor Because the prehistoric and historic center, apartment complex, maintenance landscapes have not formally evaluated it facility, trails and parking lots were is difficult to assess the impact of the constructed. The entrance road to the proposed maintenance/resource monument was formalized, along with management facility. The facility would be parking lots at the Lenox Crater Trail and constructed away from the Mission 66 the base of Sunset Crater Volcano. A few designed landscape, but would have a modifications have occurred to the Mission long-term moderate adverse impact on the 66 designed landscape, including prehistoric landscape. To partially mitigate relocation of the parking lot from the base visual impacts, the maintenance/resource of the volcano to the west approximately management facility would be designed ¼ mile to the present Lava Flow Trail, and and sited to reduce visual impacts and the addition of three trailer houses and

116 HISTORIC CHARACTER OF THE BUILT ENVIRONMENT

one house (adjacent to the apartment Because there would be no major adverse complex) in the 1980s. The curatorial and impacts to a resource or value whose maintenance facilities would be conservation is (1) necessary to fulfill constructed in the administrative area near specific purposes in the establishing the visitor center and apartment complex. legislation or proclamation for Sunset Because the primary, original design Crater Volcano National Monument; (2) elements of the Mission 66 designed key to the natural or cultural integrity of landscape are still intact, the landscape is the park or to opportunities for enjoyment considered to be potentially National of the park; or (3) identified as a goal in Register eligible (however, this landscape relevant National Park Service planning has yet to be formally evaluated). Any documents, there would be no impairment future alterations of the designed of the park’s resources or values. landscape could bring the integrity of the landscape as a whole (especially design) Effects of Alternative 1 down to the level where National Register (Preferred): Focus on eligibility would be questioned. Extended Learning Few alterations have been made to the IMPACT ANALYSIS overall monument landscape since the design and construction associated with The boundaries of the monument would the Mission 66 era landscape. Because few be expanded to accommodate changes have occurred to the prehistoric administrative adjustments. The proposed landscape throughout the monument, the boundary expansion would include landscape is considered potentially prehistoric landscapes that have been National Register eligible (however, this dissected by artificial boundaries. The landscape has yet to be formally inclusion of these resources in the park evaluated). Any future alterations of the would be a major benefit to their long- prehistoric landscape, however, could term and scientific integrity by including bring the integrity of the landscape as a them in lands being proactively managed whole down to the level where National for preservation purposes. Register eligibility would be questioned. The effects of installing new wayside CONCLUSION exhibits would be the same as those identified in the No-Action Alternative. This alternative would have long-term moderate adverse impact on the Effects of expanding the Bonito prehistoric and Mission 66 landscapes. Campground would be the same as those There would be an overall reduction of identified for the No-Action Alternative. historic integrity of both landscapes, but Effects of constructing the curatorial not to the extent that they would no facility and the maintenance/resource longer be eligible to be listed in the management facility would be the same as National Register of Historic Places. Any those identified for the No-Action future alteration to the prehistoric and Alternative. Mission 66 landscapes, in conjunction with the moderate, adverse cumulative impacts Effects of upgrading facilities to of previous changes and this alternative accommodate accessibility would be the could result in moderate, adverse same as those identified for the No-Action cumulative impacts to both designed Alternative. landscapes. Construction of a new visitor center would have long-term moderate adverse visual impact on the surrounding prehistoric

117 ENVIRONMENTAL CONSEQUENCES cultural landscape. To partially mitigate west. Because the primary design elements visual impacts, the visitor center would be of the prehistoric landscape remain intact, situated to reduce visual impacts and the landscape is considered to be would be constructed of materials that are potentially National Register eligible compatible with the natural surrounding (however, this landscape has not been and historic setting. formally evaluated). Any future alterations of the designed landscape could bring the Adaptively rehabilitating the existing integrity of the landscape as a whole visitor center building would neither down to the level where National Register significantly alter the present form or eligibility would be questioned. character of the structure’s exterior nor adversely affect any significant character- Minor alterations have occurred to the defining feature(s) of the structure’s Mission 66 designed landscape; interior. If any materials were removed modifications include trail upgrades to during rehabilitation, they would be meet standards of accessibility, relocation evaluated to determine their value to the of the Lava Flow Trail parking lot, and the parks’ museum collections and/or for their addition of trailer houses adjacent to the comparative use in future preservation apartment complex. Because the primary work at the site. All rehabilitation work original design elements of the Mission 66 would be undertaken in accordance with designed landscape are still intact, the the Secretary of the Interior’s Standards landscape is considered to be potentially for Treatment of Historic Properties (1995). National Register eligible (however, this Converting the visitor center to landscape has yet to be evaluated). Any accommodate educational activities and future alterations of the designed offices would have a long-term minor to landscape, in conjunction with the moderate impact on the building. moderate, adverse, cumulative impacts of both past changes and this alternative, Construction of a new trail between would bring the integrity of the landscape Bonito Campground and the Lava Flow as a whole (especially design) down to the Trail would have long-term moderate level where it is no longer National visual impact on the prehistoric cultural Register eligible. landscape. The impacts could be mitigated by constructing the trail to avoid CONCLUSION character-defining landscape features and This alternative would have long-term building it with materials compatible with moderate adverse impacts on the the historic setting and natural prehistoric and Mission 66 landscapes. surrounding. There would be an overall reduction of CUMULATIVE EFFECTS integrity in both landscapes, but not to the extent that they would no longer be Various alterations to the prehistoric eligible to be listed in the National landscape, primarily by the Mission 66 Register of Historic Places. designed landscape, have occurred over the years. Few changes have altered the Any future alterations to the prehistoric Mission 66 landscape. The Mission 66 and Mission 66 landscapes, in conjunction landscape included a road, trails, parking with the moderate adverse, cumulative lots, visitor center, maintenance building, impacts of previous changes and this and apartment complex. In the 1980s the alternative could result in moderate, Lava Flow Trail parking lot was removed adverse cumulative impacts to the from the base of Sunset Crater Volcano prehistoric and Mission 66 designed and constructed approximately ¼ mile landscapes.

118 HISTORIC CHARACTER OF THE BUILT ENVIRONMENT

Because there would be no major adverse The Mission 66 designed visitor center, impacts to a resource or value whose apartment complex and maintenance conservation is (1) necessary to fulfill facility would be removed. Removing the specific purposes in the establishing Mission 66 development would result in legislation or proclamation for Sunset long-term major adverse impacts to the Crater Volcano National Monument; (2) historic Mission 66 experience and key to the natural or cultural integrity of designed landscape. Removing the the park or to opportunities for enjoyment facilities would eliminate contributing of the park; or (3) identified as a goal in elements to the landscape, and would relevant National Park Service planning alter spatial organization and historic documents, there would be no impairment circulation patterns of the Mission 66 of the park’s resources or values. designed landscape. Effects of Alternative 2: The new curatorial facility and Emphasize Quiet Natural maintenance/resource management facility would be removed. Removal of Setting while Providing these facilities in conjunction with the Diverse Opportunities for Mission 66 development and rehabilitation Visitor Use of the administrative site to a natural setting would be a long-term major IMPACT ANALYSIS benefit to the prehistoric landscape. Following rehabilitation and revegetation, The proposed boundary expansion would the area would more closely resemble its include prehistoric landscapes that have prehistoric appearance. been dissected by artificial boundaries. The inclusion of these resources in the park Construction of a new visitor center would would be a major benefit to their long- have long-term moderate visual impact on term and scientific integrity by including the surrounding prehistoric cultural them in lands being proactively managed landscape. To partially mitigate visual for preservation purposes. impacts, the visitor center would be designed and sited to reduce visual Effects of installing new wayside exhibits impacts and would be constructed of would be the same as in No-Action materials that are compatible with the Alternative. natural surrounding and historic setting. Removing Bonito Campground would Construction of a new trail around Bonito have long-term moderate benefit to the Park would have long-term moderate prehistoric landscape. The campground visual impact on the prehistoric cultural area would be rehabilitated and landscape. The impacts could be mitigated revegetated to restore the natural spacing, by constructing the trail to avoid character abundance, and diversity of native plant defining landscape features and built with species. Following rehabilitation and materials compatible with the historic revegetation, the area would more closely setting and natural surrounding. resemble its historic appearance. Closing FR545 at the junction with US89 CUMULATIVE EFFECTS and at the base of Sunset Crater Volcano Minor alterations have occurred to the would alter the historic Mission 66 Mission 66 designed landscape; circulation pattern, resulting in a long- modifications include trail upgrades to term moderate adverse impact to the meet standards of accessibility, relocation Mission 66 drive-through experience. of the Lava Flow Trail parking lot, and the addition of trailer houses adjacent to the

119 ENVIRONMENTAL CONSEQUENCES apartment complex. Because the primary CONCLUSION original design elements of the Mission 66 This alternative would have long-term designed landscape are still intact, the major adverse impacts to the Mission 66 landscape is considered to be potentially designed landscape, and long-term major National Register eligible (however, this benefit and long-term moderate adverse landscape has yet to be evaluated). Any impact to the prehistoric landscape. There future alterations of the designed would be an overall reduction of historic landscape, in conjunction with the integrity in the Mission 66 landscape, but adverse, cumulative impacts of both past not to the extent that it would no longer changes and this alternative, would bring be eligible to be listed in the National the integrity of the landscape as a whole Register of Historic Places. Any future (especially design) down to the level alterations of the Mission 66 landscape, in where it is no longer National Register conjunction with the adverse, cumulative eligible. The long-term major adverse impacts of previous changes and this impacts, as well as, any potential impacts alternative, could result in major, adverse of future actions would result in major, cumulative impacts to the Mission 66 adverse cumulative impacts to the Mission landscapes. 66 designed landscape. Because there would be no major adverse Because few alterations have occurred to impacts to a resource or value whose the prehistoric landscape of the conservation is (1) necessary to fulfill monument, the landscape is considered specific purposes in the establishing potentially National Register eligible legislation or proclamation for Sunset (however, this landscape has yet to be Crater Volcano National Monument; (2) formally evaluated). Removing the Mission key to the natural or cultural integrity of 66 designed landscape and the more the park or to opportunities for enjoyment recent development (trailer houses, of the park; or (3) identified as a goal in curatorial facility, maintenance/resource relevant National Park Service planning management facility and campground) documents, there would be no impairment would be a long-term major benefit to the of the park’s resources or values. prehistoric landscape. Rehabilitating and revegetating the former Mission 66 Effects of Alternative 3: landscape would return the area to more of a semblance of its historic appearance. Expand Park Boundaries to Any future alterations of the prehistoric Preserve Park-Related landscape, in conjunction with the Resources and Provide adverse, cumulative impacts of both past Diverse Opportunities for changes and this alternative (such as the construction of a trail around Bonito Park), Visitor Use would bring the integrity of the landscape IMPACT ANALYSIS as a whole down to the level where it is no longer National Register eligible. The long- The proposed boundary expansion would term moderate adverse impacts, as well as include prehistoric landscapes that have any potential impacts of future actions been dissected by artificial boundaries. The would result in moderate, adverse inclusion of these resources in the park cumulative impacts to the prehistoric would be a major benefit to their long- landscape. term and scientific integrity by including them in lands being proactively managed for preservation purposes.

120 HISTORIC CHARACTER OF THE BUILT ENVIRONMENT

Effects of installing new wayside exhibits Rehabilitating the OHV area would have a would be the same as described under the long-term major visual benefit to the No-Action Alternative. prehistoric and Mission 66 landscapes. The OHV area would be rehabilitated and Effects of expanding the Bonito revegetated to restore the natural spacing, Campground would be the same as those abundance, and diversity of native plant described for in No-Action Alternative. species. Following rehabilitation and Effects of constructing the museum revegetation, the area would more closely storage facility and the resemble its historic appearance. maintenance/resource facility would be the same as those described for the No- CUMULATIVE EFFECTS Action Alternative. Few changes have occurred to the Mission Effects of upgrading facilities to 66 designed landscape; modifications accommodate accessibility would be the include trail upgrades to meet standards same as under the No-Action Alternative. of accessibility, relocation of the Lava Flow Trail parking lot, and the addition of Developing new pullouts along FR545 at trailer houses adjacent to the apartment Kana-A lava flow would have long-term complex. Because the primary original moderate visual impacts on the historic design elements of the Mission 66 Mission 66 road, and would have long- designed landscape are still intact, the term moderate adverse impacts on the landscape is considered to be potentially prehistoric cultural landscape by damaging National Register eligible (however, this or destroying landscape features (such as landscape has yet to be evaluated). Any field alignments). However, the road future alterations of the designed would be designed to avoid as many landscape, in conjunction with the landscape features as possible and would adverse, cumulative impacts of both past be constructed of materials that are changes and this alternative, would bring compatible with the natural surrounding the integrity of the landscape as a whole and historic setting. (especially design) down to the level Construction of a new visitor center near where it is no longer National Register the junction of US89 and FR545 would eligible. The long-term major adverse have a long-term moderate adverse visual impacts and potential impacts of future impact on the surrounding prehistoric actions could result in major, adverse cultural landscape. To partially mitigate cumulative impacts to the Mission 66 visual impacts, the visitor center would be designed landscape. designed and sited to reduce visual Because few alterations have occurred to impacts and would be constructed of the prehistoric landscape of the materials that are compatible with the monument (primarily from Mission 66 natural surrounding and historic setting. development), the landscape is considered Construction of the trail between the potentially National Register eligible Bonito Campground and the Lava Flow (however, this landscape has yet to be Trail would have long-term moderate formally evaluated). Any future alterations visual impacts on the prehistoric cultural of the prehistoric landscape beyond the landscape. The impacts could be mitigated scope of what is proposed in this by constructing the trail to avoid alternative could bring the integrity of the landscape features and built with landscape as a whole down to a level materials compatible with the historic where National Register eligibility would setting and natural surroundings. be questioned. Rehabilitating the OHV

121 ENVIRONMENTAL CONSEQUENCES area would be a long-term major benefit Loss In Long-Term Availability to the prehistoric landscape. Or Productivity Of The CONCLUSION Resource To Achieve Short- This alternative would have long-term Term Gain moderate adverse impacts and long-term major benefits on the prehistoric The continuing lack of a cultural landscape landscape, and would have long-term inventory would lead to long-term loss of moderate adverse impacts on the Mission the integrity of these resources. 66 landscapes. There would be an overall Unavoidable Adverse Impacts reduction of historic integrity in the landscapes, but not to the extent that they The No-Action Alternative would have would no longer be eligible to be listed in long-term moderate adverse impact on the the National Register of Historic Places. prehistoric and Mission 66 landscapes from Any future alterations of the landscapes, the construction of the curatorial facility in conjunction with the adverse cumulative and the maintenance/resource impacts of previous changes and this management facility. There would be alternative, could result in major, adverse long-term moderate adverse visual impact cumulative impacts to the prehistoric and from the installation of new wayside Mission 66 landscapes. exhibits. Upgrading facilities to meet accessibility standards would have a long- Because there would be no major adverse term minor impact on Mission 66 facilities. impacts to a resource or value whose conservation is (1) necessary to fulfill Alternative 1 would have long-term specific purposes in the establishing moderate adverse impacts on the legislation or proclamation for Sunset prehistoric landscape from and Mission 66 Crater Volcano National Monument; (2) landscapes from the construction of the key to the natural or cultural integrity of curatorial facility and the the park or to opportunities for enjoyment maintenance/resource management of the park; or (3) identified as a goal in facility. Construction of the new visitor relevant National Park Service planning center at the junction of US89 and FR545 documents, there would be no impairment would have a long-term moderate adverse of the park’s resources or values. impact on the prehistoric cultural landscape. Irreversible/Irretrievable Alternative 2 would have long-term major Commitments Of Resources adverse impacts to the Mission 66 There would be an designed landscape. The Mission 66 irreversible/irretrievable commitment of development (visitor center, maintenance resources under Alternative 2. All Mission building, and apartment complex) would 66 facilities would be removed from the be removed from the park. Construction of park. a new visitor center on FR776 would have a long-term moderate visual impact on the prehistoric cultural landscape. Alternative 3 would have long-term moderate adverse impacts on the prehistoric and Mission 66 landscapes from the construction of a curatorial facility and maintenance/resource management facility. There would be a long-term

122 LONG-TERM INTEGRITY OF ETHNOGRAPHIC RESOURCES

moderate visual impact to the prehistoric perpetuity. Therefore, the duration of cultural landscape from the construction impacts to ethnographic resources is of a new visitor center at the junction of forever. Although the tribes themselves FR545 and US 89. did not identify the intensity of potential impacts to ethnographic resources, the LONG-TERM INTEGRITY OF National Park Service defines intensity as ETHNOGRAPHIC RESOURCES follows: Negligible: The impact is at the lower Methodology levels of detection. Ethnographic resources are those cultural Minor: The impact is slight, but detectable. and natural resources to which park- associated communities ascribe cultural Moderate: The impact is readily apparent. significance and that continue to play a Major: The impact is severely adverse or role in a community’s identity and way of exceptionally beneficial. life. Only members of the communities to whom the resources hold cultural value Any adverse impacts to ethnographic resources would be readily apparent to the can determine ethnographic resources and potential impacts to them. After initial tribes to whom the resources hold cultural consultation meetings with representatives significance, and in most cases, because of several American Indian tribes having impacts to these resources affect cultural identity and ways of life, most adverse possible traditional associations with park lands and resources, the tribes determined impacts would be considered severely that the Hopi, Zuni, and Navajo Tribes adverse. Therefore, most impacts to have the closest association with resources ethnographic resources, whether beneficial or adverse, would be moderate that could be affected by various management alternatives. The National to major. Park Service entered into small contracts Effects of the No-Action with each of these tribes to visit the parks and identify culturally significant resources Alternative: Existing that might be affected by various Conditions management alternatives. The Hopi and IMPACT ANALYSIS Navajo Tribes and the Pueblo of Zuni submitted information on ethnographic Under the No-Action Alternative, resources concerns to the National Park conditions would remain as they are at the Service and participated in the GMP present time, with the exception of the planning process during all stages of actions common to all alternatives. development. Because the ethnographic Associated tribes regard the entire resources identified by the tribes are landscape around Sunset Crater as sacred, important in each tribe’s history, and so any existing impacts that are not because the resources are interconnected addressed by actions common to all with places and resources located alternatives will continue to constitute throughout customary tribal lands, any moderate to major adverse impacts. impacts to ethnographic resources would Among these impacts may be the effects be regional in scope. In addition, because of OHV such as tracks and lack of ethnographic resources are tied to vegetation on portions of the landscape communities’ cultural identities, effects to beyond park boundaries and related the resources also have an effect on the impacts to park lands and resources. An communities to which they are tied in additional adverse impact might be the one-mile Lenox Crater Trail, which

123 ENVIRONMENTAL CONSEQUENCES provides climbing opportunities on a traditional tribal uses and treatment of cinder cone, all of which have been resources were precluded over the years. identified as sacred places to associated Increased visitation interfered with tribes. Actions common to all alternatives ceremonial activities at certain places that will alleviate adverse impacts of some within monument lands, and closure of existing conditions include: some areas many have inhibited tribal access to certain culturally significant • Enhanced partnerships and boundary areas. Interpretive messages were expansion, which will include increased developed that did not include tribal coordination between NPS and USFS, knowledge of the natural and cultural monitoring the effects of various land history of the park and its resources. uses, the potential for management changes to control adverse effects, and The cumulative effects of monument the potential for tribal input into operations on ethnographic resources and future management planning; the tribes associated with them in the past • New interpretive exhibits, which will have been major and long term. Under the also provide the opportunity for tribal No-Action Alternative, some adverse involvement in the development of impacts to ethnographic resources would interpretive messages, which may continue into the future, such as the include increased educational emphasis effects of OHV uses on the overall on the cultural significance of the ethnographic landscape and visitor access Sunset Crater landscape to associated to Lenox Crater. In general, existing tribes; conditions would be improved by the actions common to all alternatives, • Closure of the road to O’Leary Peak, specifically those beneficial cumulative which will help protect the cultural impacts resulting from improved values of this sensitive ethnographic partnerships with neighboring land resource; and managers, improved interpretive exhibits, • Closure of the backcountry, which will and the closure of the O’Leary Peak Road also help protect ethnographic and the backcountry (with provision of resources from the effects of unguided tribal access to sensitive ethnographic visitation resources). CUMULATIVE EFFECTS CONCLUSION Prior to the establishment of monument The No-Action Alternative would continue boundaries, the lands encompassed by to have some moderate to major adverse what is now Sunset Crater Volcano impacts to some ethnographic resources, National Monument were part of the but the actions common to all alternatives customary use areas or traditional lands of would improve many existing conditions several American Indian tribes. These lands and have a moderate to major beneficial include medicinal plants, prayer offering effect on some ethnographic resources places, homes of deities, pilgrimage and the cultural values that give them routes, and other places integral to tribal significance. cultural identity and continuity. Because there would be no major adverse With the establishment of federal land impacts to resources whose conservation is management boundaries, including Sunset (1) necessary to fulfill specific purposes in Crater Volcano National Monument, the the establishing legislation or construction of fences, and the proclamation for Sunset Crater Volcano implementation of land use regulations, National Monument; (2) key to the natural

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or cultural integrity of the park or to improved interpretation and education for opportunities for enjoyment of the park; park visitors about the cultural values or (3) identified as a goal in relevant associated with park lands and resources, National Park Service planning documents, and by tribal participation in developing there would be no impairment of the consistent management regimes for the park’s resources or values. ethnographic landscape of which the monument is a part. Adverse impacts to Effects of Alternative 1 ethnographic resources would continue as (Preferred): Focus on long as OHV uses impact the larger Extended Learning landscape in general, and continued access to Lenox Crater may have adverse IMPACT ANALYSIS cumulative impacts on that ethnographic Overall, this alternative would benefit resource. Park boundary adjustments and ethnographic resources by increasing closure of areas that are not zoned for partnerships with the USFS, associated administrative and visitor use would have tribes and educational institutions to cumulative beneficial effects by protecting improve interpretation and consistent ethnographic resources from the effects of management of sites and features outside visitation the park that are primary to the park’s CONCLUSION purpose. Since the park has been identified by associated tribes as part of a With the development of agreements larger ethnographic landscape, any among the NPS and associated tribes for management alternative that improves the continued tribal involvement in park larger geographic context of which the management and interpretive planning, park is a part would have a beneficial this alternative would have moderate to impact on culturally sensitive resources. major long-term beneficial impacts to Boundary adjustments may be beneficial ethnographic resources. The exceptions to to ethnographic resources if the these beneficial effects are the continued adjustments include increased protection moderate to major adverse effects of OHV of the ethnographic landscape or specific uses on the ethnographic landscape and ethnographic resources identified for this possibly visitor access to Lenox Crater. GMP. Adverse effects to the overall Because there would be no major adverse ethnographic landscape would continue to impacts to resources whose conservation is the extent that current OHV uses continue, (1) necessary to fulfill specific purposes in as would adverse effects to an the establishing legislation or ethnographic resource with continued proclamation for Sunset Crater Volcano visitor access to Lenox Crater. Effects of National Monument; (2) key to the natural the actions common to all alternatives or cultural integrity of the park or to would be the same as described under the opportunities for enjoyment of the park; No-Action Alternative. or (3) identified as a goal in relevant CUMULATIVE EFFECTS National Park Service planning documents, there would be no impairment of the Overall, the cumulative effects of this park’s resources or values. alternative would be beneficial to ethnographic resources due to increased partnerships with adjacent land management agencies and associated tribes. These partnerships would help protect ethnographic resources by

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Effects of Alternative 2: regard Sunset Crater Volcano as a Emphasize Quiet Natural particularly significant ethnographic resource along with all volcanic cones Setting while Providing comprising the larger ethnographic Diverse Opportunities for landscape. The effects of the actions Visitor Use common to all alternatives would be the same as those described for the No-Action IMPACT ANALYSIS Alternative. This alternative would provide increased CUMULATIVE EFFECTS protection of ethnographic resources Some aspects of this alternative will have within the present monument boundaries long-term beneficial cumulative effects on by removing much of the current ethnographic resources, including the development, thereby restoring some of restoration of the ethnographic landscape the larger ethnographic landscape that within current monument boundaries and gives individual ethnographic resources the development of updated interpretive cultural significance. However, the media incorporating tribal perspectives of development of new facilities south of the ethnographic context of park Sunset Crater may have an adverse effect resources. The cumulative effects on on aspects of the ethnographic landscape ethnographic resources and landscapes or on individual ethnographic resources due to development of new access routes that have not yet been identified or into the monument and new visitor evaluated. The increased emphasis on facilities south of current monument connecting the stories of Sunset Crater and boundaries would require further analysis Wupatki, as well as development of in conjunction with associated tribes. updated interpretive media would more Long-term adverse effects to Bonito Park, accurately reflect tribal knowledge of the Sunset Crater Volcano, and Lenox Crater natural and cultural histories of the could result from development of broader ethnographic landscape, thus extended learning activities and increased having a beneficial effect on ethnographic visitor use of these ethnographic resources through public education. resources. These effects could be The effects on ethnographic resources of minimized by the inclusion of tribal developing a new entrance road and participation in long-range management visitor facilities south of Sunset Crater and interpretive planning. would need to be more thoroughly evaluated. Having the current entrance CONCLUSION road, FR545, dead-end at Bonito Park, This alternative includes actions that will which would be included in park have both beneficial and adverse effects boundaries, could encourage more visitor on ethnographic resources. The effects of use of Bonito Park. Increased visitor use of some proposed actions will need Bonito Park could conflict with ongoing additional evaluation in conjunction with tribal cultural uses, thus having an adverse associated tribes. The effects of the actions effect on this ethnographic resource. common to all alternatives would be the Similarly, the effects of development of a same as those described under the No- hiking trail at the base of Sunset Crater Action Alternative. Volcano and additional learning activities Because there would be no major adverse associated with the Lenox Crater Trail impacts to resources whose conservation is would need to be evaluated in conjunction (1) necessary to fulfill specific purposes in with associated tribes. Associated tribes the establishing legislation or

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proclamation for Sunset Crater Volcano ethnographic landscape context of National Monument; (2) key to the natural culturally significant resources within park or cultural integrity of the park or to boundaries. Beneficial effects would also opportunities for enjoyment of the park; result from the inclusion of associated or (3) identified as a goal in relevant tribes in the long-term planning of National Park Service planning documents, educational programs and activities that there would be no impairment of the could include increased emphasis on the park’s resources or values. cultural significance of ethnographic resources and their broader landscape Effects of Alternative 3: context. Moderate to major adverse Expand Park Boundaries to effects to Lenox Crater and especially Preserve Park-Related Bonito Park could result from the development of increased visitor access to Resources and Provide these ethnographic resources, but these Diverse Opportunities for effects could be minimized with Visitor Use appropriate tribal input into long-range management planning. IMPACT ANALYSIS CONCLUSION Overall, this alternative would have beneficial impacts to ethnographic This alternative includes actions that will resources due to the expansion of park have mainly beneficial and some adverse boundaries to include more of the features effects on ethnographic resources and of the regional ethnographic landscape of landscapes. The effects of some proposed cultural significance to associated tribes. actions will need additional evaluation in The removal of OHV activities from the conjunction with associated tribes. The expanded park boundaries would have a effects of the actions common to all beneficial effect on the ethnographic alternatives would be the same as landscape. Enhanced management described in the No-Action Alternative. partnerships with the USFS would also Because there would be no major adverse benefit culturally sensitive resources, as impacts to resources whose conservation is would the development of new (1) necessary to fulfill specific purposes in educational programs, provided that the establishing legislation or interpretive planning incorporates tribal proclamation for Sunset Crater Volcano input. Extended learning opportunities in National Monument; (2) key to the natural the Lenox Crater and particularly Bonito or cultural integrity of the park or to Park vicinities could have moderate to opportunities for enjoyment of the park; major adverse effects on these or (3) identified as a goal in relevant ethnographic resources and any such National Park Service planning documents, planning would require extensive tribal there would be no impairment of the involvement. Effects of the actions park’s resources or values. common to all alternatives would be the same as those described in the No-Action Irreversible/Irretrievable Alternative. Commitments of Resources CUMULATIVE EFFECTS There would be no In general, this alternative would have irreversible/irretrievable commitments of moderate to major long-term beneficial resources. effects to ethnographic resources by protecting and restoring more of the

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Loss in Long-Term Availability monitoring data from the Flagstaff Area or Productivity of the National Monuments. Sociological studies comparing the deterrent effects of signs Resource to Achieve Short- versus ranger presence on sites were also Term Gain considered in this analysis. Intensity of effects are articulated in the effects There would be no short-term gains analysis as follows: resulting in long-term losses. Negligible: An action that would affect Unavoidable Adverse Impacts very few individuals of species Under the No-Action Alternative, existing populations, or affect the existing physical adverse effects to ethnographic resources environment within Sunset Crater Volcano would continue. Associated tribes regard National Monument. The change would be the entire landscape around Sunset Crater so small or localized that it would have no Volcano as sacred. Existing impacts include measurable or perceptible consequence to the present development and visitor the populations or natural system facilities, OHV uses, visitor access to the function. tops of craters, and intrusion on Minor: An action that would affect a traditional uses of culturally significant relatively small number of individuals of places, such as Bonito Park. Under all species populations, or affect the existing action alternatives, these adverse impacts physical environment within Sunset Crater would be reduced through improved Volcano National Monument. The change interpretation and consistent management would require considerable scientific effort of features. to measure, be limited to relatively few individuals of the populations, be very LONG-TERM INTEGRITY OF localized in area, and have barely NATURAL SYSTEMS AND perceptible consequences to the PROCESSES populations or natural system function. Moderate: An action that would cause Methodology measurable affects on: (1) a relatively moderate number of individuals within a All available information on known species population, (2) the existing natural resources was compiled. Where dynamics between multiple species (e.g., possible, map locations of sensitive predator-prey, herbivore-forage, resources were compared with locations of vegetation structure-wildlife breeding proposed developments and modifications habitat), (3) a relatively large habitat area of existing facilities. Predictions about or important habitat attributes, or (4) a short- and long-term site impacts were large area of the natural physical based on previous studies of visitor environment within Sunset Crater Volcano impacts to natural resources and recent National Monument. A species population, plant and animal communities, habitats, or natural system function might deviate from normal levels under existing conditions, but all species would remain indefinitely viable within the monument. Major: An action that would have drastic consequences for species population numbers, dynamics between multiple

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species, habitat area or important habitat monument. Occasional trespass of off- attributes, or the existing physical highway vehicles into the monument environment within Sunset Crater Volcano crushes plants and causes soil disturbance, National Monument. The change would be which inhibits establishment of new readily apparent throughout the plants. Vegetation succession and the monument area. A species population, associated wildlife experience a minor plant and animal communities, habitats, or adverse impact because of this activity. natural system function would be A range of impacts is associated with the permanently altered from normal levels existing road system and motor vehicle under existing conditions, and species access. FR545 is used by everyone who would likely be extirpated within the tours the park. Local residents use the road monument. year-round at any time of the day or night. Effects of the No-Action Motor noise from passing vehicles would Alternative: Existing frequently disturb wildlife. The road bisects the park and creates a barrier to Conditions the movement of many small mammals IMPACT ANALYSIS and reptiles and also creates a hazard for larger mammals, including antelope and Much of the current development deer. Visitor and local traffic contribute to associated with the monument’s the overall numbers of vehicles traveling administration and maintenance is outside through the monument, which have a the monument’s formal boundary. This moderate adverse impact on the natural includes the visitor center, housing, and quiet of the monument. The road also the maintenance complex, which are on serves as a center of spread for a variety of U.S. Forest Service lands. A USFS invasive, nonnative plant species, including campground is also located just adjacent mullein, melilotus, and toadflax, which are to the monument’s boundary. introduced via fill material used in Approximately 130 acres of USFS lands is maintaining road shoulders. These species currently impacted by visitor use and thrive in disturbed areas and in time could support infrastructure. These developed spread away from the road and displace areas cause a minor adverse long-term native vegetation, changing vegetation impact by alteration of wildlife habitat composition. This would constitute a and movement and changes to vegetation. minor, long-term, adverse impact. Bonito Campground is currently being The construction of new curatorial and expanded to provide group camping, a maintenance/resource management day-use area for educational group facilities in the administrative area of gatherings and an upgraded amphitheater Sunset Crater Volcano NM will disturb for interpretive programs. Short-term approximately 48,000 square feet (8,000 minor impacts to natural systems and sq. ft. by the curatorial facility, 40,000 sq. processes will result from clearing trees ft. by the maintenance/resource and vegetation for the expanded camping management facility) of ponderosa pine and day-use areas. Long-term minor forest. Planning and construction of these impacts will occur from increased visitor facilities will be accomplished so as to use in the area. Trampling of plants, soil minimize the impact, but an unknown compaction and disturbance of wildlife number of ponderosa pines will have to be could increase with this expansion. removed, as well as all understory The Cinder Hills OHV Area, approximately vegetation within the footprint of the 13,500 acres, lies to the southeast of the buildings and parking lots. This will cause

129 ENVIRONMENTAL CONSEQUENCES a long-term minor adverse impact to obliterate trails as they are formed, by natural systems and processes by removal raking them out. This activity, when of vegetation, alteration of wildlife performed on a regular basis, constantly habitat, and the long-term vegetation moves the soil surface around, adding to management required in a developed the difficulty of plant establishment. area. Adverse impacts are moderate and long term in these areas where use has been The closure of the O’Leary Peak Road to all concentrated, although some of the vehicles except for administrative use will impacts are being mitigated through the have a negligible to minor beneficial use of physical barriers and interpretive impact to natural systems and processes by signing to keep visitors on the trails. substantially reducing the amount of vehicle traffic on the road. Reduced Sunset Crater Volcano itself has been vehicle traffic will slow down unnatural closed to foot traffic since 1973, because erosion due to road deterioration. This will the trails on the volcano had become also reduce the impacts related to road deeply eroded, up to the depth of six feet, maintenance activities, such as the exposing pine tree roots and eliminating introduction and spread of nonnative vegetation. Although the trails were plants and disturbance and compaction of rehabilitated, scars are still visible, and for areas adjacent to the road. the most part, vegetation has not been reestablished. The impact after nearly 30 The heaviest visitor impacts to the current years of closure is moderate. Within recent monument resources are concentrated in years, the rest of the backcountry (defined the Lava Flow Trail area (both sides of the as all areas beyond designated roads, park road) and the Lenox Crater Trail. trails, or developed facilities) has been Social trails develop frequently in the Lava closed to unguided entry. Currently Flow Trail area and further extend the approximately 130 acres within the impact of the main trail into other nearby monument are disturbed by roads, trails, areas. The trail leading up Lenox Crater is or developed facilities. This is less than 5% on a steep slope and causes unnecessary of the monument’s area and constitutes a erosion of the cinder substrate. For the minor, long-term adverse impact. most part, these impacts occur in cinder substrate, but there have also been minor Some of the softer lava surfaces are also to moderate impacts to lava features in subject to increased erosion by foot traffic, these areas as well. Impacts to geologic but this topic will be the focus of the features will be discussed in a following section called Long-Term Integrity of section. Primarily the impacts are the result Geologic Resources. of concentrated use on a substrate that is CUMULATIVE EFFECTS prone to movement when compressed by foot traffic. In areas where cinders are very The geographic area used in the deep, moisture is not readily available to consideration of cumulative impacts plants. Because very little organic material includes the western portion of the Little is present, cinder is a very difficult Colorado River watershed and is bounded substrate for plants to become established in the south by the Mogollon Plateau and on. Given the added disruption of foot Clear Creek, the Little Colorado River and traffic and the fact that foot traffic is not Painted Desert on the east, and the San confined to just the established trails, Francisco Peaks and Coconino Plateau on relatively large expanses of cinder areas the west. have been impacted, and plant succession Forest management activities of the lands has been halted. The NPS has attempted to surrounding Sunset Crater also pose

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threats to natural processes in the area. new curatorial, maintenance, and resource Hunting affects animal populations and management facilities, the closure of the sometimes leads to illegal poaching of O’Leary Peak Road, and the continued use park wildlife. These impacts would be of the Lava Flow and Lenox Crater Trails minor to moderate and long term. would be the same as those described for the No-Action Alternative. Growing development in the area south of the monument could greatly increase The construction of a new visitor center recreational pressures on the monument near the junction of FR545 and US89 and surrounding lands and would also would result in vegetation removal, the further disrupt wildlife corridors and introduction and spread of nonnative displace raptors and other birds. This could plants, and long-term management of also lead to an increase in local traffic on vegetation in a developed zone, which the road through the monument, which would constitute a minor impact to could have a minor to moderate impact on vegetation succession processes. wildlife crossing the road as well as on the Conversion of the existing visitor center to natural quiet. an education center would not affect the CONCLUSION long-term integrity of natural systems and processes directly, although there could be There would be no major impacts under beneficial indirect impacts by improving the No-Action Alternative. Minor and NPS ability to provide in-depth education moderate impacts are caused by the to the public on resource issues and existing road through the monument and resource protection. by visitor use in concentrated areas such as the Lava Flow Trail and the Lenox Crater Constructing a new trail from Bonito Trail. In addition to those mentioned, Campground to the Lenox Crater/Lava there would be other, less severe effects as Flow Trail area would cause a minor a result of implementing this alternative. impact to the area and associated natural resources, because it would be constructed Because there would be no major adverse adjacent to the existing road and in the impacts to resources whose conservation is area of an informal trail. Theses impacts (1) necessary to fulfill specific purposes in would include increased soil compaction, the establishing legislation or introduction of nonnative plants, and proclamation for Sunset Crater Volcano destruction of native vegetation, although National Monument; (2) key to the natural the trail would be planned and or cultural integrity of the park or to constructed to avoid destroying as much opportunities for enjoyment of the park; vegetation as possible. or (3) identified as a goal in relevant National Park Service planning documents, The addition of new Extended Learning there would be no impairment of the Zones near the new visitor center and in park’s resources or values. the Lenox Crater/Lava Flow Trail area would increase impacts to natural Effects of Alternative 1 processes and systems in these areas. Trail (Preferred): Focus on development for self-guided activities Extended Learning could cause an increase in introduction and spread of nonnative plant species and IMPACT ANALYSIS soil compaction, as well as destruction of native vegetation. Cinder soil and Impacts under Alternative 1 resulting from vegetation succession processes would be expansion of Bonito Campground, further disturbed in a wider area. There continued use of FR545, construction of

131 ENVIRONMENTAL CONSEQUENCES would be a long-term minor adverse less severe effects as a result of impact to natural systems and processes in implementing this alternative. these areas due to trail construction and Because there would be no major adverse visitor use impacts. impacts to resources whose conservation is Under this alternative, approximately (1) necessary to fulfill specific purposes in 1,500 acres would be added to the the establishing legislation or monument through minor boundary proclamation for Sunset Crater Volcano adjustments. These additional acres would National Monument; (2) key to the natural increase Sunset Crater Volcano’s area by or cultural integrity of the park or to nearly 50%, and nearly all of this area opportunities for enjoyment of the park; would be closed to visitor use. This would or (3) identified as a goal in relevant be a moderate beneficial impact to natural National Park Service planning documents, systems and processes, as it would protect there would be no impairment of the the fragile cinder substrate from further park’s resources or values. disturbance, allowing soil formation and vegetation succession processes to Effects of Alternative 2: continue in an unimpeded manner. Emphasize Quiet Natural The formalization of a backcountry closure Setting while Providing policy at Sunset Crater Volcano would Diverse Opportunities for have a moderate beneficial effect on Visitor Use preserving the long-term integrity of natural resources by eliminating impacts IMPACT ANALYSIS from visitation, including social trails, and Impacts under Alternative 2 resulting from disruption of vegetative processes as construction of new curatorial, mentioned earlier. Less than 5% of the maintenance, and resource management monument’s land would be open and facilities, the closure of the O’Leary Peak available for visitor use. The beneficial Road, and the continued use of the Lava effects of closure would be dependent on Flow and Lenox Crater Trails would be the adequate enforcement and proactive NPS same as described for the No-Action management within the designated Alternative. preservation zone. Entry to the monument would be CUMULATIVE EFFECTS completely altered under this alternative. The cumulative effects for Alternative 1 FR545 from US89 to Bonito Park would be would be the same as those described for closed and rehabilitated, as would the the No-Action Alternative. section east of the Lava Flow Trail to the new eastern boundary. FR414 would be CONCLUSION upgraded and paved and become the There would be no major impacts to the monument’s entrance road. The park long-term integrity of natural systems of would be closed at night and gated at the Sunset Crater Volcano National Monument new visitor center, which would be located under Alternative 1. Some minor and south of the monument on FR776. Closure moderate impacts would be caused by the of the park at night and elimination of road through the monument, construction FR545 as a through road would probably of the new visitor center, and some trail have a minor beneficial impact to the construction and visitor use impacts in the long-term integrity of natural processes Extended Learning Zones. In addition to and systems. Traffic on portions of the those mentioned, there would be other, road still remaining would be greatly

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reduced and occur only during daylight The existing visitor center, housing area, hours. This would substantially reduce and maintenance facilities, and the USFS- disturbance of wildlife movement patterns managed Bonito Campground would be and disturbance due to noise. After-hours removed and the areas rehabilitated. This access to the park would be limited, which would return natural processes, would greatly deter trespass. vegetation, and wildlife habitat to an area that has been impacted for many years. Both FR776 and FR414 would need to be Though the removal of buildings and upgraded and paved under this facilities would cause short-term adverse alternative. FR776 is currently a well- impacts to the area from movement and maintained gravel road, and activities activities of construction vehicles, the long- involved in paving it would cause term impacts would be moderate and negligible to minor impacts to natural beneficial. processes during actual construction and for the long term. FR414 is an Under Alternative 2, FR545 west of Lava unmaintained road in cinder substrate and Flow Trail and north of Sunset Crater would need considerable work. Widening would be converted to a walking trail. and leveling of the road would necessitate Conversion of the road east of the Lava removal of some ponderosa pines and Flow Trail to a walking trail would be understory vegetation along its length. beneficial to the primary monument This could also alter drainage patterns. resource by removing the road from the Adverse impacts from this activity would shoulder of the volcano. Currently, the be moderate and long term. road alters the natural slope of the cinder cone, which affects the rate and manner The construction of a new visitor center of cinder movement down the slope. and associated facilities would disturb an Converting the road to a trail would lessen unknown area of ponderosa pine forest. the alteration of slope and allow a more An unknown number of trees would need natural cinder movement process. Also, to be removed for the construction of impacts due to road maintenance would these buildings, parking areas, and be reduced. However, there is some campground, altering wildlife habitat. This chance that visitors would wish to leave would have a long-term, minor impact on the trail to explore new areas of the natural systems and processes in the monument and in the process create new immediate area. The relocation of the trails, compact soils, and disturb native visitor center to a new park entrance vegetation, a minor, long-term, adverse would have a beneficial effect on impact. preserving the long-term integrity of natural systems and processes by ensuring Placing a trail around Bonito Park would that most visitors are adequately informed cause minor adverse impacts to the about the significance and fragility of vegetation in the area by construction of resources within the monument and are the trail itself as well as by increasing educated about means of minimizing visitor use. Initial construction of the trail impacts from visitation before they enter would require removal of vegetation and the park. On the other hand, greater compaction of soil. Trails can often serve distance between the new visitor center as introduction routes for nonnative and and prime park resources might have an invasive plant species, displacing native adverse effect on the prevention of illegal vegetation and disrupting the plant activities that result in impacts to sensitive composition. Trails can also cause resources. increased erosion and change drainage patterns. Planning and construction of the

133 ENVIRONMENTAL CONSEQUENCES trail would proceed with both of these CUMULATIVE EFFECTS considerations in mind, and all possible The cumulative effects for Alternative 2 actions would be taken to minimize these would be the same as those described for impacts. This trail would also cause the No-Action Alternative. moderate impacts to pronghorn antelope, which use Bonito Park as a fawning area, CONCLUSION and are sensitive to human presence. There would be no major impacts to the The Extended Learning Zone in this long-term integrity of natural systems and alternative would occupy a larger area, processes at Sunset Crater Volcano encompassing all of Lenox Crater and National Monument under Alternative 2. continuing past the Lava Flow Trail to the Some minor to moderate impacts would northwest of Sunset Crater. The same sort occur with construction of new facilities of impacts in this zone would occur as and new trails, but these would be mostly under Alternative 1, but they would be offset by removal and rehabilitation of spread throughout a greater area. buildings and road segments in other Alternative 2 would involve significant areas. In addition to those mentioned, expansion of current monument there would be other, less severe effects as boundaries to include areas around Bonito a result of implementing this alternative. Park, north of FR776, and minor additions Because there would be no major adverse on the east and north boundaries. This impacts to resources whose conservation is would add approximately 3,600 acres to (1) necessary to fulfill specific purposes in the monument. Boundary adjustments the establishing legislation or would have a minor to moderate proclamation for Sunset Crater Volcano beneficial effect on any natural resources National Monument; (2) key to the natural within the proposed park additions by or cultural integrity of the park or to proactively protecting them from opportunities for enjoyment of the park; recreation and other use impacts. or (3) identified as a goal in relevant Rehabilitation of these areas would begin National Park Service planning documents, to restore more acreage to a near-natural there would be no impairment of the state, which would have a moderate park’s resources or values. beneficial impact on natural resource systems within the monument. Effects of Alternative 3: Elimination of off-trail backcountry access Expand Park Boundaries to throughout much of the monument would Preserve Park-Related have a moderate beneficial impact on the Resources and Provide long-term integrity of natural systems by restoring natural processes in areas that Diverse Opportunities for have been greatly impacted and retaining Visitor Use near-pristine conditions in areas that have IMPACT ANALYSIS been closed. The beneficial effects of closure are dependent on adequate Impacts from FR545 would be the same as enforcement and proactive NPS those described under the No-Action management within the designated Alternative, with the exception of impacts Resource Preservation Zone. caused by the construction of added pullouts near the Kana-A lava flow. Construction of these pullouts would constitute a negligible to minor adverse impact by removing vegetation.

134 LONG-TERM INTEGRITY OF NATURAL SYSTEMS AND PROCESSES

Impacts from expansion of Bonito moderate adverse impact on cinder soil Campground would be the same as formation and vegetation succession described under the No-Action Alternative. processes. The impacts associated with construction The elimination of backcountry access of a new interagency visitor center near through implementation of a formal the junction of FR545 and US89 would be closure policy for the portion of Sunset the same as those described under Crater Volcano north of FR545 would have Alternative 1, as would impacts resulting a minor beneficial effect on preserving the from conversion of the existing visitor long-term scientific integrity of natural center to an education center. systems and processes by eliminating impacts from visitation. The beneficial The impacts associated with Extended effects of closure are dependent on Learning Zones near the visitor center and adequate enforcement and proactive NPS in the Lenox Crater/Lava Flow Trail would management within the designated be the same as those described under preservation zone. Alternative 1. Impacts associated with the trail from the CUMULATIVE EFFECTS campground to Lava Flow Trail area would The cumulative effects for Alternative 3 be the same as described in Alternative 1. would be the same as those described for Development of a new loop trail that the No-Action Alternative, with the travels from the junction of FR545 and following exception: FR776 to Double Crater would cause minor The cumulative impacts of Alternative 3 to to moderate long-term adverse impacts natural systems are largely beneficial, from disruption of soil formation and because it would increase habitat for vegetation succession processes in areas vegetation and wildlife protecting large where there has been no areas northeast and southeast of the disturbance.Expanding the boundary to monument. The development of include approximately 4,500 acres of the additional trails and a new visitor center current OHV area would have a major, would have minor effects on vegetation long-term, beneficial affect on the and wildlife in the area. integrity of natural systems. This would remove significant acreage from CONCLUSION disturbances caused by off-highway vehicles, including crushing and pulling of Alternative 3 would have a major plants by running over them with vehicles beneficial effect on preserving the long- and repeated disturbances of the cinder term scientific integrity of natural systems structure. Expanding the boundary an and processes within the monument. The additional 4,000 acres would also bring the minor adverse impacts that would Kana-A lava flow into the monument, accompany development of the new along with other smaller areas south and visitor center and adjoining extended north of the current boundary. learning zone would be substantially offset by the benefits of additional visitor The addition of a Discovery Zone in the orientation provided at the new visitor southwest corner of the expanded center, the increased NPS and USFS monument would cause some impacts due presence in the area, the inclusion of to visitor use, though at most this would additional very significant resources within involve development of primitive trails. monument boundaries, and the zoning of Dispersed hiking and primitive trail large areas within the monument for long- development could have a minor to term preservation purposes. In addition to

135 ENVIRONMENTAL CONSEQUENCES those mentioned, there would be other, serves as a center of spread for a variety of less severe effects as a result of invasive, exotic plant species. These species implementing this alternative. thrive in disturbed areas and in time could spread away from the road and displace Because there would be no major adverse native vegetation and change vegetation impacts to resources whose conservation is composition, which would be a minor, (1) necessary to fulfill specific purposes in long-term, adverse impact. The heaviest the establishing legislation or visitor impacts to the current monument proclamation for Sunset Crater Volcano resources are concentrated in the Lava National Monument; (2) key to the natural Flow Trail area (both sides of the park or cultural integrity of the park or to road) and at Lenox Crater. Social trails opportunities for enjoyment of the park; develop frequently in the Lava Flow Trail or (3) identified as a goal in relevant area and extend the impact of the main National Park Service planning documents, trail into other areas nearby. For the most there would be no impairment of the part, these impacts occur in cinder park’s resources or values. substrate with more minor impacts Irreversible/Irretrievable occurring to lava, primarily because of its Commitments of Resources more durable nature. Impacts are severe in these areas where use has been Some soils, vegetation, and wildlife concentrated. Primarily the impacts are the habitat would be permanently removed to result of concentrated use on a substrate build trails or expanded visitor facilities that is prone to movement when and to upgrade roads. These would be compressed by foot traffic. In areas where irreversible commitments of resources. cinder is very deep, moisture is not readily available to plants. Because very little Loss in Long-Term Availability organic matter is present, cinder is a very or Productivity of the difficult substrate for plants to become Resource to Achieve Short- established on. Given the added disruption of foot traffic and the fact that foot traffic Term Gain is not confined to just the established Some soils, vegetation, and wildlife trails, relatively large expanses of cinder habitat would be permanently removed areas have been impacted and plant and unavailable for other purposes to succession has been halted. Impacts are build trails, campsites, or expanded visitor moderate and long term in these areas facilities and upgrade roads. Wildlife where use has been concentrated. habitat or vegetation could also be Construction activities under all of the degraded by providing increased access to action alternatives would disturb soils and undisturbed areas. Wildlife could also be vegetation and lead to the introduction disturbed through the creation of trails and spread of exotic plant species. and the access they provide. Increased social trailing could adversely Unavoidable Adverse Impacts affect vegetation. Wildlife would be disturbed by human activities in the Under the No-Action Alternative, the monuments. existing park road bisects the park and creates a barrier to the movement of many small mammals and reptiles. The vehicles traveling through the monument have a moderate adverse impact on the natural quiet of the monument. The road also

136 THREATENED, ENDANGERED, AND SENSITIVE SPECIES

THREATENED, ENDANGERED, habitat area or important habitat AND SENSITIVE SPECIES attributes within Sunset Crater Volcano National Monument. A sensitive species population or habitat might deviate from Methodology normal levels under existing conditions, Information on possible threatened, but would remain indefinitely viable endangered, and sensitive species was within the monument. gathered, including searching information Major: An action that would have drastic on USFS lands, the natural resource and permanent consequences for a inventory completed in the late 1970s sensitive species population, dynamics (Bateman 1979), and the Arizona Game between multiple species, or almost all and Fish Department Heritage database. available critical or unique habitat area Information from prior research at Sunset within Sunset Crater Volcano National Crater Volcano was also incorporated. No Monument. A sensitive species population management actions that would or its habitat would be permanently knowingly potentially impact any altered from normal levels under existing threatened or endangered species were conditions, and the species would be at included in the alternatives. Map locations risk of extirpation from the monument. of sensitive resources were compared with locations of proposed developments and Effects of the No-Action modifications of existing facilities. Known Alternative: Existing impacts caused by road and trail Conditions construction were also considered. Sociological studies comparing the IMPACT ANALYSIS deterrent effects of signs versus ranger Currently, no federally listed threatened or presence on sites were also considered in endangered plant or animal species are this analysis. Intensity of effects are known to occur in Sunset Crater Volcano defined as follows. National Monument. Negligible: An action that would not There are two plant “species of concern” affect any individuals of a sensitive species for which there are recent records within or their habitat within Sunset Crater Sunset Crater-Penstemon clutei and Volcano National Monument. Phacelia serrata (Huisinga et al. 2000). Minor: An action that would affect a few Penstemon clutei is a perennial, endemic individuals of sensitive species or have very to northern Arizona and found mostly at localized impacts upon their habitat within Sunset Crater and nearby cinder cones. Its Sunset Crater Volcano National distribution is limited to the range of its Monument. The change would require specialized habitat requirements-cinder considerable scientific effort to measure soils on gentle slopes in relatively open and have barely perceptible consequences areas of ponderosa pine forest. Phacelia to the species or habitat function serrata is an annual species also endemic Moderate: An action that would cause to northern Arizona with mostly similar measurable affects on: (1) a relatively habitat requirements and a slightly larger moderate number of individuals within a distribution. Both species have shown sensitive species population, (2) the some affinity to recently disturbed sites, existing dynamics between multiple such as burned areas. species (e.g. predator-prey, herbivore- Under the No-Action Alternative, the forage, vegetation structure-wildlife construction of the curatorial and breeding habitat), or (3) a relatively large

137 ENVIRONMENTAL CONSEQUENCES maintenance/resource management of sensitive species, and to ensure they are facilities have the most potential to impact not impacted by current visitor use, NPS populations of the two plant species of operations, and new construction. Under concern. Rare plant surveys that were the No-Action Alternative, occasional conducted in the monument did not incidental trampling of vegetation during include the administrative area that is on off-trail activities would continue to occur. USFS land, but this area is possible habitat. For these reasons, the No-Action Surveys for these two species would be Alternative would likely have long-term, conducted prior to construction of the negligible to minor adverse impacts on facilities and areas containing populations plant “species of concern.” of these plants would be avoided. One endangered species, the Mexican Expansion of Bonito Campground to spotted owl (Strix occidentalis lucida) is include group camping, a day-use area for known to occur on nearby USFS land. educational group gatherings, and an Another bird “species of concern,” the amphitheater could have minor adverse northern goshawk (Accipter gentilis), is impacts to sensitive plant species in the also known to occur on nearby USFS land. immediate area. Individual plants could be Although not formally listed as “species of destroyed during construction, and long- concern,” pronghorn antelope term impacts could continue due to (Antilocapra americana) and golden eagle trampling and other visitor use activities. (Aquila chrysaetos) were identified as environmental issues during the public and Existing roads, trails, and NPS support agency scoping process. facilities are located in proximity to known locations and/or known habitats for many Strix occidentalis lucida, Accipter gentilis, of the sensitive plants. Routine and Aquila chrysaetos are all found in the maintenance activities have the potential general vicinity of O’Leary Peak, and good to introduce and spread nonnative plant nesting habitat for all three birds is found species, which can compete for habitat on O’Leary Peak. There are likely some and may impact sensitive plant species. negligible to minor adverse impacts to the Current visitor activity near developed possible nesting of these species because areas likely results in localized off-trail of disturbance by humans traveling vegetation trampling. Most of the through the area, which would cause birds monument remains closed to general to alter their roosting and hunting visitor access in order to protect sensitive patterns and, in extreme cases, abandon a natural resources. The backcountry closure nest site. also effectively protects most sensitive As use of the park by endangered and plant habitats from disturbance. sensitive bird species is most likely sporadic Occasional dispersed hiking within the foraging behavior, current NPS park closed area occurs during guided hikes, operations and visitor use patterns are resource monitoring studies, scientific likely to have only a negligible impact. research, educational activities, other Prior to planning and construction of any special uses, and unauthorized hiking. new facilities, the USFS will be consulted Closure of the O’Leary Peak Road to regarding nest locations and surveys may vehicles except for administrative use be undertaken to ensure no disturbance of could have a minor beneficial impact to nesting areas. sensitive plant species. Bonito Park, which is located just west of Continued field studies are needed to the monument, is also on USFS lands. routinely assess the distribution and status Current use is very sporadic; few people

138 THREATENED, ENDANGERED, AND SENSITIVE SPECIES

walk out into the park, and individuals Francisco Peaks and Coconino Plateau on from affiliated tribes collect some plants the west. from the area, but in terms of sensitive An approved recovery plan for the plant species only Penstemon clutei is Mexican spotted owl is being known to occur there. Bonito Park is also a implemented, and the northern goshawk known fawning area for pronghorn is being managed as a species of concern antelope. Owing to the low visitor use of by the Forest Service. These management this area, there is a negligible effect to the actions are most likely having a moderate sensitive species that are found there. to major beneficial effect on these Roads through the monument and USFS populations. The use of the road up lands may present a noise disturbance and O’Leary Peak could have minor adverse barrier to movement of pronghorn impacts to the raptors found in that area. antelope. There also may be incidental Cumulative impacts to the Mexican mortality due to vehicle traffic. The impact spotted owl and northern goshawk are from current roadways and vehicle traffic negligible. is likely minor, adverse, and long term. The widening of US89 to four lanes from In addition to the “species of concern,” Flagstaff to the south boundary of three unique habitats were also identified Wupatki could have a moderate impact on as occurring in Sunset Crater Volcano pronghorn antelope movement in the National Monument: pioneering geographic area because they do not cross vegetation stands isolated in the middle of fenced highways. Pronghorn are declining the lava flows, pioneering vegetation regionally in northern Arizona. Current islands on deep cinder deposits, and the visitor use of Bonito Park is sporadic and downslope perimeter of lava flows where dispersed. Current roads in the water seepage may be more prevalent. surrounding area create a barrier to The generally difficulty in traversing the movement of pronghorn into Bonito Park. lava flow, coupled with the backcountry These impacts are minor and long term closure, effectively protects the pioneering and likely have a minor cumulative impact vegetation island in the middle of the lava to pronghorn regionally. flow. There are no adverse impacts from CONCLUSION current NPS operations on this unique habitat. Pioneering vegetation islands on Under current NPS management there are deep cinder deposits and unique no major adverse impacts to threatened, vegetation found on the perimeter of the endangered, or sensitive species. There are lava flow are subject to some impacts from some negligible to minor effects to visitor use near the expanded Bonito sensitive plant and animal species and Campground and from the O’Leary Peak unique habitats from current visitor use Road. These impacts are likely minor and and NPS facilities. In addition to those long term. mentioned, there would be other, less severe effects as a result of implementing CUMULATIVE EFFECTS this alternative. The geographic area used in the Because there would be no major adverse consideration of cumulative impacts impacts to resources whose conservation is includes the western portion of the Little (1) necessary to fulfill specific purposes in Colorado River watershed and is bounded the establishing legislation or in the south by the Mogollon Plateau and proclamation for Sunset Crater Volcano Clear Creek, the Little Colorado River and National Monument; (2) key to the natural Painted Desert on the east, and the San or cultural integrity of the park or to

139 ENVIRONMENTAL CONSEQUENCES opportunities for enjoyment of the park; these plant species could not be avoided. or (3) identified as a goal in relevant The new visitor center and associated National Park Service planning documents, Extended Learning Zone could have a there would be no impairment of the minor to moderate impact on pronghorn park’s resources or values. antelope that use Bonito Park as a fawning area. Movement corridors from Effects of Alternative 1 lower elevation grassland into Bonito Park (Preferred): Focus on have not been identified, but may be Extended Learning through or near the area where the new visitor center is proposed to be located. IMPACT ANALYSIS Increased human and vehicle presence The impacts on endangered and sensitive could disrupt the pronghorns’ traditional species and unique habitats from use and movement patterns. maintenance of FR545 and the O’Leary The new trail from the campground to the Peak Road and expansion of Bonito Lenox Crater/Lava Flow Trail area would Campground would be the same as those have only negligible to minor impact on identified for the No-Action Alternative sensitive plant species, because it would be The impacts on endangered and sensitive located along a currently used social trail, species and unique habitats from visitor where the soil is already compacted. This activities at the Lava Flow and Lenox trail could have a long-term, minor Crater Trails would be the same as under adverse impact on the unique habitat the No-Action Alternative. associated with the base of the lava flow. Visitor use could lead to trampling of Impacts on endangered and sensitive unique vegetation associations and young species and unique habitats from NPS aspens. operation and maintenance of the existing visitor center, employee housing, offices, New trail construction in the Extended shops, parking lots, and utilities would Learning Zones could have an adverse remain highly concentrated at the same minor impact to sensitive plant species by locations and would be the same as those removing individual plants and identified for the No-Action Alternative. compacting soils, but trails can be placed so as to avoid concentrated areas of the The existing backcountry closure area plant. Trail construction and visitor would be formally recognized as a trampling in the Extended Learning Zone Resource Preservation Zone, and between Lenox and Sunset Craters could unauthorized access would be prohibited. destroy individuals of the species, Visitor use and NPS operations impacts to although areas containing the plants sensitive species and unique habitats would be avoided to the extent possible. within the Resource Preservation Zone Isolated successional vegetation islands would be the same as identified for the could be impacted by visitor use, as well, No-Action Alternative. although trails will be planned to The construction of a new visitor center minimize any possible impacts. near US89 could cause minor impacts to Boundary adjustments would have a minor sensitive plant species because of to moderate beneficial impact on any vegetation removal and the introduction sensitive species located within proposed of nonnative plants. Surveys to determine park additions, as the new land will be locations of sensitive plant species would placed within the Resource Preservation be conducted and appropriate mitigation Zone. This would reduce or eliminate any would be employed if areas containing visitor use impacts.

140 THREATENED, ENDANGERED, AND SENSITIVE SPECIES

CUMULATIVE EFFECTS The impacts on sensitive species and unique habitats from visitor activities at The cumulative effects of Alternative 1 the Lava Flow and Lenox Crater Trails would be similar to those expected under would be the same as described for the the No-Action Alternative. No-Action Alternative. CONCLUSION The existing backcountry closure area Alternative 1 would cause no major effects would be formally recognized as a to threatened, endangered, or sensitive Resource Preservation Zone, and species or unique habitats. There is the unauthorized access would be prohibited. possibility of minor adverse impacts to Visitor use and NPS operations impacts to sensitive plant species where new trails sensitive species and unique habitats and facilities would be constructed, within the Resource Preservation Zone however, surveys prior to these activities would be the same as identified for the would minimize any impacts. There could No-Action Alternative. be minor to moderate impacts to Under Alternative 2 the road system and pronghorn antelope use of Bonito Park as the way vehicles enter the park would be a fawning area due to disruption of significantly changed. Closing portions of movement corridors and human FR545 and rehabilitating them would have disturbance. In addition to those beneficial impacts on pronghorn mentioned, there would be other, less movement and sensitive plant species. severe effects as a result of implementing However, this benefit could be offset by this alternative. the upgrading and paving of both FR414 Because there would be no major adverse and FR776. The ability to close the impacts to resources whose conservation is monument during the night would (1) necessary to fulfill specific purposes in minimize impacts from vehicle traffic and the establishing legislation or illegal activities, giving added protection proclamation for Sunset Crater Volcano to all sensitive species within the National Monument; (2) key to the natural boundaries. or cultural integrity of the park or to Construction of a new visitor center, opportunities for enjoyment of the park; associated facilities, and campground or (3) identified as a goal in relevant would cause some short-term minor National Park Service planning documents, adverse impacts to sensitive plant species there would be no impairment of the during the construction and associated park’s resources or values. ground disturbance and minor long-term Effects of Alternative 2: impacts due to loss of habitat and visitor use. However, these impacts may be offset Emphasize Quiet Natural by the removal and rehabilitation of the Setting while Providing existing visitor center, associated facilities, Diverse Opportunities for and campground. FR545 west of Lava Flow Trail and north of Sunset Crater would be Visitor Use converted to a walking trail, which could IMPACT ANALYSIS have a negligible adverse impact to sensitive plant habitat if visitors were The impacts on sensitive species and allowed to wander off the existing road unique habitats from use and maintenance area and impact new areas. of the O’Leary Peak Road would be the same as those identified for the No-Action The trail construction and use around Alternative. Bonito Park would have a minor adverse

141 ENVIRONMENTAL CONSEQUENCES impact to sensitive plants, owing to CONCLUSION removal of vegetation and soil compaction Alternative 2 would cause no major of the trail, though the trail could be impacts to threatened, endangered, or routed to avoid areas where these plants sensitive species. Some negligible to minor grow. However, off-trail trampling and effects to sensitive plant species would illegal collection would have a long-term occur from construction of new facilities minor impact on these species. This trail and hiking trails. Moderate impacts may would also have a moderate adverse effect occur to pronghorn movement and use of on pronghorn antelope that use Bonito Bonito Park as a fawning area. In addition Park as a fawning area. Pronghorn are to those mentioned, there would be other, sensitive to human presence and avoid less severe effects as a result of contact with people. Allowing people to implementing this alternative. hike a trail that completely encircles Bonito Park could cause the pronghorn to Because there would be no major adverse change their movement and use patterns. impacts to resources whose conservation is (1) necessary to fulfill specific purposes in The Extended Learning Zone between the establishing legislation or Lenox Crater and Sunset Crater would proclamation for Sunset Crater Volcano likely include the development of trails National Monument; (2) key to the natural and allow more visitors to travel off the or cultural integrity of the park or to trail, which could have a minor adverse opportunities for enjoyment of the park; impact to the sensitive plant species or (3) identified as a goal in relevant because of trampling and soil compaction. National Park Service planning documents, The area included in the boundary there would be no impairment of the expansions to the east and south would park’s resources or values. also give added protection to sensitive species by eliminating off-trail travel in Effects of Alternative 3: these areas. Elimination of off-trail Expand Park Boundaries to backcountry access throughout much of Preserve Park-Related the monument would have a minor beneficial impact on sensitive plant species Resources and Provide in the area by eliminating trampling, Diverse Opportunities for illegal collection, and soil compaction. Visitor Use As use of the park by endangered and IMPACT ANALYSIS sensitive bird species is most likely sporadic foraging behavior, all changes to park Impacts to endangered and sensitive operations and visitor use patterns under species and unique habitats from FR545 this alternative are likely to have only a would be the same as expected under the negligible impact. Prior to planning and No-Action Alternative, with the exception construction of any new facilities, the USFS of impacts associated with the added would be consulted regarding nest pullouts near the Kana-A lava flow. locations, and surveys may be undertaken Construction of these pullouts could to ensure no disturbance of any protected constitute a negligible to minor adverse nesting areas. impact by removing sensitive plant species. CUMULATIVE EFFECTS Impacts to endangered and sensitive species and unique habitats from the The cumulative effects of Alternative 2 expansion of Bonito Campground would would be similar to those expected under the No-Action Alternative.

142 THREATENED, ENDANGERED, AND SENSITIVE SPECIES

be the same as described under the No- The existing backcountry closure area Action Alternative. would be formally recognized as a Resource Preservation Zone, and Impacts to endangered and sensitive unauthorized access would be prohibited. species and unique habitats from the Visitor use and NPS operations impacts to construction of a new visitor center near sensitive species and unique habitats the junction of FR545 and US 89, the within the Resource Preservation Zone creation of Extended Learning Zones, and would be the same as described for the the development of a trail between Bonito No-Action Alternative. Campground and the Lava Flow Trail would be the same as those described CUMULATIVE EFFECTS under Alternative 1. The cumulative impacts of Alternative 3 to Building a new trail from the junction of endangered and sensitive species and FR545 and FR776 to the Double Crater unique habitats would be similar to those area would have negligible to minor identified for the No-Action Alternative. adverse impacts to sensitive plants due to trampling and other visitor use impacts. CONCLUSION There could also be a minor impact to Alternative 3 would have a major pronghorn movement through the area. beneficial impact by preserving more Expanding the boundary to include a habitat for sensitive plant species in portion of the current OHV area could particular. There would be some negligible have a major, long-term, beneficial impact to minor effects to both sensitive plant to sensitive plant species. This would and animal species from construction of remove substantial acreage from potential new facilities and trails. In addition to disturbances caused by off-highway travel, those mentioned, there would be other, including vehicles crushing and pulling out less severe effects as a result of plants by running over them, and repeated implementing this alternative. disturbances of the cinder structure.The Because there would be no major adverse area in the new lands would be zoned as impacts to resources whose conservation is Guided Adventure, except for the hiking (1) necessary to fulfill specific purposes in trail to Double Crater and the Discovery the establishing legislation or Zone. Impacts to sensitive plants and proclamation for Sunset Crater Volcano unique habitats in the Guided Adventure National Monument; (2) key to the natural Zone would be expected to be minor and or cultural integrity of the park or to long term. Any guided hiking routes opportunities for enjoyment of the park; would be planned accordingly to minimize or (3) identified as a goal in relevant impacts to populations of sensitive plants National Park Service planning documents, and vegetation islands. Human presence there would be no impairment of the may impact pronghorn movement slightly. park’s resources or values. In the Discovery Zone, visitors would also have self-guided opportunities in areas Irreversible/Irretrievable without trails, or on primitive trails. Commitments of Resources Trampling and other visitor use effect could have minor adverse impacts on There would be no irreversible or sensitive plants. Visitor use impacts would irretrievable commitments of threatened be monitored in these two areas, and the or endangered species. level of use adjusted accordingly.

143 ENVIRONMENTAL CONSEQUENCES

Loss in Long-Term Availability Sunset Crater (1987), and Holm’s study of or Productivity of the the Bonito Lava flow association with the Sunset Crater cinder cone (1987). Impact Resource to Achieve Short- topics identified through the public and Term Gain agency scoping process include preserving the unique recent geologic volcanic Some wildlife habitat or vegetation could features within the monument and also be degraded by providing increased preserving the scientific integrity of the access to undisturbed areas. Wildlife could associated geologic landscape that is part also be disturbed through the creation of of the Sunset Crater Volcano eruption. trails and the access they provide. Large-scale features include cinder cones, Unavoidable Adverse Impacts fresh lava surfaces, and deep cinder deposits. Smaller features include lava Under all the alternatives, the road system tubes, ice caves, fumerole vents, and would interfere to varying degrees with spatter cones. Geologic resources the local movement or migration of associated with Sunset Crater Volcano sensitive animal species, and would rarely were compared with locations of proposed result in incidental injury or mortality. developments and modifications of Construction activities under all of the existing facilities and current uses. action alternatives would locally disturb Intensity of impacts are defined as follows: sensitive plant and animal species habitats and potentially increase the area Negligible: An action that would cause no dominated by nonnative, invasive plant change in existing geologic features. species. Visitor use would likely result in Minor: An action that would locally affect local vegetation trampling and impacts to only widespread or common geologic rare plants and increased disturbance to features within the monument. The sensitive wildlife species, particularly change would have barely perceptible pronghorn. consequences to the integrity of geologic resources. LONG-TERM INTEGRITY OF GEOLOGICAL RESOURCES Moderate: An action that would affect a unique and irreplaceable geologic feature or a large area of widespread geologic Methodology features within the monument. The This section analyzes the impacts of the change would result in permanent partial various management alternatives upon the loss of the integrity of geologic resources. geologic resources within Sunset Crater Major: An action that would destroy or National Monument. Discussion of impacts permanently damage unique and to vegetation, wildlife, sensitive species, irreplaceable geologic features or most of and unique habitats is presented a large-scale geologic resource within the elsewhere. Available information on monument. The change would result in geologic history and features in the permanent loss and/or largely compromise monument was reviewed, including the the integrity of geologic resources. Flagstaff Area National Monuments Resources Management Plan (1996), Smiley’s geology and dating of Sunset Crater Volcano (1958), Museum of Northern Arizona Notes (1929) on Sunset Crater and lava flow research, Holm and Moore’s description of the geology of

144 LONG-TERM INTEGRITY OF GEOLOGICAL RESOURCES

Effects of the No-Action of the existing road under the No-Action Alternative: Existing Alternative would likely result in continued long-term, minor adverse Conditions impacts to the steep cinder cone slopes. IMPACT ANALYSIS The planned closure of the O’Leary Peak Road to general public use would likely Under the No-Action Alternative, roads, eliminate some vehicle impacts to deep trails, and visitor support facilities within cinder deposits and steep slopes near the the monument boundary occupy peak, and reduce unauthorized access approximately 130 acres, or less than 5% around the western and northern of the total geologic landscape within the perimeter of the monument in areas that monument. The remaining 95% of the are not routinely patrolled. This would monument is closed to general public likely result in long-term, negligible to access in order to protect sensitive natural minor beneficial impacts to geologic and cultural resources. resources on both the Coconino National The new NPS curatorial storage, resource Forest and Sunset Crater Volcano National management, and maintenance facilities Monument. would likely be constructed near existing The existing trail on Lenox Crater also facilities on Coconino National Forest lands traverses steep cinder slopes, and is readily in mature geologic terrain, where soils and subject to the severe erosion problems vegetation are well developed. The new that historically impacted Sunset Crater. facilities would not impact exposed Heavy, unmanaged visitor use upon Lenox geologic features associated with the Crater, one of the only two cinder cones eruption of Sunset Crater Volcano and within the monument, would likely result Bonito Lava Flow. in long-term, minor to moderate adverse Historic visitor use of the Crater Overlook impacts to cinder cone features within the Trail (now closed) on the steep, west- monument. More than 300,000 visitors per facing cinder slope of Sunset Crater year walk the Lava Flow Trail, and the Volcano resulted in deep erosion of the local area surrounding the trail has long trail route. The trail has been closed for been impacted by visitor activity. Many more than 30 years, but the impacts from people wander off the established trail prior erosion and NPS restoration actions into nearby areas of deep cinder deposits, are still evident. Under the No-Action establishing unplanned trail segments, and Alternative, Sunset Crater and most of the trampling footprint patterns into the monument would remain closed to visitor original cinder surface. The NPS has no use, and should continue to recover from information on how long footprint historic use impacts. patterns persist before they naturally The existing entrance road follows along weather out. The Lava Flow Trail also the northwestern base of Sunset Crater passes close to two spatter cones. Visitors Volcano. A level area was cut into the often climb on them, breaking or lower slope for the road base. This causes “polishing” their surfaces and accelerating minor slumping of the cinder slope, and erosion of the remaining features. This small volumes of cinder material must be results in long-term moderate, adverse periodically removed from the road impacts to these local and unique geologic shoulder. The road also provides features. convenient visitor access to the cinder Overnight visitors often hike from the cone, resulting in casual unauthorized campground into the western side of the scrambling on its slopes. The continued use monument, resulting in numerous

145 ENVIRONMENTAL CONSEQUENCES unplanned trails. Visitors frequently climb be rapidly impacted by any combination of and hike the western margin of the Bonito management decisions and activities. The Lava Flow, which may result in specimen primary adverse cumulative impacts from collection, local breakage, or collapse of NPS management would likely result from surface features of the lava flow. In a failure to manage increased visitation, addition, visitors choose to hike along the road traffic, and poorly planned support road shoulder from the campground to facilities. Over time, these circumstances the Lenox Crater area. The current would exacerbate adverse impacts to both expansion of the existing campground large- and small-scale geologic features, would likely result in a relatively small including: erosion and gullying on steep increase in overnight visitation and slopes on the two accessible cinder cones; associated impacts to the western increased wearing of unplanned trail boundary of the monument and the segments in cinder deposits; increased Bonito Lava Flow. Under the No-Action disruption of cinder weathering and soil Alternative, continuing visitor activity from formation processes; and increased the campground area would likely result in collection, breakage, polishing, and long-term, minor adverse impacts to large- collapse of lava flow surface and spatter scale geologic features, similar to those cone features. Although visitor carrying described above. capacity has not been established, a threshold could be reached where the Off-road vehicles infrequently trespass adverse impacts to geologic resources, along the southern and eastern boundary especially unique small-scale features, of the monument. Vehicle tracks are now exceed those stated above in the analysis. evident around the southern base of both Sunset Crater and Lenox Crater. One The greatest cumulative impacts to the incident left permanent tracks across the geological resources of the eastern San entire south side of Sunset Crater. Within Francisco Volcanic Field are mostly a result the monument boundary, trespass off- of activities beyond the control of the NPS. road driving is resulting in long-term, Much of the San Francisco Mountains are minor to moderate adverse impacts to protected under the Wilderness Act. The large-scale cinder cone geologic features. U.S. Forest Service is currently proposing regional minerals leasing withdrawals CUMULATIVE EFFECTS within the San Francisco Volcanic Field. A The geographic area of consideration for pumice mining lease on the eastern slopes cumulative impacts is the San Francisco of the San Francisco Mountains was Volcanic Field on the east side of the San recently bought out and cancelled by the Francisco Mountains and the associated U.S. Forest Service. Strawberry Crater, an area of recent geologic events such as older cinder cone volcano, is protected basaltic volcanoes, vents, lava flows, and within designated wilderness and cinder deposits. managed by the U.S. Forest Service. Except for the wilderness and mineral withdrawal Under the No-Action Alternative, the areas, very few geologic features are cumulative impacts of public visitation and protected within the area of basaltic NPS operations at Sunset Crater Volcano cinder cones and lava flows on the eastern National Monument on the integrity of side of the volcanic field. geologic resources are difficult to estimate. Many of the geologic features Numerous activities are affecting geologic are unique and irreplaceable if lost. The resources surrounding the monument. Off- monument is very small relative to the road driving is causing long-term scarring surrounding geologic landscape, and could in many areas, including distinct geologic

146 LONG-TERM INTEGRITY OF GEOLOGICAL RESOURCES

features associated with the Sunset Crater Sunset Crater Volcano eruption. The Volcano eruption. Commercial surface scientific geological value of Sunset Crater mining for cinder material on private and Volcano National Monument should state lands has resulted in the partial become even greater as associated and removal of numerous cinder cones and is irreplaceable geologic features within the expected to result in the eventual loss of eastern San Francisco Volcanic Field entire cinder cone features. Some cinder continue to be permanently impacted. In borrow pits are still active on the Coconino addition to those mentioned, there would National Forest. Neighborhoods are be other, less severe effects as a result of rapidly growing in the area immediately implementing this alternative. south of the Coconino National Forest, and Because there would be no major adverse local recreational use, such as hiking, impacts to resources whose conservation is horseback riding, motorcycle and OHV use, (1) necessary to fulfill specific purposes in and off-road driving are impacting the the establishing legislation or cinder cones and cinder barrens. Nearby proclamation for Sunset Crater Volcano Roden Crater is being heavily modified as National Monument; (2) key to the natural part of a private artistic venture. Many or cultural integrity of the park or to smaller local features within the eastern opportunities for enjoyment of the park; volcanic field, such as fumerole vents and or (3) identified as a goal in relevant spatter cones, may be completely National Park Service planning documents, obliterated. Lava flows are likely being there would be no impairment of the impacted the least, because of their park’s resources or values. naturally inaccessible terrain. The scientific geological value of Sunset Crater Volcano Effects of Alternative 1 National Monument should become even (Preferred): Focus on greater as associated and irreplaceable geologic features within the eastern San Extended Learning Francisco Volcanic Field continue to be IMPACT ANALYSIS permanently impacted. The impacts from continued use of FR545 CONCLUSION and Cinder Hills Overlook would remain Sunset Crater Volcano has been impacted the same as described for the No-Action by past visitor use, resulting in deep scars Alternative. The impacts from closure of eroded into the steep cinder cone slopes the O’Leary Peak Road would remain the that are still visible today. Existing NPS same as described for the No-Action operations and visitor use in the Lenox Alternative. The existing campground, Crater, southwestern Bonito Lava Flow housing, and maintenance facilities would perimeter, and Lava Flow Trail area are be retained, and impacts would remain resulting in long-term, negligible to minor the same as under the No-Action adverse impacts to large-scale cinder cone Alternative. Although the existing visitor and lava flow geologic features, and long- center would be converted to office space term, moderate impacts to smaller and adapted for educational activities, features, such as spatter cones and lava resulting impacts to geological resources flow surfaces. Development and would likely remain the same as expected recreational use of lands surrounding the for the No-Action Alternative. monument are causing long-term Under Alternative 1, slight boundary moderate to major adverse impacts to the expansion on all four sides would add cinder cones adjacent to Sunset Crater, approximately 1,500 acres to Sunset Crater and geologic features associated with the National Monument. The boundary

147 ENVIRONMENTAL CONSEQUENCES adjustment would include the remainder Trail and Lenox Crater Trail system. The of Lenox Crater at the southwest corner of zone would more than triple the area of the monument and the remainder of the visitor use around Lenox Crater and Bonito cinder hills on the northern boundary. The Lava Flow. Increased visitation would likely expansion also adds a buffer around the disturb and accelerate erosion of the south and east sides of the monument cinder cone slopes on Lenox Crater and between the base of Sunset Crater and the other areas of relatively pristine cinder existing Cinder Hills OHV Area boundary. deposits. Other unmapped, local geologic Lastly, the boundary adjustment would features, such as fumerole vents and allow better control of unauthorized spatter cones might also be impacted by driving access on the O’Leary Peak Road. specimen collection, breakage, and These adjustments would increase polishing of their surfaces. For these protection of more geologic features reasons, increased visitor use within the associated with the Sunset Volcano Extended Learning Zone would have long- eruption. This would have long-term, term, minor impacts to large-scale minor beneficial impacts to the integrity of geologic features, but could have geologic resources. moderate adverse impacts to smaller, more unique geologic features unless they are Under this alternative, as much as 5% of fully mapped and inventoried, and use the expanded monument area would be within the area is carefully planned. used for road and trail access and visitor activities. The remaining 95% would be CUMULATIVE EFFECTS closed to protect the geologic resources. The cumulative impacts upon geologic Establishing a Resource Preservation Zone resources under Alternative 1 would likely would have long-term, moderate be similar to those described for the No- beneficial impacts to the integrity of Action Alternative, except for a minor geologic resources. reduction in off-road driving impacts New visitor center facilities are proposed within the proposed boundary expansion in an area of mature geologic terrain area. having deep soils and well-established vegetation. Constructing the new facilities CONCLUSION would have a negligible impact to Alternative 1 would likely have no major geologic resources within the area. For the impacts to geologic features within Sunset same reason, visitor activities in the vicinity Crater Volcano National Monument. Many of the new visitor center would also have of the impacts associated with this negligible impacts to geologic resources. alternative, including potential cumulative Under Alternative 1, an existing, impacts, are very similar to those described unplanned hiking trail linking the Bonito for the No-Action Alternative. Increased Campground, Lenox Crater, and Lava Flow visitor-use impacts within the proposed Trail would be formalized. Increased visitor Extended Learning Zone between the Lava use of the new trail would possibly be Flow Trail, Lenox Crater, and southern offset because the trail would concentrate edge of the Bonito Lava Flow could result visitor disturbance within a smaller area of in long-term, minor adverse impacts to deep cinder deposits along the route. This large-scale geologic features, such as would result in negligible impacts to cinder cones and lava flows, but could geologic resources along the trail route. result in long-term, moderate adverse impacts to uninventoried, small, and An Extended Learning Zone would be unique geologic features. In addition to established in the vicinity of the Lava Flow those mentioned, there would be other,

148 LONG-TERM INTEGRITY OF GEOLOGICAL RESOURCES

less-severe effects as a result of beneficial impacts to the integrity of implementing this alternative. geologic resources. Because there would be no major adverse Under this alternative, as much as 8% of impacts to resources whose conservation is the expanded monument area would be (1) necessary to fulfill specific purposes in used for road and trail corridors, NPS the establishing legislation or administrative and visitor support facilities, proclamation for Sunset Crater Volcano and visitor activities. The remaining 92% National Monument; (2) key to the natural would be closed to protect sensitive or cultural integrity of the park or to geologic resources. Establishing a Resource opportunities for enjoyment of the park; Preservation Zone would have long-term, or (3) identified as a goal in relevant moderate beneficial impacts to the National Park Service planning documents, integrity of geologic resources. there would be no impairment of the Approximately 11/2 miles of FR545 on the park’s resources or values. east side and 2 miles of FR545 on the west Effects of Alternative 2: side of the monument would be Emphasize Quiet Natural abandoned. Segments of abandoned roadbed would be narrowed and Setting while Providing converted to foot trails for visitor use, Diverse Opportunities for including the reach around the Visitor Use northwestern base of Sunset Crater cinder cone. Slumping and settling of the cinder IMPACT ANALYSIS slopes adjacent to the abandoned roadbed would likely continue as in the No-Action Under Alternative 2, the boundary of Alternative. The remaining reaches would Sunset Crater Volcano National Monument be restored to original contours; however, would be expanded to approximately many geologic features along the route 6,700 acres. This would effectively double were likely obliterated when the road was the area within the monument and constructed and probably cannot be encompass a new visitor center- replaced. The abandonment of portions of campground area to the south; the the existing road would therefore have remainder of Lenox Crater at the negligible impacts to geological resources. southwest corner; the remainder of the FR414, currently a primitive road through cinder hills to the north; and all of Bonito deep cinder deposits around the western Park to the west. The boundary expansion flank of Lenox Crater, would be upgraded would also add a buffer around the south and paved, resulting in long-term, minor and east sides of the monument between adverse impacts to large-scale geological the base of Sunset Crater and the existing features. The central portion of FR545 Cinder Hills OHV Area boundary. Lastly, would be retained to connect FR414 to the the boundary adjustment would allow the Bonito Park and the Lava Flow Trail NPS to better control unauthorized driving parking lots, and the impacts related to on the O’Leary Peak Road. With the this reach would be the same as the No- exception of the Bonito Park area, these Action Alternative. adjustments would increase the level of protection for geologic features associated A new visitor center and campground with the Sunset Volcano eruption, and would be built south of Sunset Crater reduce illegal OHV use outside of the Volcano, in an area of deep cinder existing Cinder Hills OHV Area boundary. deposits. However, this area is close to the This would have long-term, minor Cinder Hills OHV Area and a small cinder borrow pit on the Coconino National

149 ENVIRONMENTAL CONSEQUENCES

Forest, and is already heavily impacted by reasons, increased visitor use within the off-road driving impacts. Therefore, Extended Learning Zone would have long- constructing new facilities at this location term, minor impacts to large-scale would result in negligible impacts to geologic features, but could have geologic resources. Some beneficial impact moderate impacts to smaller, more unique might result because proposed changes in geologic features unless they are fully visitor access would ensure visitors are mapped and inventoried and use within informed of the fragility of the cinder the area carefully planned. cones and other unique volcanic features Under this alternative, a new trail would before encountering them. also be established around Bonito Park, The existing visitor center, NPS employee which is in an area of geologically mature housing, maintenance facilities, and terrain having deep soils and well- Bonito Campground would be removed. established vegetation. The trail and These facilities are located in an area of associated visitor use in Bonito Park would mature geologic terrain having deep soils have negligible impacts to geologic and well-established forest vegetation, resources within the area. and this action would likely have CUMULATIVE EFFECTS negligible impacts to geologic resources. Relocating the campground from its The cumulative impacts upon geologic current location would have a long-term, resources under Alternative 2 would likely minor beneficial impact by eliminating be similar to those identified for the No- casual unauthorized hiking and unplanned Action Alternative, with the following trail establishment between the exceptions: There would be minor campground and the western margin of beneficial impacts from reduced off-road the Bonito Lava Flow. These beneficial driving impacts within the proposed impacts could be entirely offset by visitor boundary expansion area. Establishing an use around the newly proposed facilities extensive trail system and relatively large south of Sunset Crater. Extended Learning Zone within the monument would likely result in increased Under Alternative 2, visitor access and adverse cumulative impacts to cinder cone activity would be expanded considerably volcano slopes, deep cinder deposits, and beyond existing conditions. Approximately small-scale unique geologic features 2 miles of the abandoned entrance road within the monument. would be converted to trail corridors. A relatively large Extended Learning Zone CONCLUSION would be established to encompass all of Lenox Crater, the southern margin of the Alternative 2 would cause no major Bonito Lava Flow, and the northwest base impacts to geological features within of Sunset Crater Volcano. Increased off- Sunset Crater National Monument. The trail access along the trail corridors and boundary of the monument would be within the Extended Learning Zone would expanded to approximately 6,700 acres, likely result in increased disturbance to the effectively doubling the area within the cinder cone slopes on Lenox Crater and monument. As much as 8% of the other areas of relatively pristine cinder expanded monument area would be used deposits. Other unmapped, local geologic for road and trail access, visitor support features, such as fumerole vents and and NPS administrative facilities, and spatter cones, might also be impacted by visitor activities. The remaining 92% would specimen collection, breakage, and be closed to protect sensitive geologic polishing of their surfaces. For these resources.

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The new visitor center, campground maintenance facilities would be retained, facilities, and upgraded entrance road and impacts would remain the same as along FR414 would be constructed in a identified for the No-Action Alternative. heavily impacted recreational use area and Although the existing visitor center would likely have negligible impacts to geologic be adapted for educational activities, resources. A new trail around Bonito Park resulting impacts to geologic features would also likely have negligible impacts would likely remain the same as described to geologic resources. Increased visitor use for the No-Action Alternative. within the Extended Learning Zone and Under Alternative 3, the boundary of trails within the central monument area Sunset Crater National Monument would would have long-term, minor adverse be expanded to approximately 11,600 impacts to large-scale geologic features, acres. This would nearly quadruple the but could cause long-term, moderate area within the monument. The proposed adverse impacts to smaller, more unique expansion area east of the existing geologic features unless they are fully boundary would include significant mapped and inventoried, and use within features associated with the eruption and the area carefully planned. In addition to geologic story of the Sunset Crater those mentioned, there would be other, Volcano, including the chain of related less severe effects as a result of cinder cones, the Kana-A lava flow, and implementing this alternative. the volcanic vent at the opposite end of Because there would be no major adverse the fissure that fed magma to Sunset impacts to resources whose conservation is Crater Volcano and the Bonito Lava Flow. (1) necessary to fulfill specific purposes in These features are currently being the establishing legislation or impacted by OHV use within the Coconino proclamation for Sunset Crater Volcano National Forest. The impacted OHV area National Monument; (2) key to the natural within the expanded boundary would be or cultural integrity of the park or to restored and then allowed to continue opportunities for enjoyment of the park; recovering from vehicle impacts. The or (3) identified as a goal in relevant proposed expansion would also establish a National Park Service planning documents, large buffer area between the base of there would be no impairment of the Sunset Crater and the Cinder Hills OHV park’s resources or values. Area. The inclusion of these geologic features within the monument would Effects of Alternative 3: ensure the long-term preservation of the Expand Park Boundaries to integrity of geological resources associated Preserve Park-Related with the Sunset Crater Volcano, resulting Resources and Provide in long-term, major beneficial impacts. Diverse Opportunities for Under Alternative 3, much of FR776 would be closed to general public use within the Visitor Use expanded boundary area between FR545 IMPACT ANALYSIS and the southern monument boundary. The road would be retained in primitive The impacts from continued use of FR545 condition for NPS administrative use. This and Cinder Hills Overlook would remain would result in negligible impacts to the same as under the No-Action geologic resources. Alternative. The impacts from closure of the O’Leary Peak Road would remain the Under this alternative, as much as 12% of same as under the No-Action Alternative. the expanded monument area would be The existing campground, housing, and used for roads and trails, visitor support

151 ENVIRONMENTAL CONSEQUENCES facilities, and visitor use areas. Another geologic features unless they are fully 70% would be open to dispersed visitor mapped and inventoried and use within hiking opportunities. The remaining 18% the area is carefully planned. would be closed to protect sensitive Most of the area within the expanded geologic resources. Establishing a Resource park boundaries would be zoned for Preservation Zone would have long-term, dispersed, guided hiking. A smaller area of moderate beneficial impacts to the cinder hills immediately south of Sunset integrity of geologic resources. Crater Volcano would be zoned for The new visitor center facilities are dispersed, unguided hiking. In addition, a proposed in a geologically mature area new trail would be constructed to the base having deep soils and well-established of Double Crater. Although these areas are vegetation, and construction would have a already heavily impacted by off-road negligible impact to geologic resources vehicle use, the impacts of proposed visitor within the area. For the same reason, activities are difficult to predict and would additional visitor activities proposed in the depend upon the visitor numbers and the vicinity of the new visitor center would primary season of use. While large-scale also have negligible impacts to geologic geologic features, such as steep cinder resources. cones and deep cinder deposits, would likely continue to recover from vehicle Under Alternative 3, an existing, impacts, sustained dispersed visitor use unplanned hiking trail linking the Bonito would likely cause some long-term minor Campground, Lenox Crater, and Lava Flow adverse impacts. Other unmapped, local Trail would be formalized. Increased geologic features, such as fumerole vents visitor-use of the new trail would possibly and spatter cones might also be impacted be offset because the trail would by specimen collection, breakage, and concentrate visitor disturbance within a polishing of their surfaces. Sustained, smaller area of deep cinder deposits along dispersed visitor activity within the Guided the route. This would result in negligible Adventure Zone and Discovery Zone could impacts to geologic resources along the have moderate impacts to smaller, more trail route. unique geologic features unless they are An Extended Learning Zone would be fully mapped and inventoried and use established in the vicinity of the Lava Flow within the area is carefully planned. Trail and Lenox Crater Trail. The zone would more than triple the area of visitor CUMULATIVE EFFECTS use around the Lava Flow Trail, Lenox Under Alternative 3, the cumulative Crater, and Bonito Lava Flow. Increased impacts on geologic resources within the visitation would likely disturb and existing monument boundary would likely accelerate erosion of the cinder cone be similar to those described for the No- slopes on Lenox Crater, and disturb areas Action Alternative. The proposed of relatively pristine cinder deposits. Other boundary expansion would include unmapped, local geologic features, such as significant geologic resources associated fumerole vents and spatter cones might with the eruption of Sunset Crater also be impacted by specimen collection, Volcano. This action would reduce major, breakage, and polishing of their surfaces. long-term adverse cumulative impacts to For these reasons, increased visitor use these resources by eliminating the within the Extended Learning Zone would potential impacts of increased OHV use in have long-term, minor impacts to large- the future. scale geologic features, but could have moderate impacts to smaller, more unique

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CONCLUSION (1) necessary to fulfill specific purposes in the establishing legislation or Alternative 3 would likely have no major proclamation for Sunset Crater Volcano impacts to geologic features within Sunset National Monument; (2) key to the natural Crater Volcano National Monument. or cultural integrity of the park or to Visitor use impacts to geologic resources opportunities for enjoyment of the park; within the original monument boundary or (3) identified as a goal in relevant are very similar to the No-Action National Park Service planning documents, Alternative. The boundary would be there would be no impairment of the expanded to include significant geologic park’s resources or values. resources associated with the eruption of Sunset Crater Volcano. This action would Irreversible/Irretrievable ensure the long-term integrity of geologic Commitments of Resources resources by protecting them from increased off-road-driving impacts. The management alternatives all propose Increased visitor use impacts within the varying degrees of visitor access to large- proposed Extended Learning Zone scale geologic resources, such as cinder between the Lava Flow Trail, Lenox Crater, cone volcanoes, lava flows, and expanses and southern edge of the Bonito Lava of deep cinder deposits. There are small- Flow could result in long-term, minor scale, unique volcanic features associated adverse impacts to large-scale geologic with this landscape that are irreplaceable, features, such as cinder cones and lava including spatter cones, fumerole vents, flows, but could result in long-term, collapsed fissures, ice caves, lava tubes, moderate adverse impacts to and distinct lava surface features. These uninventoried, small, and unique geologic small-scale features would be permanently features. Dispersed guided and unguided impacted to varying degrees by visitor hiking activity would be permitted within activity, including trampling, breakage, most of the boundary expansion area. polishing, collapse, specimen collection, Although this area is heavily impacted by and accelerated weathering. off-road vehicle use, the impacts of sustained visitor use are difficult to Loss in Long-Term Availability predict, and would depend upon the or Productivity of the visitor numbers and the primary season of Resource to Achieve Short- use. While large-scale geologic features Term Gain would likely continue to recover from vehicle impacts, dispersed hiking activity Under the various management could cause long-term minor adverse alternatives, new facilities (other than impacts to these geologic features. In trails) are generally proposed only in areas addition, dispersed hiking activity could of geologically mature terrain, which have cause long-term, moderate adverse weathered to deep soils and are impacts to smaller, more unique geologic completely covered by vegetation, or areas features unless they are fully mapped and that have been heavily impacted by off- inventoried, and use within the area is road vehicle driving. None of the carefully planned. In addition to those alternatives would result in the loss of mentioned, there would be other, less long-term availability or productivity of severe effects as a result of implementing geologic resources within Sunset Crater this alternative. National Monument. Because there would be no major adverse impacts to resources whose conservation is

153 ENVIRONMENTAL CONSEQUENCES

Unavoidable Adverse Impacts the regional context of the park. Also considered were the ability to exercise Sunset Crater Volcano has been impacted personal freedom during a park visit, the by past visitor use, resulting in deep scars provision of traditional employee/visitor eroded into the steep cinder cone slopes experiences (interpretation through that are still visible today. Under the personal services, and access to favorite various management alternatives, road sites), and the ability to participate in and trail corridors, parking lots, and visitor traditional recreational activities (biking, facilities would occupy as little as 5% or as climbing, hiking, etc.). much as 12% of the total landscape within the monument boundary. Roads would Visitor surveys and personal observation of remain within previously disturbed areas, visitation patterns combined with negating adverse impacts to existing assessment of what is available to visitors geologic features. New visitor and NPS under current management were used to support facilities (other than trails) are estimate the effects of the actions in the only proposed in areas of geologically various alternatives. The impact on the mature terrain or areas impacted by off- ability of the visitor to experience a full road vehicle driving, negating adverse range of park resources was analyzed by impacts to existing geologic features. examining resources identified in the park Visitor-use of new trails and within the significance statement. proposed Extended Learning, Guided Negligible: The impact is barely Adventure, and Discovery Zones would detectable, and/or will affect few visitors. provide access to large-scale geologic resources, such as cinder cone volcanoes, Minor: The impact is slight, but lava flows, and expanses of deep cinder detectable, and/or will affect some visitors. deposits. There are small-scale, unique Moderate: The impact is readily apparent volcanic features associated with this and/or will affect many visitors. landscape that are irreplaceable, including Major: The impact is severely adverse or spatter cones, fumerole vents, collapsed exceptionally beneficial and/or will affect fissures, ice caves, lava tubes, and distinct the majority of visitors. lava surface features. These small-scale features would be permanently impacted Effects of the No-Action to varying degrees by visitor activity, including trampling, breakage, polishing, Alternative: Existing collapse, specimen collection, and Conditions accelerated weathering. IMPACT ANALYSIS ABILITY TO EXPERIENCE PARK Effects on Access to Park Resources RESOURCES by the General Public and by Visitors with Disabilities Methodology Under this alternative, most visitors would This topic includes analysis of the continue to visit Sunset Crater Volcano as a following broad areas: access to park drive-through experience in conjunction resources by the general public and by with Wupatki, via the 36-mile loop road visitors with disabilities; access to (FR545) that connects the two parks. The information provided by collections (ability typical visitor opportunity to experience to see the “real thing”) and to a minimally park resources would remain a fairly linear altered environment; and the ability of the encounter with the volcanic features public to understand park resources and visible along the road, on the Lava Flow

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Trail, and from an overlook or two. Annual visitation at Sunset Crater Volcano Geologic features crucial to an has fluctuated widely in recent years, understanding of this larger story, owing in part to changes in counting and including Lenox Crater, the Kana-A lava reporting methods. The average is 194,245 flow, and the Cinder Hills, lie partially or visitors per year since 1997. If numbers completely outside park boundaries; this increase in accordance with local and creates challenges to understanding of the regional population growth, crowding will full Sunset Crater eruption story as a be inevitable within the lifetime of this sequence of events along a 15-km fissure, plan. The perceived uncrowded involving successive lava flows, formation atmosphere is a major benefit to today’s of other volcanic cones, cinder and visitors; deterioration of this quality would ashfalls, and the “curtain of fire” activity. constitute a major adverse impact. Visitor satisfaction with the current park Visitor activities within the park are experience is high as measured by the limited to established roads and trails. A Visitor Survey Card responses. (Machlis variety of less-structured opportunities 2000) The 2000 survey showed that 98% of exist outside park boundaries, on USFS visitors were satisfied with opportunities lands. for “learning about nature, history or Traditional interpretive services would culture” and 97% were satisfied with continue, including guided walks on the sightseeing opportunities. Eighty-four Lava Flow Trail and evening programs, in percent were satisfied with outdoor cooperation with the USFS, at Bonito recreation (camping, bicycling, boating, Campground. Continuation of these hiking, etc.) opportunities. This indicates a activities would be a moderate benefit to major long-term beneficial impact. visitors. Much of the existing Sunset Crater In this alternative, the Cinder Hills OHV Volcano experience, including the visitor Area is expected to continue operation, center, one loop of the Lava Flow Trail, under USFS management, in accordance and the trailhead rest rooms, would be with guidelines and policies set forth in available for visitors with physical and the FLEA Plan. OHV users are estimated by other challenges. Some of the volcanic the USFS at approximately 30,000 per year, landscape and major features are visible the equivalent of 15% of park visitation. from the road and roadside pullouts and Continuation of this use is a moderate overlooks. Planned interpretive benefit to this group, based on their improvements would serve visitors with numbers. Bicycling along FR545 would various impairments, but current exhibits likely increase in popularity as the have no special modifications. Written and population of Flagstaff continues to grow. Braille scripts would be available for the orientation audiovisual program in the Effects on Access to Information visitor center. The beneficial impact is Provided by Collections (Ability to moderate to major and long term. See the “Real Thing”) and to a According to a recent visitor survey (Lee Minimally Altered Environment and Treadwell 1999), Sunset Crater Volcanic rock specimens and other items Volcano visitors do not generally feel would be displayed in the visitor center, crowded. On a scale of 1.0 = not at all and visitors would be allowed to handle crowded to 9.0 = extremely crowded, the representative specimens. Opportunities to average response was 2.0. see the “real thing” close up would continue via the Lava Flow self-guided trail

155 ENVIRONMENTAL CONSEQUENCES at the base of the volcano. Approximately environment. The Cinder Hills Off-Highway 83% of visitors walk this trail, where a Vehicle (OHV) Area would continue to variety of volcanic features can be seen operate in a highly visible area near the adjacent to the trail, including two types park with some mitigating measures of lava flows, lava tubes, and spatter through the FLEA plan. Visitors may cones. The Lenox Crater Trail would continue to encounter impacts from the provide firsthand experience of hiking on Cinder Hills Overlook and may continue to a cinder cone as well as views of the be confused over this apparently volcanic terrain below. conflicting use. Impact on visitor experience may be minor to moderate, The existing level of access is a major long-term and adverse. benefit to visitors interested in short walks and a general introduction to volcanic Spectacular scenery is the most important landforms. Visitors interested in longer reason for visiting the park (91% of visitors explorations and more remote volcanic surveyed) (Lee and Treadwell 1999). Under vistas suffer moderate adverse impacts. this alternative, visitors would be afforded long vistas, with several significant Few archeological artifacts would be volcanic structures and a broad variety of displayed, reflecting the lack of scenery in clear view. The obvious changes archeological data, sites, and specimens in vegetation and overall terrain along the available within the park, rather than lack drive from Sunset Crater to Wupatki of concern for the human history of the would be available for visitors to see. A area. This is a minor adverse impact, which particularly attractive section of the lava would be mitigated through improved flow, adjacent to the road, would continue museum exhibits, cooperative efforts to to be almost impossible to view, because interpret sites on USFS lands, and of sight distance and lack of pullouts. increased integration of the Sunset Crater Hiking would be limited to two short trails Volcano and Wupatki interpretive within the monument; the O’Leary Peak programs. Road could become a third option for To many visitors, the natural alterations to hiking, following USFS plans to close it to the landscape-lava flows, jagged rocks, vehicular traffic. Ability to enjoy scenery is sparse vegetation, and cinder fields-caused highly important to visitors and constitutes by the geologically recent eruption of a major long-term benefit. Lack of Sunset Crater Volcano overwhelm the additional opportunities along hiking trails signs of human alterations. Upon closer is a minor to moderate adverse impact. inspection, there are many visual The park would continue operation as a intrusions inside the park and within the day-use area only with FR545 open 24 viewshed, including roads and structures in hours per day. Impacts of NPS activities on the volcanic landscape, evidence of night skies would be limited to minor logging, fire suppression, farming, and an lighting at the visitor center and residence active pumice mine. Erosion, social trails, area across the road from the campground and trampled vegetation are evidence of and would be of negligible impact. heavy use in areas like the Lava Flow Trail. Prominent scars remain from the old trail Much of the existing park experience to the summit of Sunset Crater Volcano, occurs within earshot of the road, and which has been closed since 1973. Such ability to hear natural sounds depends on intrusions would be interpreted as the amount of vehicle traffic. Some parts illustrations of the fragility of this rocky of the Lava Flow Trail and the summit of landscape, but present a moderate adverse Lenox Crater offer a greater opportunity impact to those seeking a pristine to escape sounds of the road and parking

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lot. Closely related features located seeking the independent drive-through outside park boundaries offer a peaceful experience no longer available at Grand atmosphere with natural soundscapes; Canyon. these include Bonito Park (between Increased visitation and/or increased passing cars) and O’Leary Peak. length of stay would impact uncrowded Preservation of this aspect would be a visitor experiences within the park, major long-term benefit to visitors. probably to a minor degree. Increased Effects on Ability of Public to length of stay by visitors would also impact Understand Park Resources and the ability to understand park resources, since Regional Context of the Park these visitors would probably devote more time to visitor center exhibits, wayside The existing visitor center would continue exhibits, interpretive programs, or to be used. Museum exhibits are limited in otherwise learning about the park. In this scope and outdated. Neither these nor alternative, a major benefit is expected existing wayside exhibits convey an from NPS actions. Increased visitation to adequate understanding of the geological the park could be mitigated by increased story, ecological processes, or changing use of the forest by traditional park plant communities visible along the road visitors. between Sunset Crater Volcano and Wupatki, and the interrelated Widening of US89 by ADOT will result in a archeological story is not apparent. A four-lane highway north from Flagstaff to major planning effort is under way, both Sunset Crater Volcano and Wupatki concurrent with this general management entrances, and this level of improvement plan, that will update museum and will eventually extend to Page, Arizona. wayside exhibits and will result in a long- This could increase park visitation. Visitors term major benefit for visitors. might also be willing to spend more time exploring the park. Impact on uncrowded CUMULATIVE EFFECTS visitor experiences would be minor. The geographic area considered for Development of Roden Crater and the cumulative effects for this alternative subdivision of lots in Alpine Ranchos may includes the Flagstaff Area National increase traffic on FR545 and, incidentally, Monuments, the greater Flagstaff area, through the park. This increased traffic and the most adjacent portions of the would only occasionally result in increased Coconino National Forest. visitation to park resources and facilities, In addition to the impacts described and impact on uncrowded visitor above, external forces and actions of other experiences would be negligible. entities could affect visitor ability to Increased growth of Flagstaff could experience park resources in this increase park visitation by local residents, alternative. Primary sources of these with the possibility of increased numbers additional impacts are the USFS, Grand of repeat visits and the use of the park for Canyon National Park, Arizona traditional recreational activities (biking, Department of Transportation (ADOT), hiking, etc.) could increase. local developers, local residents, and Increased visitation would impact resource-related industries. uncrowded visitor experiences to a Changes in visitor use patterns and moderate degree. Repeat visits could transportation at Grand Canyon National impact demand for traditional Park could result in visitation increases at employee/visitor experiences and Sunset Crater Volcano, especially by those encourage more variety in interpretive

157 ENVIRONMENTAL CONSEQUENCES programs offered. Addition of such the establishing legislation or activities would be of negligible impact. proclamation for Sunset Crater Volcano National Monument; (2) key to the natural CONCLUSION or cultural integrity of the park or to The No-Action Alternative would continue opportunities for enjoyment of the park; to provide major benefits to some visitors, or (3) identified as a goal in relevant particularly those wanting a brief National Park Service planning documents, introduction to the volcanic landscape, there would be no impairment of the with emphasis on major features visible park’s resources or values. from the road or from short trails. Park facilities and many features would remain Effects of Alternative 1 accessible; recent construction of an (Preferred): Focus on accessible paved loop on the Lava Flow Extended Learning Trail would provide access to representative volcanic features and views IMPACT ANALYSIS for visitors with physical disabilities and Effects on Access to Park Resources others whose time or abilities are not by the General Public and for suited to the cinder surface of the longer trail loop. The ability to look at scenery, Visitors with Disabilities especially along FR545 en route to Under this alternative, a new visitor Wupatki, enjoy an uncrowded park center, operated jointly by the National setting, and listen to natural sounds would Park Service and USFS, would be continue as major benefits, at least in the constructed near the junction of US89 and near future. Continuation of traditional FR545 (the loop road connecting Sunset interpretive programs, such as talks, Crater Volcano with Wupatki). This facility guided walks, and campground programs would provide orientation for both park would provide moderate benefits for and forest visitors before encountering visitors. sensitive resources, and they would be Some visual intrusions would remain, both directed to areas best suited for their inside the park and within the viewshed. desired activities. By providing orientation These range from NPS facilities to distant to both NPS and USFS resources, this mines, but all present moderate adverse alternative would provide a major benefit impacts to the ability to experience a to all visitors to the region. The existing minimally altered environment. The visitor center would be retained for office existing visitor center would continue in space and use as an education center. use, limiting the space available for Existing trails would remain as described in interpretive exhibits and contributing to the No-Action Alternative, and new trails incomplete visitor understanding of park would be provided to an overlook on the resources-a moderate adverse impact. As O’Leary Peak Road, and connecting Bonito park visitation increases, crowding in this Campground to the Lava Flow Trail. Public small structure would further impact road access to O’Leary Peak would be visitor experience. In addition to those eliminated, but access to other features mentioned, there would be other, less along FR545 would be unchanged. Actual severe effects as a result of implementing physical access to park resources, this alternative. compared with the No-Action Alternative, Because there would be no major adverse would not be significantly changed. impacts to resources whose conservation is The new visitor center would be fully (1) necessary to fulfill specific purposes in accessible, as would the remodeled

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existing visitor center. All exhibits and that most visitors would avail themselves interpretive programs, audiovisual of new interpretive waysides along the programs, and other facilities in both main park road. This would constitute a locations would be designed to serve all major beneficial impact to visitors’ visitors. understanding of the park and region. A portion of the USFS road to O’Leary The Lava Flow and Lenox Crater Trails Peak would be converted to a hiking trail. would continue to provide visitors General public vehicular access to O’Leary firsthand experience with volcanic Peak would no longer exist. Visitors with features. Sunset Crater could be viewed mobility impairments would be required from above from a trail viewpoint along to get permission from the USFS to drive the former O’Leary Peak Road. The new to the view into Sunset Crater. This would trail connecting the campground to the be a minor adverse impact, based on the Lava Flow Trail trailhead would add the number of vehicles that have actually opportunity to walk along the edge of a traveled this route in the past and could particularly fresh-appearing section of the be mitigated for all visitors through lava. This would be a moderate, long-term photography and exhibits. benefit. The views from O’Leary Peak would The new visitor center building and continue to provide hikers with a regional associated traffic and human activity setting for the Sunset Crater story. It would intrude on an area impacted before would be possible to walk from the only by the passing road. This would be a campground to the existing Lava Flow moderate adverse impact, which could be Trail through a volcanically scenic area. partially mitigated by design and Otherwise, this aspect would remain as landscaping. described under the No-Action Alternative, The absence of vehicles on the former and would be a moderate, long-term O’Leary Road would add to hikers’ ability benefit to visitors. to experience a minimally altered Effects on Access to Information environment, although the USFS fire tower Provided by Collections (Ability to would remain at the summit. The overall See the “Real Thing”) and to a effect would be a minor long-term Minimally Altered Environment benefit. Location of the visitor center near US89 The new visitor center would provide and preservation of the drive-through space for displays of park resources, experience would decrease visitors’ ability including various rocks, plants, and to experience natural soundscapes and animals, and would increase visitors’ ability could decrease chances of seeing wildlife. to appreciate these tangible resources. The addition of an overlook on the Archeological artifacts and sites from O’Leary Peak Road would result in minor throughout the region would be benefit to the ability to experience a interpreted, to provide context for the natural soundscape. Sunset Crater Volcano story and offset the lack of specific archeological data from The new visitor center, serving a larger within the park. This would be a major segment of the public and located more long-term benefit to visitors. prominently near US89, would be designed to serve large numbers without Because this alternative would preserve crowding, but would potentially draw a the drive-through experience described in greater number of visitors into Sunset the No-Action Alternative, it is expected Crater Volcano. Once inside the park,

159 ENVIRONMENTAL CONSEQUENCES these larger numbers would encounter before venturing into the park. Other much the same array of parking areas, visitors would have opportunities to trails, roadside pullouts, and so on, as participate in new educational programs described in the No-Action Alternative. and workshops presented by park staff The Lava Flow Trail, already identified as and/or USFS and other cooperating one of the areas where visitors feel most entities. The building would also house crowded, would become more so. special exhibits containing artifacts from the park, and specifically directed at school The presence of Bonito Campground groups. This would have a moderate to would continue to allow for an overnight major long-term beneficial impact on park stay on the boundary of the park, visitors and on resources. providing the chance to view night skies and encounter crepuscular and nocturnal Traditional interpretive services would wildlife. Expansion of the campground continue as described under the No-Action would result in an increase in the numbers Alternative. Additional guided and/or self- of people using the campground and guided opportunities would probably be possibly the amount of night lighting. added in the vicinity of the new visitor Impacts compared with the No-Action center. Campground plans would include Alternative would be negligible. an upgraded amphitheater and assembly space for group educational activities; Effects on Ability of Public to these facilities might generate increased Understand Park Resources and the demand for interpretive programs to serve Regional Context of the Park these groups. The overall effect would be Up-to-date, expanded exhibits in the new moderately beneficial. visitor center would provide thematic CUMULATIVE EFFECTS interpretation of all the park’s major resources and their relationship to The geographic area considered for regional resources and issues. Visitors cumulative effects for this alternative would also gain an understanding of the includes the Flagstaff Area National regional context of the park and have an Monuments, the greater Flagstaff area, opportunity to learn about surrounding and the most adjacent portions of the USFS lands. After their visitor center Coconino National Forest. experience, visitors would have a better In addition to the impacts described understanding of what they are seeing as above, external forces and actions of other they visit various features in the park. This entities could affect visitor ability to would be a major long-term beneficial experience park resources in this impact to park visitors, and probably to alternative. Primary sources of these more visitors than present because more additional impacts are the USFS, Grand people would be expected to stop at this Canyon National Park, Arizona facility in its prominent location. Department of Transportation (ADOT), The conversion of the existing visitor local developers, local residents, and center to an educational center would resource-related industries. Additional provide new in-depth learning detail follows for each. opportunities for visitors, especially school USFS management within the area of groups. Under this action, school groups consideration could work in combination would have an opportunity to gather their to increase total visitation to Sunset Crater classes indoors, receive programs in an Volcano. These include: appropriate setting, and be introduced to the park’s resources and regional context

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• forest closures and/or increasing interpretive programs, or otherwise restrictions, fire hazard closures, and learning about the park. In this similar changes could direct some alternative, a moderate to major benefit visitors to the park. would be expected from NPS actions. The • USFS “Company’s Coming” program cumulative effect would be the same. and campground expansion could Widening of US89 by the Arizona increase interest in visiting nearby park Department of Transportation will result facilities. in a four-lane highway north from • Cooperative management of the Flagstaff to both Sunset Crater Volcano multiagency visitor center could spread and Wupatki entrances, and this level of visitor use more evenly over facilities improvement will eventually extend all the and features of both agencies. way to Page, Arizona. This could increase park visitation because of time saved en Increased visitation for any of these route on the improved highway, and/or reasons would impact uncrowded visitor because of visitors seeking a more scenic experiences within the park, probably to a and leisurely route (FR545 through the minor degree at any given time. Increased two parks). Visitors might also be willing visitation to the park could be offset by to spend more time exploring the park. increased use of the forest by traditional Impact on uncrowded visitor experiences park visitors. In this alternative, a would be minor, and the cumulative effect moderate adverse impact would be would be major and adverse, as described expected from NPS actions. The cumulative above. impact would remain moderate and adverse. Development of Roden Crater and the subdivision of lots in Alpine Ranchos may Changes in visitor use patterns and increase traffic through the park. This transportation at Grand Canyon National increased traffic would only occasionally Park could result in visitation changes at result in increased visitation to park Sunset Crater Volcano: resources and facilities, and impact on • visitation could increase, especially by uncrowded visitor experiences would be those seeking the independent drive- negligible. through experience no longer available Increased growth of Flagstaff could at Grand Canyon. increase park visitation by local residents, • visitors arriving from Grand Canyon and the number of repeat visits could could have more time to spend, increase as residents return for more because of traffic management there. information and/or additional experiences. The use of park resources for traditional Increased visitation and/or increased recreational activities (biking, hiking, etc.) length of stay would impact uncrowded could increase. visitor experiences within the park, probably to a minor degree. In this Increased visitation would impact alternative, a moderate adverse impact uncrowded visitor experiences as described would be expected from NPS actions. The above, probably to a minor degree. cumulative impact would remain major Cumulative impact would be major and and adverse. Increased length of stay by adverse. Repeat visits could impact visitors would also impact ability to demand for traditional employee/visitor understand park resources, since these experiences and encourage more variety in visitors would probably devote more time interpretive programs offered. In this to visitor center exhibits, wayside exhibits, alternative, this would be a moderate

161 ENVIRONMENTAL CONSEQUENCES benefit to visitors. Cumulative impact would remain the same. In this alternative, for traditional recreational uses, impacts ranging from major adverse to minor beneficial are expected. Additional such activities would be of negligible impact. Cumulative impacts would remain the same. Under this alternative, cumulative impacts of NPS and external actions would cause Because there would be no major adverse no measurable change to visitor ability to impacts to resources whose conservation is experience park resources. (1) necessary to fulfill specific purposes in the establishing legislation or CONCLUSION proclamation for Sunset Crater Volcano This alternative would provide major National Monument; (2) key to the natural benefits to both park and forest visitors or cultural integrity of the park or to seeking comprehensive information on opportunities for enjoyment of the park; and interpretation of regional resources or (3) identified as a goal in relevant and recreational opportunities. National Park Service planning documents, Construction of a multiagency visitor there would be no impairment of the center with new exhibits, conversion of park’s resources or values. the existing visitor center to an education Effects of Alternative 2: center, and installation of new wayside exhibits would provide major benefits to Emphasize Quiet Natural visitor understanding of resources and the Setting while Providing ability to see the “real thing.” Benefits of Diverse Opportunities for accessibility would remain similar to those Visitor Use identified under the No-Action Alternative. Ability to experience scenery IMPACT ANALYSIS would be enhanced slightly and would remain a major benefit to visitors. Effects on Access to Park Resources Traditional interpretive programs would by the General Public and Visitors continue as a moderate benefit, and new with Disabilities programs would be offered, using facilities Under this alternative, visitors would of the new visitor center, education experience many of the same resources of center, and expanded campground. Sunset Crater Volcano as they do presently The new visitor center, despite its major but in a markedly different way than they benefits to visitor understanding, would do under the No-Action Alternative. Entry present the possibility of moderate to the park would be via a new road adverse impacts on uncrowded visitor system using FR776; portions of the experiences, by funneling greater numbers existing entrance road (FR545) would into existing parking areas and trails. This become dead-end spurs to Bonito Park and effect would be accentuated at times by the Lava Flow Trail. Although visitors could the presence of greater numbers and rejoin FR545 east of the park and continue organized groups in the campground. In on to Wupatki, the visit would no longer addition to those mentioned, there would be a drive-through experience; Sunset be other, less severe effects as a result of Crater Volcano would be a separate implementing this alternative. destination that would be closed at night.

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These changes would have a moderate need permission from the USFS to drive to beneficial impact on park visitors for those a view into Sunset Crater Volcano. This who were interested in Sunset Crater as a would be a negligible, long-term adverse destination, and a moderate adverse impact, based on the number of vehicles impact for those who would include it as that have actually traveled this route in part of a trip itinerary. the past, and might be mitigated for all visitors through photography and exhibits. A new visitor center, operated jointly by NPS and USFS, would be constructed south The conversion of road to trail beyond the of the volcano, to provide an introduction Lava Flow Trail would be designed for full to the resources of Coconino National accessibility, as would the new Bonito Park Forest and of both Wupatki and Sunset trail. Crater Volcano national monuments Converting part of FR545 from road to before visitors encounter them. Bonito trail would allow visitors to stop and see Campground would be relocated nearby, the beauty of a large segment of the lava and its existing location would be flow and up-close views of the sides of the rehabilitated. The existing visitor center volcano in a way that is not possible under and related support facilities would be existing conditions. Excellent views would removed and their sites rehabilitated. be available from the new Bonito Park Impacts would be moderate, long term, Trail as well. Views from O’Leary Peak and beneficial to visitors and resources. would provide hikers with a regional The Lava Flow and Lenox Crater Trails setting for the Sunset Crater Volcano story. would remain as described under the No- Visitors continuing on FR545 to Wupatki Action Alternative, and a portion of the would experience the same vistas, former O’Leary Peak Road would be open vegetation changes, and geologic features as a hiking trail. A portion of existing they do now. The impact of these changes FR545 beyond the Lava Flow Trail would would be a major, long-term benefit. be converted to a hiking trail, providing OHV users would be impacted by closure lava flow vistas that cannot now be safely of approximately 240 acres to the west of enjoyed because of road traffic. A new FR776 to vehicle recreation and camping. trail would be constructed in Bonito Park, Impact would be minor and long term. providing access to Bonito Park itself, the OHV users would relocate to the larger ponderosa forest along its edge, and at area south and east of FR776..Depending least one unexcavated pithouse. Effects on future visitation increases, this would be moderate, long term, and alternative would allow management of beneficial. numbers entering the park, through a Much of the Sunset Crater Volcano shuttle and/or reservation system. Should experience would be available for visitors this occur, personal freedoms might be with physical and other impairments. The restricted at times, resulting in moderate new visitor center would be fully accessible to major impacts. (These impacts would be to visitors with all types of disabilities. All offset by continued benefits of uncrowded exhibits, interpretive programs, and experiences described previously.) audiovisual programs would be designed This alternative would provide greater to serve all visitors, which would be a opportunities for hiking and biking than moderate long-term benefit. would the No-Action Alternative, which Road access for the general public to would be a moderate, long-term benefit O’Leary Peak would no longer exist. to park visitors. Visitors with mobility impairments would

163 ENVIRONMENTAL CONSEQUENCES

The campground would be moved to a condition, especially in Bonito Park, along new location. This would be a moderate portions of FR545 that would be converted adverse impact to some campers who use to trail, and in all areas that would be the existing site. rehabilitated to remove evidence of past use. Chances of viewing park wildlife Effects on Access to Information would probably increase. This would be a Provided by Collections (Ability to moderate benefit to park visitors. See the “Real Thing”) and to a Minimally Altered Environment Rehabilitation of heavily used areas would remove some of the intrusions described in The new visitor center would allow views the No-Action Alternative, such as erosion of Sunset Crater Volcano and space for damage, social trails, and trampled exhibits of park resources, including rocks, vegetation. Major scars would remain on plants, and animals, and would increase the volcano and within the viewshed, visitors’ ability to appreciate these tangible including the old summit trail and resources. Archeological artifacts and sites evidence of logging, fire suppression, and from throughout the region would be mining. However, the overall effect of interpreted, to provide context for the these remaining intrusions under this Sunset Crater Volcano and Wupatki stories alternative would become a minor adverse and offset the lack of specific impact to visitors. archeological data from within the park. The new visitor center building and This would be a major long-term benefit associated traffic and human activity to visitors. would intrude on an area that was Elimination of vehicle traffic on FR545 formerly less impacted. This would be a beyond the Lava Flow Trail and conversion moderate adverse impact, which could be to a hiking trail would allow spectacular partially mitigated by design and views of the flanks of the volcano and the landscaping. Bonito Lava Flow that are unattainable The absence of vehicles on the former under existing conditions. These views O’Leary Peak Road would add to hikers’ would illustrate the extent of the lava flow ability to experience a minimally altered and demonstrate the return of life to the environment, although the USFS fire tower volcano and its environs. The Lava Flow would remain at the summit. The overall and Lenox Crater Trails would continue to effect would be a minor benefit. provide firsthand experience with volcanic features, and Sunset Crater Volcano could OHV use would be removed from the area be viewed from above from the former west of FR776, in the vicinity of the new O’Leary Peak Road. Additional experiences visitor center, and this area would be to explore resources would be provided at rehabilitated to lessen evidence of prior Bonito Park and in the vicinity of the new use. OHV use would remain south of FR776 visitor center. Overall, these would be and, because of the proximity to a primary moderate benefits. visitor use area, would be a more apparent part of the landscape than under the No- This alternative would remove Action Alternative. The impact would be administrative and visitor facilities from moderate, long term, and adverse. the heart of the park and provide for rehabilitation of impacted resources. In this alternative, the park would Because the road would no longer cut probably feel less crowded, because of the through prime park resources, visitors elimination of the drive-through would have enhanced opportunities to experience. Most visitor experiences would experience a more natural appearing occur along dead-end spur roads and

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along trails, rather than along FR545. This would exist for formal interpretive talks would result in a moderate to major and other programs at the new visitor benefit to park visitors. center, which would include indoor space to assemble groups. This would be a This alternative would have no effect on moderate benefit. visibility of night skies within the park, because it would be closed and gated at CUMULATIVE EFFECTS night. The experience would be essentially The geographic area considered for unchanged for campers, although camping cumulative effects for this alternative would be relocated from the existing includes the Flagstaff Area National Bonito Campground to the new Monuments, the greater Flagstaff area, campground near the new visitor center. and the most adjacent portions of the Impact would be negligible to none. Coconino National Forest. A geographic Elimination of through-traffic in the park area, a radius of 175 miles from Flagstaff would increase visitors’ ability to was considered for OHV recreation. experience natural soundscapes at almost In addition to the impacts described all major features, which would be a major above, external forces and actions of other beneficial impact to park visitors. entities could affect visitor ability to Effects on Ability of Public to experience park resources in this Understand Park Resources and alternative. Primary sources of these Regional Context additional impacts are the USFS, Grand Canyon National Park, Arizona Up-to-date and expanded exhibits in the Department of Transportation (ADOT), new visitor center would provide thematic local developers, local residents, and interpretation of all of the park’s major resource-related industries. Additional resources and their relationship to detail follows for each. regional resources and issues. Visitors would also gain an understanding of the USFS management within the area of regional context of the park and have an consideration could work in combination opportunity to learn about surrounding to increase total visitation to Sunset Crater USFS lands. After their visitor center Volcano. These include: experience, visitors would have a better • forest closures and/or increasing understanding of what they are seeing restrictions, fire hazard closures, and and the extent to which eruptive events similar changes could transfer some have changed the landscape of the area. visitors to the park. They would be assisted by new wayside • exhibits, which would provide new USFS “Company’s Coming” program opportunities for learning about the park and campground expansion could along the way. Since most visitors would increase interest in visiting nearby park probably rejoin FR545 and continue to facilities. Wupatki as they do now, new wayside • Cooperative management of the exhibits would interpret the natural and multiagency visitor center could spread culture resources that link the two parks. visitor use more evenly over facilities This would be a major beneficial impact to and features of both agencies. park visitors. Increased visitation for any of these Traditional interpretive services would reasons would impact uncrowded visitor continue, including guided walks at major experiences within the park, probably to a features and evening programs at the minor degree at any given time. Increased campground. Additional opportunities visitation to the park could be offset by

165 ENVIRONMENTAL CONSEQUENCES increased use of the forest by traditional cumulative effect would be the same as park visitors. In this alternative, a described above. moderate to major benefit is expected Local development of Roden Crater and from NPS actions. The cumulative impacts the subdivision of lots in Alpine Ranchos would remain the same. may increase traffic through the park. This Changes in visitor use patterns and increased traffic would only occasionally transportation at Grand Canyon National result in increased visitation to park Park could result in visitation changes at resources and facilities, and impact on Sunset Crater Volcano: uncrowded visitor experiences would be negligible. The cumulative impact would • visitation could increase, especially by be major and adverse, as described above. those seeking the independent drive- through experience no longer available Increased growth of Flagstaff could at Grand Canyon. increase park visitation by local residents, • visitors arriving from Grand Canyon and the number of repeat visits could could have more time to spend, increase as residents return for more because of traffic management there information and/or additional experiences. (no stops at viewpoints). The use of park resources for traditional recreational activities (biking, hiking, etc.) Increased visitation and/or increased could increase. length of stay would impact uncrowded visitor experiences within the park, Increased visitation would impact probably to a minor degree. In this uncrowded visitor experiences as described alternative, a moderate to major benefit is above, probably to a minor degree. expected from NPS actions. The cumulative Cumulative impact would be major and impact would remain the same. Increased adverse. Repeat visits could impact length of stay by visitors would also impact demand for traditional employee/visitor ability to understand park resources, since experiences and encourage more variety in these visitors would probably devote more interpretive programs offered. In this time to visitor center exhibits, wayside alternative, this would be a moderate exhibits, interpretive programs, or benefit to visitors. Cumulative impact otherwise learning about the park. In this would remain the same. In this alternative, alternative, a major benefit is expected for traditional recreational uses, impacts from NPS actions. The cumulative effect ranging from minor adverse to moderate would be the same. beneficial are expected. Additional such activities would be of negligible impact. Widening of US89 by ADOT will result in a Cumulative impacts would remain the four-lane highway north from Flagstaff to same. both Sunset Crater Volcano and Wupatki entrances, and this level of improvement Under this alternative, cumulative impacts will eventually extend all the way to Page, of NPS and external actions would cause Arizona. This could increase park visitation no measurable change to visitor ability to because of time saved en route on the experience park resources. improved highway, and/or to visitors CONCLUSION seeking a more scenic and leisurely route (FR545 through the two parks). Visitors This alternative would provide major might also be willing to spend more time benefits to both park and forest visitors exploring the park. Impact on uncrowded seeking comprehensive information on visitor experiences would be minor. The and interpretation of regional resources and recreational opportunities. It would

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be of particular benefit to park visitors there would be no impairment of the wanting to experience resources in a park’s resources or values. quieter, more pristine environment, because facilities would be removed from Effects of Alternative 3: the heart of the park, and the drive- Expand Park Boundaries to through experience would be eliminated. Preserve Park-Related Construction of a new multiagency visitor Resources and Provide center would provide major benefits to Diverse Opportunities for visitor understanding of resources and the ability to see the “real thing.” Changes to Visitor Use the road system, rehabilitation of IMPACT ANALYSIS disturbed areas, and construction of new trails would provide access to a greater Effects on Access to Park Resources variety of natural and cultural resources, by the General Public and Visitors while enhancing ability to experience with Disabilities scenery and a less altered environment. In Under this alternative, a new visitor most areas of the park, natural center, operated jointly by the National soundscapes would be enhanced, because Park Service and USFS, would be of the lack of passing traffic, and visitors constructed near the junction of US89 and would feel less crowded. These benefits FR545. This facility would provide would extend to visitors with disabilities, orientation for both park and forest since facilities and most trails would be visitors, thus improving both awareness of designed for full accessibility. Traditional and access to resources. Visitors would interpretive programs would continue as a receive this information before moderate benefit, with additional encountering sensitive resources and opportunities at the new visitor center and would be directed to areas best suited for campground. their desired activities. The existing visitor There could be moderate adverse impacts center would be converted to an on personal freedoms in the future, if education center. By providing improved reservation or shuttle systems were orientation to both NPS and USFS implemented to control numbers of resources, this alternative has a major visitors. In addition to those mentioned, benefit to visitors. there would be other, less severe effects as Existing trails would remain as described a result of implementing this alternative. under the No-Action Alternative, and two No changes in OHV use are proposed for new trails would be provided: the former the 13 areas within the the 175 mile radius road to O’Leary Peak would provide access of Flagstaff. Cumulative impacts would, to a viewpoint, and a trail would be built therefore, be negligible.Because there connecting Bonito Campground to the would be no major adverse impacts to Lava Flow Trail. Access to features along resources whose conservation is (1) FR545 would be unchanged, and the drive- necessary to fulfill specific purposes in the through experience would be retained. A establishing legislation or proclamation for Discovery Zone would be designated in Sunset Crater Volcano National which visitors could hike without a guide, Monument; (2) key to the natural or with greater opportunities for natural cultural integrity of the park or to quiet, solitude, and undisturbed scenery. opportunities for enjoyment of the park; The overall impact would be a moderate or (3) identified as a goal in relevant benefit to visitors. National Park Service planning documents,

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OHV use would be eliminated from hikers with a regional setting for the approximately 5,000 acres of the Cinder Sunset Crater Volcano story. It would be Hills area within the expanded park possible to walk from the campground to boundary. The Cinder Hills contain highly the existing Lava Flow Trail through a significant resources related to the stories volcanically scenic area, which would of geology and ecology at Sunset Crater constitute a minor benefit. Volcano, which would become easier to The scenic quality of Cinder Hills Overlook access new hiking trails. This would be a would be improved because of the moderate long-term benefit to park removal of OHV use and associated dust. visitors. Decreasing the OHV area by This would be a moderate long-term almost 40% would increase use and benefit. crowding in the remaining area. The impact to OHV users would be adverse, The new visitor center, serving a larger moderate to major and long-term. segment of the public and located more prominently near US89, would be The new visitor center would be fully designed to serve large numbers without accessible to visitors with disabilities, as crowding, but would potentially draw a would the remodeled existing visitor greater number of visitors into Sunset center/education center. All exhibits, Crater Volcano. Once inside the park, interpretive programs, audiovisual these larger numbers would encounter programs, and other facilities in both much the same array of parking areas, locations would be designed to serve all trails, roadside pullouts, and so on, as visitors. described in the No-Action Alternative. Public road access to O’Leary Peak would The Lava Flow Trail, already identified as no longer exist, and visitors with mobility one of the areas where visitors feel most impairments would require permission crowded, would become more so. New from the USFS to drive to a viewpoint hiking trails into the Cinder Hills would overlooking Sunset Crater Volcano. This disperse some of this use, especially for would be a negligible adverse impact, those seeking a longer, more challenging based on the number of vehicles that have experience. actually traveled this route in the past, and OHV users would be adversely impacted by could be mitigated for all visitors through closure of a large portion of the Cinder photography and exhibits. Hills OHV Area. Approximately 5,000 acres New trails would be constructed for would be removed from the 15,000-acre accessibility to the extent possible. Because OHV area and would become part of the of terrain, trails into the Cinder Hills park. This acreage contains some of the probably could not be made accessible; highest use areas of the Cinder Hills and however, new wayside exhibits at the includes the most challenging recreational Cinder Hills Overlook would provide experiences in the OHV area .Impact interpretation of the entire Sunset Crater would be moderate, based on number of volcanic chain, emphasizing features OHV users as a percentage of total park within the viewshed. This would be a visitors. However, it would impact the minor, long-term benefit. majority of OHV users who have used this formally designated area. Many OHV users The presence of the new visitor center would probably seek other areas of the near the edge of Bonito Park would open forest to relocate their recreational new vistas to more of the visiting public. opportunities, which would remain subject The views from the overlook on the to regulation by the USFS. former O’Leary Peak Road would provide

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Hiking opportunities would be greatly walk along the edge of a particularly expanded in this alternative, providing fresh-appearing section of the lava. moderate long-term benefits. Expansion of Guided hikes would be considered for the the campground would provide more Kana-A lava flow, where many significant people, and larger groups, the opportunity lava flow structures are in evidence to camp near the park. Formalizing a trail (delicate squeeze-ups, hornitos, lava from the campground to the Lava Flow bubbles, and pahoehoe lava). Here, visitors Trail would expand recreational could experience the “real thing” and a opportunities for hikers; especially those minimally affected environment within a based in the campground. This would be a short distance of the main park road. minor beneficial impact. Benefits would be moderate and long term. Effects on Access to Information Provided by Collections (Ability to Elimination of OHV use from the Cinder See the “Real Thing”) and a Hills within expanded park boundaries Minimally Altered Environment would allow park visitors a new opportunity to experience firsthand this The new visitor center significant part of the geological story of would provide space Sunset Crater. This would be a moderate for displays of park benefit to park visitors. resources, including Rehabilitation of the impacts on the various rocks, plants, Cinder Hills would eventually provide and animals, and visitors with an opportunity to view areas would increase visitors’ in which succession is actively progressing. ability to appreciate The large landscape features that these tangible resources. constitute a major portion of the Sunset Archeological artifacts and Crater volcanic chain would be restored to sites from throughout the region would be a more natural appearance. Visitors could interpreted, to provide context for the also view a minimally altered environment Sunset Crater Volcano story and offset the from the Cinder Hills Overlook. The overall lack of specific archeological data from impact would be a long-term moderate within the park. This would be a major benefit to visitors. benefit to visitors. The new visitor center building and Because this alternative would preserve associated traffic and human activity the drive-through experience described in would intrude on an area previously the No-Action Alternative, it is expected impacted only by the passing road. This that most visitors would avail themselves would be a moderate adverse impact, of new interpretive waysides along the which could be partially mitigated by main park road. This would constitute a design and landscaping. major beneficial impact to visitors’ understanding of the park and region. The absence of vehicles on the former O’Leary Peak Road would add to hikers’ Lava Flow and Lenox Crater Trails would ability to experience a minimally altered continue to provide firsthand experience environment, although the USFS fire tower with volcanic features, and Sunset Crater would remain at the summit. The overall could be viewed from above from the new effect would be a negligible to minor O’Leary Peak Trail. Depending on the benefit. selected route, the new trail connecting the campground to the Lava Flow Trail The presence of Bonito Campground trailhead, could add the opportunity to would continue to allow for an overnight

169 ENVIRONMENTAL CONSEQUENCES stay on the boundary of the park, The conversion of the existing visitor providing the chance to view night skies center to an educational center would and encounter crepuscular and nocturnal provide new in-depth learning wildlife. Expansion of the campground opportunities for park visitors, especially would result in an increase in the numbers school groups. Under this action, school of people using the campground, and groups would have an opportunity to possibly the amount of night lighting. gather their classes indoors, receive Impact compared with the No-Action programs in an appropriate setting, and Alternative would be negligible. be introduced to the park’s resources and regional context before venturing into the Location of the visitor center near US89 park. The building would also house and preservation of the drive-through special exhibits containing artifacts from experience would decrease visitors’ ability the park and specifically directed at school to experience natural soundscapes and groups. Other user groups could also could decrease chances of seeing wildlife. benefit, because the building could be Conversion of the O’Leary Peak Road to a opened to general visitation and for hiking trail would result in negligible to interpretive programs as well. This would minor benefits in appreciation of the have a moderate beneficial impact on park natural soundscape. Even as part of a visitors and on resources. guided group, visitors would find the Kana-A lava flow a very quiet section of Visitors to the Cinder Hills Overlook, and the volcanic landscape; although only a those hiking in that area, would gain a short distance from FR545, road noise more complete understanding of the would be negligible. In areas designated events that constitute the Sunset Crater as Discovery Zone, solitary hiking in Volcano story, through opportunities to natural soundscapes would predominate.’ view intact cinder cones and a broad volcanic scene. These elements of the Effects on Ability of Public to landscape surrounding Sunset Crater Understand Park Resources and constitute the beginning of Sunset Crater Regional Context Volcano’s story. This would be a moderate Up-to-date exhibits in the new visitor benefit. center would provide thematic CUMULATIVE EFFECTS interpretation of all of the park’s major resources and their relationship to The geographic area considered for regional resources and issues. Visitors cumulative effects for this alternative would also gain an understanding of the includes the Flagstaff Area National regional context of the park and have an Monuments, the greater Flagstaff area, opportunity to learn about surrounding and the most adjacent portions of the USFS lands. After their visitor center Coconino National Forest. experience, visitors would have a better In addition to the impacts described understanding of what they are seeing as above, external forces and actions of other they visit various features in the park. They entities could affect visitor ability to would be assisted by new wayside exhibits, experience park resources in this which would provide new opportunities alternative. Primary sources of these for learning about the park along the way. additional impacts are the USFS, Grand This would be a major beneficial impact to Canyon National Park, Arizona park visitors and probably to more visitors, Department of Transportation (ADOT), because more people would be expected local developers, local residents, and to stop at this facility in its prominent location.

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resource-related industries. Additional impact is expected from NPS actions. The detail follows for each. cumulative impact would remain the same. Increased length of stay by visitors would USFS management within the area of also impact ability to understand park consideration could work in combination resources, since these visitors would to increase total visitation to Sunset Crater probably devote more time to visitor Volcano. These include: center exhibits, wayside exhibits, • forest closures and/or increasing interpretive programs, or otherwise restrictions, fire hazard closures, and learning about the park. In this similar changes could transfer some alternative, moderate and major benefits visitors to the park. are expected from NPS actions. The • USFS “Company’s Coming” program cumulative effect would be the same. and campground expansion could Widening of US89 by ADOT will result in a increase interest in visiting nearby park four-lane highway north from Flagstaff to facilities. both Sunset Crater Volcano and Wupatki • Cooperative management of the entrances, and this level of improvement multiagency visitor center could spread will eventually extend all the way to Page, visitor use more evenly over facilities Arizona. This could increase park visitation and features of both agencies. because of time saved en route on the improved highway, and/or to visitors Increased visitation for any of these seeking a more scenic and leisurely route reasons would impact uncrowded visitor (FR545 through the two parks). Visitors experiences within the park, probably to a might also be willing to spend more time minor degree at any given time. Increased exploring the park. Impact on uncrowded visitation to the park could be offset by visitor experiences would be minor, and increased use of the forest by traditional the cumulative effect would be the same park visitors. In this alternative, a minor to as described above. moderate adverse impact is expected from NPS actions. The cumulative impact would Local development of Roden Crater and remain the same. the subdivision of lots in Alpine Ranchos may increase traffic through the park. This Changes in visitor use patterns and increased traffic would only occasionally transportation at Grand Canyon National result in increased visitation to park Park could result in visitation changes at resources and facilities, and impact on Sunset Crater Volcano: uncrowded visitor experiences would be • visitation could increase, especially by negligible. The cumulative impact would those seeking the independent drive- remain minor to moderate adverse. through experience no longer available Increased growth of Flagstaff could at Grand Canyon. increase park visitation by local residents • visitors arriving from Grand Canyon and the number of repeat visits could could have more time to spend, increase as residents return for more because of traffic management there information and/or additional experiences. (no stops at viewpoints). The use of park resources for traditional Increased visitation and/or increased recreational activities (biking, hiking, etc.) length of stay would impact uncrowded could increase. visitor experiences within the park, Increased visitation would impact probably to a minor degree. In this uncrowded visitor experiences as described alternative, a minor to moderate adverse above, probably to a minor degree.

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Cumulative impact would be major and would be offered, using facilities of the adverse. Repeat visits could impact new visitor center, education center, and demand for traditional employee/visitor campground. Additional guided hikes experiences and encourage more variety in might be offered into the Kana-A lava interpretive programs offered. In this flow, an area not available under the No- alternative, this would be a moderate Action Alternative. Access for visitors with benefit to visitors. Cumulative impact disabilities would be similar to that would remain the same. In this alternative, described for the No-Action Alternative. for traditional recreational uses, impacts All facilities and existing trails would ranging from minor adverse to major remain accessible, but, because of terrain, beneficial are expected from NPS actions. the Cinder Hills experience for visitors with Additional such activities would be of disabilities would probably be available negligible impact. Cumulative impacts only from the overlook. would remain the same. This alternative would result in long-term No changes in OHV use are proposed for adverse impacts to OHV recreational users. the 13 areas within the the 175 mile radius Approximately 40% of the designated of Flagstaff. Cumulative impacts would, OHV area would be removed from use, therefore, remain the same. including some of the most heavily used routes. Remaining OHV acreage would be Under this alternative, cumulative impacts increasingly crowded, resulting in of NPS and external actions would cause moderate to major and long-term adverse no measurable change to visitor ability to impacts to those users. experience park resources. The new visitor center, despite its major CONCLUSION benefits to visitor understanding, would This alternative would result in major present the possibility of moderate benefits to both park and forest visitors adverse impacts on uncrowded visitor seeking comprehensive information on experiences, by funneling greater numbers and interpretation of regional resources into the park. This effect would be and recreational opportunities. It would accentuated at times by the presence of be of particular benefit to park visitors greater numbers and organized groups in wanting to explore the full range of the campground. However, the new access volcanic features significant to the story of to the Cinder Hills would disperse some of Sunset Crater Volcano. this use from existing developed areas. In addition to those mentioned, there would Construction of a new multiagency visitor be other, less severe effects as a result of center, conversion of the existing visitor implementing this alternative. center to an education center, and installation of new wayside exhibits would Because there would be no major adverse provide major benefits to visitor impacts to resources whose conservation is understanding of resources and the ability (1) necessary to fulfill specific purposes in to see the “real thing.” New longer trails the establishing legislation or would provide access to a full range of proclamation for Sunset Crater Volcano features, including intact cinder cones, National Monument; (2) key to the natural volcanic vents, lava bombs, and the broad or cultural integrity of the park or to volcanic scene within the Cinder Hills, opportunities for enjoyment of the park; which make up the beginning of the or (3) identified as a goal in relevant Sunset Crater Volcano story.’ Traditional National Park Service planning documents, interpretive programs would continue as a there would be no impairment of the moderate benefit, and new programs park’s resources or values.

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Irreversible/Irretrievable funneling greater numbers into the park. Commitments of Resources This effect would be accentuated at times by the presence of greater numbers of There would be no irreversible or people and organized groups in the irretrievable commitments of resources. campground. However, the new access to the Cinder Hills would disperse some of Loss in Long-Term Availability this use from existing developed areas. or Productivity of the PARK NEIGHBORS; LOCAL, Resource to Achieve Short- STATE, AND TRIBAL LAND Term Gain MANAGEMENT PLANS; AND There would be no short-term gains LAND/RESOURCE MANAGING affecting long-term productivity. AGENCIES Unavoidable Adverse Impacts Some visual intrusions would remain, both Methodology inside the park and within the viewshed. Concerns covered by this section include These range from NPS facilities to distant effects on neighbors’ access and mines, but all present moderate adverse emergency response, economic impacts to the ability to experience a contribution of the park to local minimally altered environment. The economies, access to culturally sensitive existing visitor center would continue in areas by traditional users, traditional land use, limiting the space available for uses external to the boundary, and interpretive exhibits and contributing to possible conflicts between the proposed incomplete visitor understanding of park action and local, state, or Indian tribal land resources-a major adverse impact. As park use plans, policies, or controls. Levels of visitation increases, crowding in this small intensity of impacts on park neighbors are structure would further impact visitor as follows. experience. Negligible: The impact is barely detectable The new visitor center, despite its major and/or will affect few neighbors. benefits to visitor understanding, would present the possibility of moderate Minor: The impact is slight, but adverse impacts on uncrowded visitor detectable, and/or will affect a minority of experiences, by funneling greater numbers neighbors. into existing parking areas and trails. This Moderate: The impact is readily apparent effect would be accentuated at times by and/or will affect many neighbors. the presence of greater numbers and organized groups in the campground. Major: The impact is severely adverse or Alternative 3 would result in moderate exceptionally beneficial and/or will affect long-term adverse impacts to OHV the majority of neighbors. recreational users. Approximately 25% of Effects of the No-Action the designated OHV area would be removed from use, including some of the Alternative: Existing most heavily used routes. The new visitor Conditions center, despite its major benefits to visitor IMPACT ANALYSIS understanding, would present the possibility of moderate adverse impacts on Many impacts resulting from this uncrowded visitor experiences, by alternative would be of a beneficial nature

173 PARK NEIGHBORS to NPS neighbors and other land and could result in minor, short-term adverse resource managers. Maintaining FR545 as impacts to Forest Service workloads in an always open road would have major, terms of visitor use management activities. long-term benefits to forest users, to the The Forest Service is involved in a major residents living between the two planning effort for a large area adjacent monuments, and to those traveling to the to or surrounding the Flagstaff National Navajo Reservation via Wupatki National Monuments. This plan, the Flagstaff Lake Monument. Mary Ecosystem Analysis (FLEA) is Cooperative efforts with the Arizona addressing several topics, including Game and Fish Department are focused on recreational opportunities, access, roads, preserving wildlife and habitat, which off-highway vehicles, trails, forest health, results in minor, long-term adverse impacts camping, groups uses, special events, to that agency in terms of wildlife outfitter/guides, and commercial uses. The management workloads relative to National Park Service is a participant in this cooperative field and administrative work planning activity and will represent with the NPS. concerns that arise from proposals that affect areas near the monuments. The Cooperative efforts with the USFS have National Park Service review and major, long-term, beneficial impacts on recommendations of the FLEA could result their campground operations by providing in minor, short-term impacts to Forest water and interpretive services. Service administrative and writing Cooperative law enforcement activities workloads. National Park Service input provide moderate, long-term beneficial would be directed at resource impacts to the USFS. The NPS is available preservation, land and resource uses, and to respond to wildfire situations in the appropriate visitor uses and recreational immediate area pending the availability of activities that do not result in adverse USFS personnel, resulting in moderate, impacts to the monuments. Such input long-term, beneficial, impacts to that could result in moderate, long-term agency. impacts to the Forest Service relative to Visitor use of a portion of the O’Leary FLEA elements that could address Peak Road to reach a viewpoint to see into protection of park resources, vistas and the bowl of Sunset Crater would have natural sounds. minimal, long-term, adverse impacts on American Indian groups using the area for CUMULATIVE EFFECTS traditional, cultural purposes. The geographic area considered in this Although this alternative accommodates alternative includes the city of Flagstaff on American Indian access to park resources, the south, the Coconino Plateau Natural any increases in visitor numbers and Reserve Lands (CPNRL) on the north, US89 activities in the monument and on on the west, the Little Colorado River at adjacent forest lands could have minor, Wupatki, the eastern limits of the Cinder long-term, adverse impacts on tribal Hills Off Highway Vehicle Recreation Area members because of increased contacts at Sunset Crater Volcano, and the lands with others when accessing traditional use generally enclosed by these landmarks. areas. Planning efforts by the Forest Service Occasionally, visitors are directed to areas could result in both beneficial and adverse of the Forest to pursue recreational impacts to forest users in areas near the activities not allowed in the monument, monument by restricting some uses and but provided for in nearby locations. This expanding others. Activities taken by the

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state in widening US89 also affect USFS Rancho residents. This would result in a activities in the area. Increasing population minor, long-term adverse effect on those in Alpine Ranchos would increase pressure residents. on USFS for demand for recreational Expansion of Bonito Campground could opportunities for these nearby residents. introduce increased numbers of users in Expansion of the city of Flagstaff would the Bonito Park and O’Leary Peak areas. also increase recreational demand That action, along with visitors hiking on a pressures. These actions would result in portion of the O’Leary Peak Road, could moderate, short- and long-term, adverse cause minor interruptions of American impacts to the USFS, as they have to Indian uses of cultural properties resulting accommodate increasing numbers of from increasing numbers of visitors and resource users. related traffic. The total action would The existing cooperative relationship result in moderate, long-term adverse between the NPS and the other land and impacts to American Indian tribes in the resource managing agencies should result form of increased contacts with others in short- and long-term beneficial impacts during traditional uses. though shared visitor/user services and Activities taken by the state in widening resource management. US89 also affect Forest Service activities in Cooperative efforts with the Forest Service the area. Increasing population in Alpine would continue to produce moderate, Ranchos would increase pressure on the long-term, beneficial impacts in law Forest Service for demand for recreational enforcement, resource management, and woodcutting opportunities for these wildfire management, protection, and nearby residents. Expansion of the city of visitor services. Parallel planning by the Flagstaff would also increase the demand NPS and the Forest Service, and the for recreational opportunities. involvement of each agency in the other’s The combined effects of the proposed planning efforts will have minor, short- actions by all land and resource term, adverse impacts to the Forest Service management agencies would result in workloads resulting from their moderate impacts to one another and to participation in NPS planning, and their park neighbors. The contribution to these accommodation of NPS participation in impacts resulting from proposed NPS their planning. actions would be minor. Arizona Game and Fish Department CONCLUSION activities in the geographic area would consist of management actions to enhance Within existing conditions, the forage available to game animals and to management actions of the NPS provide enhance the populations of those animals. many beneficial impacts to other agencies Their actions would have minor, beneficial and neighbors. Existing conditions result in long-term impacts to other neighbors and only minor, long-term, adverse impacts to land managers in the form of a healthier the workload of others in terms of animal population; more productive game additional administrative tasks, hunts, and increases in wildlife viewing interpretive planning, agreement reviews, opportunities. and joint planning efforts. There could be minor, long-term adverse impact to park Development of Roden Crater as a major neighbors in terms of increased congestion tourist attraction would increase traffic on FS545. In addition to those mentioned, and could create more congestion, there would be other, less severe effects as increasing the commute time for Alpine a result of implementing this alternative.

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Effects of Alternative 1 This trail and viewpoint would result in (Preferred): Focus on minimal, long-term, adverse impacts to American Indians, as it would be a Extended Learning negligible intrusion in the sacred area of IMPACT ANALYSIS O’Leary Peak, and would not disrupt their cultural uses of the mountain. This alternative would provide diverse Cooperative efforts with the Arizona opportunities both within and outside the Game and Fish Department would be the monument boundaries. Partnerships with same as in the No-Action Alternative. the USFS, affiliated tribes, and educational institutions would provide interpretation Cooperative efforts with the Forest Service and consistent management of sites and would be the same as in the No-Action features outside the park that are primary Alternative. to park purpose. The implications of the FLEA planning A new visitor center and administrative process would be the same as in the No- complex would be constructed near the Action Alternative. intersection of FR545 and US89 and would Visitors would be occasionally directed to serve both the USFS and NPS visitor Forest Service areas as occurs under orientation needs. Potential impacts to current conditions. monument neighbors would be negligible, as there would be no disruption of their The implications of widening US89 and the access to, or through, the monument to growth of Flagstaff would be the same as access forest lands, their residences, or the in the No-Action Alternative. Navajo Reservation. The location of a Impacts to American Indian tribes would shared facility in this area would enhance be the same as in the No-Action both the USFS and NPS ability to orient Alternative. visitors prior to their entry to public lands. However, there would be moderate, short- CUMULATIVE EFFECTS term adverse impacts to the USFS in terms The geographic area considered in this of facilities planning and construction, and alternative is the same as that in the No- moderate, long-term adverse impacts in Action Alternative. staffing commitments. Constructing a new shared facility and Under this alternative, the existing Mission managing changes to the OHV area would 66 visitor center would be retained and have moderate short-term and long-term adaptively used, which would pose no impacts to the USFS. impact to neighbors, tribes, or other land and resource managers. The implications of the Forest Service FLEA, NPS and Forest Service cooperative A portion of the O’Leary Peak Road would efforts, and relationships with other take hikers to a viewpoint that allows resource managers would be the same as them to see into the bowl of Sunset Crater in the No-Action Alternative. resulting in minor, long-term, adverse impacts to the Forest Service in terms of Under Alternative 1, a portion of the added administrative and management O’Leary Peak Road would be used by workloads. This trail would remain part of hikers to gain a view into the bowl of the Forest Service administrative access to Sunset Crater. Increased traffic congestion their facilities atop the peak. and construction activities would have minor, short-term impacts on park neighbors in Alpine Ranchos. In addition

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to these effects, subdivision of the Alpine There could be a number of beneficial Ranchos development would increase impacts such as those discussed in the No- population in the area. Development of Action Alternative. Roden Crater would increase traffic. All of Increased congestion and contact with these actions would result in a minor others would have a moderate, long-term increase in traffic on the loop road. The impact on American Indian tribes seeking increase in traffic on the loop road could traditional cultural uses. create more congestion, increasing the commute time for Alpine The management actions of Rancho residents. This the NPS may result in minor would be an intermittent, to moderate, short and long-term, minor effect long-term, adverse impacts on those residents. to the workload of others in terms of additional administrative tasks, Expansion of the campground could interpretive planning, agreement reviews, introduce increased numbers of users in and joint planning efforts. There could be the Bonito Park and O’Leary Peak areas. minor adverse impact to park neighbors in Impacts to American Indians would be as terms of increased congestion on FR545. in the No-Action Alternative. In addition to those mentioned, there The implications of the development of would be other, less severe effects as a Roden Crater would be the same as in the result of implementing this alternative. No-Action Alternative. Effects of Alternative 2: Arizona Game and Fish activities in the Emphasize Quiet Natural geographic area would be the same as in the No-Action Alternative. Setting while Providing The combined effects of the proposed Diverse Opportunities for actions by all land and resource Visitor Use management agencies would result in IMPACT ANALYSIS major impacts to one another, and to park neighbors. The contribution to these In this alternative, a new visitor center impacts resulting from proposed NPS would be built on or near FR776, where no actions would be a moderate component, facilities currently exist. The new facility primarily resulting from the construction would be used primarily to orient visitors and operation of a new visitor orientation to the park/forest lands prior to their center, and expanded visitor use areas and arrival and could be jointly operated by activities. both the USFS and NPS. The existing Bonito Campground would be relocated to CONCLUSION an area near the proposed new visitor There would be minor to moderate, short- center. Operation of the new visitor center and long-term, adverse impacts to the would have moderate, long-term, adverse Forest Service, resulting from their impacts to the Forest Service, as they participation in the development and would become partners with the NPS in operation of a new visitor facility, construction, staffing, and maintaining the including planning, construction, and facility. However, USFS presence in the staffing commitments, and resulting from facility could have a moderate, long-term, changes to the OHV recreational area. beneficial impact on their ability to orient forest recreational users and minimize inappropriate activities. NPS administrative

177 PARK NEIGHBORS and maintenance facilities would also be Motorized sightseeing opportunities relocated to this new developed area. would be changed to include entry via FR776 and a realignment of FR414. Both The closure of FR545 through the routes would have to be improved and/or monument would result in moderate, paved. The existing paved road (FR545) long-term impacts to neighbors using the would terminate at Bonito Park and at the park road for commuting purposes or Lava Flow Trail; it would be obliterated accessing USFS lands north of the beyond those two points. There would be monument. Such access and the moderate, long-term impacts to the Forest commuting route would be redirected via Service and/or Coconino County resulting FR776. Those users would experience from the relocation of the campground moderate, intermittent impacts relative to and supporting infrastructure and any seasonal traffic congestion along this road, increased responsibilities for maintenance which would also be the primary entrance and management of FR776. Some to the Cinder Hills OHV Area, Alpine neighbors living near FR776 at the junction Ranchos, Wupatki National Monument, with US89 are concerned about any and the Navajo Reservation. Potential increase in congestion that would be adverse impacts to resource/land caused by the rerouting of traffic. There management agencies would be moderate would also likely be moderate, short-term and long term; increased maintenance of impacts during the road-building phase, FR776 would be required and possibly which could interrupt traffic, detour shared among NPS, USFS, and/or Coconino commuters and OHV area users, and County. temporarily restrict access to the OHV American Indians, who use resources for area.. The feasibility (engineering) of cultural and traditional purposes, could paving FR776/FR414 has not been fully experience moderate, long-term adverse studied. impacts to their ability to reach certain Also under Alternative 2, the park road places in the monument previously would be gated at night, and, at some accessed by FR545. They also could point in the future, visitation numbers encounter congestion and crowded could be controlled via shuttle or conditions during busy seasons of use, reservation. Any reduction in the numbers particularly around Bonito Park, and the of visitors could result in a minor, long- O’Leary Peak Road. term impact to the local community Hiking around Bonito Park could result in businesses. minor, long-term impacts to American Extended learning would be accomplished Indian tribes and resource managers. The from the Lava Flow Trail to the north side Hopi consider Bonito Park a sacred site and of Sunset Crater as well as on portions of prefer that visitor activities not occur in the existing entrance road, which would the open meadow area (however, a trail be reclaimed and become a trail. Potential around the perimeter of Bonito Park adverse impacts to neighbors and other might be acceptable). The Arizona Game land/resource managers from the loss of and Fish Department (AGFD) monitors this road would be moderate and long Bonito Park as a pronghorn fawning area term. and would prefer not to impact that wildlife process, although very few Bonito Park would have a trail around it, pronghorn use the area. Impacts to the incorporating part of an old roadbed. wildlife could result in minor, long-term Introduction of visitors on foot into this impacts to AGFD administrative workloads area causes some concerns from managers in managing wildlife. from the NPS and other agencies relative

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to effects on wildlife populations, plant Coconino County if either organization communities, and cultural resources. The assumed shared responsibility for the road, USFS could experience minor, long-term requiring increased staff, equipment, and adverse impacts in their administrative funding for maintenance operations. workload resulting from resource The closure of FR545 through the management activities and conducting monument, road reconstruction, increased interpretive programs as a partner in congestion on FR776, expanded visitor visitor services. AGFD could experience activities, and related dust and visible minor, long-term adverse impacts in their traffic would result in moderate to minor, wildlife management in Bonito Park. There short- and long-term adverse impacts to could be moderate, long-term adverse park neighbors. impacts to American Indian tribes who see Bonito Park as a sacred place, because Any reduction in numbers of visitors could their cultural uses could be impeded by result in a minor, long-term, adverse crowded conditions or heavy seasonal impact to the local hospitality industry by visitor use. affecting extended or overnight stays in the community. Hiking opportunities on a portion of the O’Leary Peak Road would be the same as Visitor activities around Bonito Park could in the No-Action Alternative. result in minor, long-term impacts in the Arizona Game and Fish Department’s CUMULATIVE EFFECTS wildlife management program in Bonito The geographic area considered in this Park. alternative is the same as that in the No- Crowded conditions or heavy seasonal Action Alternative. visitor use near Bonito Park could result in Construction and operation of a new moderate, long-term impact to American shared visitor facility, relocation of the Indian tribes who could experience campground, and maintenance of FR776, congestion during time of traditional, would result in major, long-term impacts cultural uses. The loss of access once to the Forest Service. Forest Service provided by FR545 crossing through the presence in the visitor center would result monument could result in minor, long- in a major, long-term, beneficial impact on term impacts to American Indian tribes by USFS interaction with recreational users. making access to some areas more difficult. The introduction of a hiker trail around Bonito Park could result in moderate, The combined effects of the proposed long-term, adverse impacts to American actions by all land and resource Indian tribes. management agencies would result in major to minor adverse impacts to one The implications of the Forest Service FLEA another, and to park neighbors. The planning process would be the same as contribution to these impacts resulting those identified in the No-Action from proposed NPS actions would be a Alternative. major component, resulting from The implications of the activities of AGFD, construction and operation of a new ADOT widening US89, and the growth of visitor orientation center, elimination of the City of Flagstaff would be the same as FR545 as a through road, and expanded in the No-Action Alternative. visitor use areas and activities. Maintenance of FR776 could be a major, long-term impact to the Forest Service or

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CONCLUSION eliminated. OHV users would probably seek other such opportunities on forest There would be major, short- and long- lands, which would create major, long- term adverse impacts to the Forest Service, term adverse impacts to the USFS in terms resulting from their participation in the of designating new recreation areas, development and operation of a new fulfilling compliance procedures, public visitor facility, including planning, meetings, planning, and future construction, and staffing commitments. management. There could be moderate, There could be a number of beneficial long-term adverse impacts to park impacts such as those discussed in the No- neighbors, resulting from displaced OHV Action Alternative. uses relocating near their residences, along with related noises, dust, and intrusions on Visitor activities and hiking in new areas their viewsheds. could have moderate, long-term impacts on American Indian tribes seeking Some park neighbors who use FR776 for traditional cultural uses. commuting to Flagstaff from the Navajo Reservation or from communities between The closure of FR545 and increased traffic Sunset and Wupatki, would have to use on FR766 would have moderate, long-term FR545 through the monument, or other impacts on some park neighbors. routes. That would result in a Shared maintenance of FR766 and FR545 minor, long-term adverse could have major, long-term impact to those neighbors. impacts on the Forest Service A new visitor center and and/or Coconino County. administrative complex would be The implications of constructed near US89 and would development of Roden Crater serve both USFS and NPS visitor would be the same as orientation needs. Impacts identified in the No-Action resulting from this action Alternative. would be the same as in In addition to those mentioned, there Alternative 1. would be other, less severe effects as a The beneficial implications of result of implementing this alternative. this alternative would be the same as those described for the No-Action Effects of Alternative 3: Alternative. Expand Park Boundaries to There could be some minor, long-term Preserve Park-Related adverse impacts to the AGFD in terms of Resources and Provide wildlife management and monitoring Diverse Opportunities for workloads in areas adjacent to new lands added to the monument. However, there Visitor Use would be moderate, long-term beneficial IMPACT ANALYSIS impacts in terms of wildlife health, numbers, hunting opportunities, and This alternative proposes a significant wildlife viewing opportunities. expansion of the monument to include resources and features that were direct The implications to the Arizona Game and components of the eruption of Sunset Fish Department from the ADOT widening Crater. A large portion of the Cinder Hills of US89, and from the growth of Flagstaff OHV Area would be transferred to the would be the same as in the No-Action monument and existing OHV uses Alternative.

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Impacts to American Indian groups would CONCLUSION be the same as in Alternative 1. There would be major, short- and long- Public use of a trail on a portion of the term adverse impacts to the Forest Service, O’Leary Peak Road would be the same as resulting from their participation in the in Alternative 1. development and operation of a new Adverse impacts to neighbors commuting visitor facility, including planning, through the monument would be minimal, construction, and staffing commitments, but long-term. Their access route would and resulting from the reduction in size remain, but encounters with traffic and and potential relocation of the OHV numbers of visitors could increase as recreational area. There could be a monument visitation increases. number of beneficial impacts as discussed in the No-Action Alternative. CUMULATIVE EFFECTS Increased congestion and contact with The geographic area considered in this others would have a moderate, long-term alternative is the same as that in the No- adverse impact on American Indian tribes Action Alternative. seeking traditional cultural uses. Constructing a new, shared facility, In addition to those mentioned, there providing access to hikers on the former would be other, less severe effects as a O’Leary Peak Road, and management of a result of implementing this alternative. reduced OHV area would have major, short- and long-term impacts to the USFS. Irreversible/Irretrievable The implications of the Forest Service Commitments of Resources planning (FLEA) would be the same as in There would be no irreversible or the No-Action Alternative. irretrievable commitments of resources. Loss in Long-Term Availability The implication of this alternative to or Productivity of the American Indian groups would be the Resource to Achieve Short- same as in Alternative 1. Term Gain The implications of development of Roden Crater would be the same as those There would be no short-term gains described for the No-Action Alternative. affecting long-term productivity. The combined effects of the proposed Unavoidable Adverse Impacts actions by all land and resource management agencies would result in Under the No-Action Alternative, there major impacts to one another, and to park would be minor adverse impacts to the neighbors. The contribution to these workload of park neighbors in terms of impacts from proposed NPS actions would additional administrative tasks, be a major component, primarily resulting interpretive planning, agreement reviews, from the expansion of the monument and and joint planning efforts. resulting reduction of the OHV area, Under Alternatives 1 and 3, there would construction, and operation of a new be major, short- and long-term impacts to visitor orientation center, and expanded the Forest Service, resulting from their visitor use areas and activities. participation in the development and operation of a new visitor facility, including planning, construction, and

181 PARK NEIGHBORS staffing commitments. Similar impacts electric and other constructed features would result from Alternative 3, from the used to facilitate the operations of the relocation of the OHV recreational area. park. Increased congestion and contact with In addition to the above, discussion of others would have a major, long-term impacts to park operations focuses on (1) impact on American Indian tribes seeking employee and visitor health and safety, (2) traditional cultural uses. ability to protect and preserve resources, In addition to those adverse effects (3) staff size, whether staffing needs to be identified for Alternative 1, under increased or decreased, (4) existing and Alternative 2 the closure of FR545, needed facilities, (5) communication (i.e., increased traffic on FR766 would have telephones, radio, computers, etc.), and (6) major, long-term impacts on some park appropriate utilities (sewer, electric, neighbors. Maintenance of FR766 and water). Park staff knowledge was used to FR545 could have major, long-term evaluate the impacts of each alternative impacts on the Forest Service and/or and is based on the current description of Coconino County. park operations presented in the Affected Environment section of this document. OPERATIONAL EFFICIENCY Definitions for levels of impacts to operational efficiency are as follows: Methodology Negligible: changes would be so small that it would not be of any measurable or Operational efficiency, for the purpose of perceptible consequence. this analysis, refers to adequacy of the staffing levels and quality and Minor: changes would be small and, if effectiveness of the infrastructure used in measurable, the consequences would be the operation of the park in order to small and localized. adequately protect and preserve vital park Moderate: changes would be measurable resources and provide for an effective and would have a consequence. visitor experience. This includes an analysis of existing and needed staffing levels and Major: changes would be measurable and of the condition and usefulness of the would have substantial consequences. facilities and developed features used to support the operations of the park. Effects of the No-Action Facilities include the roads that are used to Alternative: Existing provide access to and within the park Conditions (both administrative and visitor use), housing used for staff required to work IMPACT ANALYSIS and live in the park, visitor orientation Under the No-Action Alternative facilities (visitor centers, developed and operational efficiency would continue in interpreted sites, and other interpretive approximately the same manner as it features), and the necessary administrative currently exists. buildings (office and workspace for park staff), garages, shops, storage buildings, Partnerships with the USFS would have a and yards used to house and store the minor to moderate effect on operational equipment, tools, and materials used to efficiency. This effect would be long-term maintain the constructed facilities, and and beneficial. The USFS would be features that support the operations of regulating use and access, including the the park. This also includes the presence of regulation of off-road driving, and the utilities such as phones, sewer, water, and closure of a number of nonessential roads.

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Implementation of these actions would no safe, suitable place for school group reduce the need for NPS patrols along the orientation and activities. south boundary for resources protection Construction of a new curatorial facility purposes. If the use of this area were to and maintenance/resources management increase, there would also likely be a need facility would have a long-term, major, to provide 24-hour emergency response. beneficial impact on operational The installation of new wayside and efficiency. The action would result in the museum exhibits would have long-term removal and replacement of dilapidated, impacts that would moderately change inappropriate, and nonfunctioning operational efficiency in a beneficial facilities that pose a number of health and manner. Increased information presented safety and resource protection issues, and to the visiting public would afford a that are totally inadequate for employee higher level of awareness of the safety and protection of investment in significance of the resources in the park, equipment and tools. It would result in the and provide information regarding use rehabilitation of extensively disturbed and access restrictions. This in turn would areas that contain significant cultural and increase the level of protection afforded natural resources, and would allow the park resources and reduce the need for area to be protected and returned to more law enforcement patrols. natural conditions and appearance. The expansion of the USFS campground The closure of the O’Leary Peak Road would have a minor adverse impact on would have no impact on operational operational efficiency. The NPS currently efficiency. responds to law enforcement needs with Increasing accessibility to facilities and the existing campground. The presence of natural and cultural features would have a the new unit, although catering to a negligible to minor impact on operational different type of camper, would increase efficiency. The impact would be beneficial the law enforcement needs, including and long term. It would result in the increased patrols and the need to respond development of the appropriate to emergencies. Increased numbers of infrastructure that would make available campers and increased size of groups certain areas of the park that are currently would likely require an associated increase inaccessible to visitors with disabilities. in after-hour call-outs of staff to the campground. This impact would be long Addressing the existing health and safety term. There would, however, be a long- issues is likely to have a moderate to term beneficial effect resulting from major, beneficial impact on operational increased information being presented to efficiency. Many of the existing the visiting public, affording a higher level deficiencies and health and safety needs in of awareness of the significance of the park facilities would be addressed and resources in the park, and of use and mitigated. access restrictions. Construction of the Formalization of the backcountry closure is group sites would increase the numbers of expected to have a minor, long-term campers in proximity with primary park beneficial effect on operational efficiency. resources and would require additional There would be an initial short-term staff time to mitigate visitor impacts minor, adverse impact due to the need to through monitoring, education, and increase staff presence in order to patrol. Having a facility capable of effectively implement the change in use of handling these groups would increase the backcountry. Mostly this would consist operational efficiency. Currently there is of making contact with visitors who are

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unaware that they have entered an area unintentional damage to park resources. that is closed to unguided access. This There would be an increase in staff change in management would not be demands to accomplish patrols and to likely to affect a large number of visitors. provide 24-hour emergency response. This impact would be mitigated as the Use of most of the roads would continue public becomes familiar with the change in to be unregulated, which would continue management of the backcountry. to make protection of park resources Roadways and Access to the Park difficult. Issues of unauthorized entry into closed portions of the park and the Under the No-Action Alternative, Sunset impacts resulting from intentional and Crater Volcano would continue to be unintentional visitor damage to the park’s visited via US89 and FR545. This would park resources would be likely to increase. have a negligible to minor, adverse impact This would have a minor to moderate, on park operations. Visitors and staff adverse impact on operational efficiency. would continue to be exposed to dangerous situations while entering or Visitor Use exiting FR545 from US89. There is Under the No-Action Alternative, visitor potential for this situation to increase, use of the park would continue as it exists given the potential growth of the city of currently, which should have a negligible, Flagstaff and the surrounding areas and adverse impact on park operations. Most the number of visitors likely to visit the visitor uses are concentrated at the Sunset Flagstaff area and the scenic destination Crater visitor center and the Lava Flow points in the northern Arizona and Four Trail. There would continue to be an Corners regions. inability to provide immediate contact There would be minor to moderate after visitors enter the park, and there adverse impact to park operations with would still be no staff present to provide the continued use of FR545. It is likely that orientation at any of the developed sites. there would be an increase in both visitor Visitors to these developed areas would and commuter traffic, resulting in a likely continue to be exposed to climatic increase in the number of accidents. extremes, poisonous wildlife, and uneven Maintenance needs would increase. Given surfaces in and around the interpreted current staffing and funding levels, any features. increase in the use of FR545 would likely Facilities result in a worsening of the condition of the roadway. Implementation of the No-Action Alternative would have a minor adverse The growth and development of the city impact on the park’s facilities. The existing of Flagstaff and the surrounding areas is visitor center would remain inadequate likely to increase the use of USFS land and obsolete. Although some immediately adjacent to the parks. This improvements would be made, it would would have a minor to moderate adverse still be in need of major upgrading and impact on park operations. Given the remodeling, including a number of current inability to physically close any of changes that are required to ensure visitor the roads in the park, an increase in use of and staff health and safety. the associated roads would increase the difficulties that already exist in protecting Utilities park resources. This includes entry into areas of the park that are closed to The No-Action Alternative would have a visitation and intentional and minor to moderate adverse impact on the utilities in the park. Without

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improvements, the park would continue to an increased need for law enforcement be subjected to repeated brown- and patrols and emergency response. Increased blackouts. Overall, this would have a commuter traffic on FR545 would result in constant and long-term adverse impact on increased maintenance needs and an the ability to conduct business and the increased potential for accidents. quality of life of the employees that reside Increased growth of the surrounding in the park. communities would increase the interest Staffing and demand on Forest Service land surrounding the park. Because the two Implementation of the No-Action agencies have differing missions, the Alternative would have a minor to potential exists for inconsistent and moderate, adverse impact on staffing incompatible uses to could occur adjacent within the park. Given current staffing to park boundaries. Such use could result levels, a reasonable amount of staffing in unregulated and unauthorized entry efficiency has been maintained. Existing into closed areas of the park, resulting in staff levels are deficient, and there are intentional and unintentional impacts to serious limitations on the park’s ability to park resources, which could have provide adequate and acceptable levels of moderate long-term adverse impacts to visitor services, resource protection and operational efficiency, through an preservation, and maintenance of increased need for law enforcement facilities. patrols to protect park resources. Many of the existing deficiencies and The Forest Service will be considering use health and safety needs in the park’s and access regulations, including the facilities would remain and in fact would closure of a number of nonessential roads, worsen if not addressed. regulation of off-road driving, and the CUMULATIVE EFFECTS development of definable trail systems. If successful, implementation of the actions The geographic area of consideration in would reduce the need for NPS patrols this alternative includes the city of along the south boundary for resource Flagstaff on the south side, Wupatki protection purposes. This would have a National Monument on the north, the long-term, minor beneficial impact on base of the San Francisco Peaks just operational efficiency. As use of this area beyond US89 on the west, US89 to the increases, there could also be a need to northwest, private, state, and federal land provide 24-hour emergency response. The just beyond FR545 on the east, and the effect of these actions would have long- Navajo Reservation just across the Little term, minor adverse impacts on Colorado River to the northwest. operational efficiency. Growth and development of the city of Increased mining activities could have Flagstaff and the outlying communities long-term minor to moderate adverse would have a minor to moderate long- impacts on operational efficiency. Haul term, adverse effect on operational trucks currently use a portion of the efficiency. The most significant effect entrance road at the intersection of FR545 would be an increase in the number of and US89. In addition to being visitors coming to the park. Increased incongruous and inconsistent with the growth would also mean that commuter purpose of the park, the mix of large traffic from the outlying communities, vehicles with visitor traffic creates such Alpine Ranchos and the Navajo hazardous driving conditions. The Reservation, would increase, resulting in potential exists for additional areas

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adjacent to the park to be exploited for Effects of Alternative 1 mining purposes, which would result in an (Preferred): Focus on increase in the number of haul trucks using park roads, thereby increasing the Extended Learning potential for conflicts between haul trucks IMPACT ANALYSIS and visitors. The potential for increased accidents is great, and consequently there The impacts resulting from 1) establishing would be a need for increased law partnerships with the USFS, 2) installation enforcement patrols. There would also be of new wayside and museum exhibits, 3) an increased need for roadway expansion of the USFS campground, 4) maintenance. construction of a new curatorial facility and maintenance/resources management CONCLUSION facility, 5) closure of O’Leary Peak Road, 6) The No-Action Alternative would result in increasing the park’s ability to no substantial change in the operations of accommodate visitors with disabilities, 7) the park from existing conditions. There addressing health and safety issues, and 8) would be long-term minor to major closure of the backcountry would be the beneficial effects from the new waysides, same as those described in the No-Action new facility construction, accessibility, and Alternative. health and safety improvements, and the Additional impacts to operational backcountry closure. Most of the major efficiency that would occur with the roads providing access to the park would implementation of this alternative include likely see an increase in visitor and the following: commuter traffic, which would result in additional congestion and a likely increase Roadways and Access to the Park in accidents. Maintenance needs would Vehicle access via FR545 would remain the increase. Increased use of all roads leading same as it is now, and many of the impacts to the park would increase the difficulties identified under the No-Action Alternative that already exist in protecting park would continue to exist. There would be resources, including entry into areas of the no changes to the forest roads park that are closed to visitation and surrounding the park, and there would intentional and unintentional damage to still be a need for law enforcement patrols resources. for resource protection purposes, resulting The effects to facilities, utilities, and in negligible to minor long-term, adverse staffing would be long term and adverse, impacts to the park’s operational with small to measurable changes. efficiency. Without improvement to the visitor center FR546 leading to O’Leary Peak would be or utilities, conditions would worsen. designated as Hiking Zone. Only the lower Many improvements are needed to protect portion of the former road would be used. visitor and staff health and safety. Current There would be no hiker access to the top staff levels have achieved a certain level of of O’Leary Peak. Potential impacts to efficiency; however, limitations do exist operational efficiency would be long term that inhibit the park’s ability to provide and adverse, but negligible. The most adequate levels of resource protection and significant effect would be the need to preservation, maintenance of existing respond to hiker emergencies along the facilities, and visitor services. In addition to trail. those mentioned, there would be other, less severe effects as a result of implementing this alternative.

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Visitor Use adverse impact on operational efficiency. After the facility construction has been A new hiking trail would be established completed, this action would have a between Bonito Campground and the minor, long-term, adverse impact on Lava Flow Trail. Ground disturbances operational efficiency, which would associated with the trail construction include facility maintenance and upkeep would require consultation, clearance, and law enforcement patrols. and/or mitigation of impacts to cultural and natural resources. Implementation of The existing Mission 66 visitor center these actions would have moderate, short- would be retained and adaptively used. term adverse impacts on operational Potential impacts to operational efficiency efficiency. After completion of trail would be moderate and long term. This construction, this action would have a structure would become an administrative minor, long-term, adverse impact on office facility as well as an educational operational efficiency, including the need center providing an orientation/activity for trail maintenance, resource area for educational groups. Operational monitoring, and law enforcement patrols efficiency would benefit by staff having adequate office and working space, but it A broader range of resources would be would realize a slight adverse effect as a interpreted and made accessible to the result of removing key staff from the general public in the vicinity of the Lava visitor center. Flow and Lenox Crater Trails. This action would have a minor, long-term, adverse Staff impact on operational efficiency, including The actions of this alternative would have the need for trail maintenance, resource minor to moderate, adverse impacts on monitoring, and law enforcement patrols. the overall staffing component of Facilities operational efficiency. Under this alternative, a new visitor center Administrative requirements, including and administrative complex would be purchasing and contracting for supplies, constructed near US89 to serve both Forest materials, and services, would increase, Service and NPS visitor orientation needs. especially when construction is taking Potential impact to operational efficiency place. This would result in a major, short- would be moderate, long term, and term impact on operational efficiency. beneficial. Location of a complex in this Maintenance staff would have increased area would enhance both the Forest workloads on roads, trails, and facility Service’s and NPS’s ability to orient visitors issues, including the maintenance of new prior to their entry to public lands. Joint trails and an additional visitor center. This staffing could allow greater freedom of would have a long-term, moderate impact NPS staff to patrol the park resources and on operational efficiency. could allow for greater control of fee collection compliance, particularly if the As a result of the proposed new facility and its staffing allow for year- construction, resources staff would have round presence on the entrance road. increased workloads associated with Ground disturbances associated with consultation, compliance, and clearance of facility construction would require the proposed construction sites. This consultation, clearance, and/or mitigation would have a moderate , short-term of impacts to cultural and natural impact on operational efficiency. Minor resources. Implementation of these actions long-term, adverse impacts would occur as would have a moderate, short-term, a result of resource monitoring and

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preservation requirements associated with CONCLUSION increased visitor use of the new trails. Changes resulting from this alternative As a result of the emphasis on providing a would have an overall benefit on broader range of educational and operational efficiency. There would be interpretive programs using partnerships, long-term, minor to major beneficial affiliated tribes, organizations, effects from the new waysides, new facility institutions, and so on, and the need to construction, accessibility and health and review and administer programs to ensure safety improvements, and the backcountry compliance with NPS regulations and closure. Improvements and additions policy, there would be increased staff would be made to facilities that would workloads. This would have a minor to protect visitors and improve staff health moderate, adverse impact on operational and safety concerns. There would be efficiency. This impact, however, would be moderate, adverse impacts resulting from offset and the impact to operational the construction of the new visitor center, efficiency would possibly be reduced curatorial, and maintenance/resources somewhat, since NPS staff would not be management facility and the trails needed to implement the expanded proposed to connect Bonito Campground educational and interpretive programs. to the Bonito Lava Flow. These actions Boundary would create moderate, short-term adverse impacts; however, following This alternative would include a limited construction they would have minor to expansion of park boundaries to moderate impacts on operational accommodate administrative needs, which efficiency. Most impacts would be in the would have a major beneficial effect on form of increased maintenance needs for park operations. The most significant facilities and trail systems and increased beneficial effect would be alignment of resource protection and preservation park boundaries logically along needs. This alternative would not fully topographic features and elimination of address road issues, which would continue some existing impacts associated with the to have minor to moderate adverse management and maintenance of the impacts on operational efficiency. This existing boundary lines and delineating proposal would also include a limited fencing. Boundaries would be more expansion of park boundaries to logically placed in areas that enhance the accommodate administrative needs, which preservation of significant geologic would have a major beneficial effect on features and would allow the placement operational efficiency. The most significant of the required boundary delineations and would be that the expansion would align fencing in less invasive and more park boundaries logically along manageable and maintainable locations. It topographic features. In addition to those would eliminate a number of forest roads mentioned, there would be other, less that cross in and out of the park severe effects as a result of implementing boundaries, and place them entirely within this alternative. Forest Service ownership. CUMULATIVE EFFECTS Cumulative effects to operational efficiency under this alternative would be similar to those identified for the No- Action Alternative.

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Effects of Alternative 2: would have a gate that would be locked at Emphasize Quiet Natural night. Visitors would arrive at the park entrance via FR776 (currently an improved Setting while Providing dirt road, from either US89 or FR545. Diverse Opportunities for FR776 would be paved to accommodate Visitor Use this new use. FR545 would exist within the park only from the intersection of the IMPACT ANALYSIS O’Leary Peak Road to the Lava Flow Trail parking lot. This segment would remain The impacts resulting from 1) establishing paved, and vehicle access would be partnerships with the USFS, 2) installation allowed. The truncated west end of FR545 of new wayside and museum exhibits, 3) from the O’Leary Peak Road to US89 closure of O’Leary Peak Road, 4) increasing would be removed and rehabilitated. The the park’s ability to accommodate visitors east segment of FR545 would be modified with disabilities, 5) addressing health and for use as a visitor foot trail from the Lava safety issues, and 6) closure of the Flow Trail parking lot to the base of Sunset backcountry would be the same as Crater. Beyond that point to the east described in the no-action alternative. boundary of the park, the road would be The impacts that would occur as a result of rehabilitated. A modified version of FR414 removing the expanded USFS campground would be used as the new entrance to the and the newly constructed curatorial park. Potential impact to operational facility and maintenance/resources efficiency would be major, long term, and management facility, would be short term. beneficial. There would be initial, moderate adverse Moderate adverse short-term impacts impacts as a result of the demolition and would be associated with the road removal of these facilities. This action construction, compliance, and mitigation would require consultation, clearance, of impacts to natural and cultural and/or mitigation of impacts to cultural resources. There would be substantial (both prehistoric and historic structures) initial costs for construction and long-term and natural resources. It would, however, costs associated with maintenance. result in the rehabilitation of extensively Following construction and rehabilitation disturbed areas that contains significant of the abandoned road segments, these cultural and natural resources and would actions would have a negligible to minor, allow these areas to be protected and adverse impact on operational efficiency. returned to more natural conditions and The amount of time required to patrol appearance. After the facilities were these areas would be no different, or removed, this action would have no possibly less, than that required under impact on operational efficiency. existing conditions, possibly eliminating Additional impacts to operational the need for 24-hour emergency response. efficiency that would occur with the The park road would be gated at night, implementation of this alternative include and visitation numbers could be controlled the following: via shuttle or reservation systems. The ability to close the park road at night Roadways and Access to the Park would alleviate some after-hours calls, but Access to the park via FR545 would be this benefit would likely be cancelled out extensively modified. A new entrance to by increased calls on the new route. the park would be created at the Additional time would be required to intersection of FR776, and FR414 would be open and close gates each day and to deal realigned. The road would be paved and with visitors who do not exit the park by

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closing time. Administration of a broken bones or sprains, resulting from reservation or shuttle system would traversing long, steep and rocky roads or increase administrative duties. Road trails. Limited maintenance would be maintenance needs would still exist, but needed for upkeep of both trails. they would be reduced because of the Staff elimination of 24-hour use. The use of the road by mining haul trucks would be The overall actions of this alternative eliminated. There would be increased would have minor to moderate, adverse maintenance requirements for the new impacts on the staffing component of paved FR776, although these operational efficiency. The construction of responsibilities could be shared among new facilities would have major, long-term NPS, USFS, and/or Coconino County. In beneficial impacts on the staff component addition, there would be a need for law of operational efficiency. Staff would have enforcement patrols along this stretch of adequate, functional, facilities and would road for resource protection purposes. be working in a safe environment. Facilities Administrative needs, including purchasing and contracting for supplies, materials, The longer travel distance from the visitor and services, would increase, especially center and offices to primary visitor use while construction is ongoing. This would areas could adversely affect operational have a moderate, short-term, adverse efficiency, however, this could be partially impact on operational efficiency. mitigated if the USFS were to provide staff support for the visitor center complex. Maintenance staff would have increased There would be short-term, moderate, workloads on roads, trails, and facilities, adverse impacts associated with the visitor including the maintenance of new trails center construction and the resulting and the visitor center, which would have a compliance, and mitigation of impacts to long-term, minor, adverse impact on natural and cultural resources. There operational efficiency. would be substantial initial costs for As a result of the proposed new construction and long-term costs construction, resources staff would have associated with maintenance. Following increased workloads associated with construction these actions would have a consultation, compliance, and clearance of negligible to minor, adverse impact on the proposed construction and operational efficiency. rehabilitation sites. This would have a Visitor Use moderate, adverse, short-term impact on operational efficiency. Minor long-term, Hiking opportunities would be increased adverse impacts would occur as a result of via opportunities on the former O’Leary resource monitoring and preservation Peak Road, which would no longer have requirements associated with the public motorized access, and a new trail increased visitor use of the new trail. that would use the remaining FR545 roadbed at the base of Sunset Crater Boundary Expansion Volcano. Potential impact to operational The alternative would expand the efficiency would be adverse but minor. An boundaries to include Bonito Park and increase in hiking in this environment land to the south to accommodate the would undoubtedly result in increased new visitor center location. Both of these EMS and other emergency service areas contain resources that contribute to responses, which could include responding the significance of the park and afford to visitors suffering from dehydration, or exceptional views of most of the primary

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resources of the park. This action would Effects of Alternative 3: have a minor, long-term impact on Expand Park Boundaries to operational efficiency. Preserve Park-Related CUMULATIVE EFFECTS Resources and Provide Cumulative effects to operational Diverse Opportunities for efficiency under this alternative would be similar to those described for the No- Visitor Use Action Alternative. IMPACT ANALYSIS CONCLUSION The impacts resulting from 1) establishing This alternative would have long-term, partnerships with the USFS, 2) installation major benefits to the operational of new wayside and museum exhibits, 3) efficiency of the park. There would be expansion of the USFS campground, 4) long-term, minor to major beneficial construction of a new curatorial facility effects from the new waysides, and maintenance/resources management accessibility, and health and safety facility, 5) closure of O’Leary Peak Road, 6) improvements, and the backcountry increasing the park’s ability to closure. Improvements and additions accommodate visitors with disabilities, 7) would be made to facilities that would addressing health and safety issues, and 8) protect visitors and improve staff health closure of the backcountry would be the and safety concerns. Most of the issues same as described in the No-Action regarding visitor access would be reduced Alternative. or eliminated. Access to the park would be Additional impacts to operational managed, which would increase the efficiency that would occur with the protection and preservation of park implementation of this alternative include resources and reduce the need for law the following: enforcement patrols and the need for 24- hour emergency response. This alternative Roadways and Access to the Park would dramatically improve the facilities and Visitor Use that are used in park operations and Vehicle access via FR545 would remain the provide staff with functional facilities and same as it is now, and many of the impacts a safe working environment. Major costs identified under the No-Action Alternative would be associated with the proposed would continue. With the exception of construction of new facilities, new paved FR776, there would be no changes to the roadways, and the rehabilitation of areas forest roads surrounding the park. There that would no longer be used for park would still be a need for law enforcement operations. This would have moderate, patrols for resources protection purposes. short-term adverse impact on operational The actions would result in long-term, efficiency. Following construction, there negligible to minor, adverse impacts to would be a negligible to minor adverse park operational efficiency. impact on operational efficiency. In addition to those mentioned, there would Much of FR776 would be designated for be other, less severe effects as a result of administrative use and gated near the implementing this alternative. junction of FR545, and a trailhead would be constructed near this location. The western segment of FR776, extending from the intersection of US89 to the southwestern boundary of the park, would

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remain unchanged, but would terminate Facilities at the park boundary. This action would Under this alternative, a new visitor center have long-term, minor, adverse impact to and administrative complex would be operation efficiency since the area that constructed near US89 to serve both Forest would require patrol and resource Service and NPS visitor orientation needs. protection would increase substantially. Potential impacts to operational efficiency There would be an initial short-term, would be moderate, long term, and moderate adverse impact due to the need beneficial. Location of a complex in this to increase patrols in order to effectively area would enhance both the Forest implement this change. Mostly this would Service and NPS ability to orient visitors consist of making contact with visitors prior to their entry into public lands. Joint unaware of the change in land use and staffing could allow greater freedom of access. This impact would be mitigated as NPS staff to patrol the park resources and the public became familiar with the could allow for greater control of fee change in management. collection compliance, particularly if the The impact from designation of the former facility and its staffing allow for year- O’Leary Peak Road as a hiking trail would round presence on the entrance road. be the same that described for the No- Ground disturbances associated with the Action Alternative and Alternative 1. facility construction would require A trail would be established from the consultation, clearance, and/or mitigation Bonito Campground to the Bonito Lava of impacts to cultural and natural Flow. A new trail would be constructed in resources. Implementation of these actions the fissure zone, providing access to Gyp would have a moderate, short-term, and/or Double Crater. The trailhead would adverse impact on operational efficiency. be located near the junction of FR776 and Following facility construction, this action FR545. would have a minor, long-term impact on operational efficiency, which would Ground disturbances associated with trail include facility maintenance and upkeep construction would require consultation, and law enforcement patrols. clearance, and/or mitigation of impacts to cultural and natural resources. The existing Mission 66 visitor center Implementation of these actions would would be retained and adaptively used. have a short-term, major, adverse impact Potential impact to operational efficiency on operational efficiency. Following would be moderate. This structure would construction, this action would have a become an administrative office facility as minor long-term adverse impact on well as an educational center, which operational efficiency, which would would provide an orientation/activity area include trail maintenance, resource for educational groups. Operational monitoring, and law enforcement patrols. efficiency would benefit by staff having adequate office and working space, but it A broader range of resources would be would realize a slight adverse effect as a interpreted and made available to the result of removing key staff from the public in the vicinity of the Lava Flow and visitor center. the Lenox Crater Trails and the Cinder Hills Overlook. This action would have a minor, Staff long-term, adverse impact on operational The impacts to the staffing component of efficiency, including the need for trail operational efficiency would be the same maintenance, resource monitoring, and as those described for Alternative 2. law enforcement patrols.

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Boundary impacts resulting from construction of the proposed new visitor center and trails. This proposal would call for the expansion Major long-term efforts would be needed of park boundaries to accommodate to effect the rehabilitation of newly administrative needs and to ensure that acquired land that has been substantially natural resources contributing to the impacted by OHV use. These actions would purpose and significance of the park are create short-term, major, adverse impacts; contained within park boundaries. This however, following construction and action would have a major beneficial rehabilitation activities, there would be effect on park operations, the most minor to moderate adverse impacts to significant being that it would align park operational efficiency. Most impacts would boundaries logically along topographic be in the form of increased maintenance features and include features that needs for facilities and trail systems and contribute to the significance of the park. increased resource protection and Resources staff would need to direct their preservation needs. Major long-term attention to a number of major natural benefits would be realized with the resource management concerns and issues, expansion of park boundaries, which including the rehabilitation of an area that would include resources that contribute to has been subjected to extensive OHV use the significance of the park. The for a number of years. Rehabilitation alternative would align boundaries would include unimproved roads, OHV off- logically along topographic features, and loading areas, undesignated camp areas, would result in a reduction in impacts to and other OHV use areas. Substantial the park’s primary resources. In addition to commitment of staff time and funding those mentioned, there would be other, would be needed to inventory and less severe effects as a result of evaluate the new lands. This would have a implementing this alternative. short-term, major adverse impact on operational efficiency. As these areas are Irreversible/Irretrievable restored there would be a long-term, Commitments of Resources moderate adverse impact to operational There would be no irreversible or efficiency as staff would continue to irretrievable commitments of resources. monitor and implement recovery and restoration efforts. Loss in Long-Term Availability CUMULATIVE EFFECTS or Productivity of the Cumulative effects to operational Resource to Achieve Short- efficiency under this alternative would be Term Gain similar to those identified for the No- There would be no short-term gains Action Alternative. affecting long-term productivity. CONCLUSION Unavoidable Adverse Impacts Changes resulting from this alternative would have an overall long-term benefit The No-Action Alternative would result in on operational efficiency. There would be no substantial change in the operations of long-term, minor to major beneficial the park. The effects of implementing the effects from the new waysides, new facility No-Action Alternative would be minor to construction, accessibility and health and moderate. Most of the major roads safety improvements, and the backcountry providing access to the park would see a closure. There would be moderate adverse likely increase in visitor and commuter

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traffic, which would result in additional This would have short-term, major adverse congestion and a likely increase in impacts on operational efficiency. Once accidents. Maintenance needs would this construction has been completed it increase. Increased use of all roads leading would have a negligible to minor adverse to the park would compound the impact on operational efficiency. difficulties that already exist in protecting Changes resulting from Alternative 3 park resources. This includes entry into would be related to the construction of a areas of the park that are closed to new visitor center and new trails. Major visitation and intentional and long-term efforts would be needed to unintentional damage to resources. The rehabilitate the new land, which has been effects to facilities, utilities, and staffing substantially impacted by OHV use. These would be minor to moderately adverse. actions would create short-term, major Without improvement to visitor facilities adverse impacts. However, once the or utilities, existing conditions would construction and rehabilitation have been worsen. Many improvements are needed completed, there would be minor to to protect visitor and staff health and moderate impacts to operational safety. Current staff levels have achieved a efficiency. Most impacts would be in the certain level of efficiency; however, form of increased maintenance needs for limitations do exist that inhibit the park’s facilities and trail systems and increased ability to provide adequate levels of resource protection and preservation resource protection and preservation, needs. This alternative would not fully maintenance of existing facilities, and address the needs of road access and visitor services. resource protection issues, which would Under Alternative 1, new facilities would continue to have minor to moderate be constructed. However, once constructed adverse impacts on operational efficiency. they would have minor to moderate adverse impacts on operational efficiency. Most impacts would be in the form of increased maintenance needs for facilities and trail systems and increased resource protection and preservation needs. This alternative would not fully address the needs of road access and resource protection issues, which would continue to have minor to moderate adverse impacts on operational efficiency. New facilities would be constructed under Alternative 2. Major costs would occur with the proposed construction of new facilities, new paved roads, and the rehabilitation of areas that would no longer be used for park operations.

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HISTORY OF PUBLIC with their agency planning efforts. INVOLVEMENT Several of these conversations explored the possibility of joint or comanagement of resources and visitor uses. The notice of intent (NOI) to prepare this EIS was published in the Federal Register TRIBAL CONSULTATION May 19, 1997. The NOI indicated availability of newsletter #1, from which In keeping with its mandates for tribal comments were accepted until June 30, consultation, NPS consulted with many 1997. The first newsletter described American Indian tribes throughout the purpose and significance statements for planning process. Based on ethnographic all three parks, as well as identifying research efforts and previous preliminary issues. A second newsletter, consultations conducted for the Flagstaff released February 1998, detailed public Area national monuments during the last response to the first newsletter, several years, ten tribes were identified described final purpose and significance as having potential traditional statements, and explained the associations with park lands and preliminary range of management zones. resources. They are the Havasupai Tribe, A third newsletter, issued November Hopi Tribe, Hualupai Tribe, Navajo 1998, described the range of preliminary Nation, San Juan Southern Paiute Tribe, alternatives developed for all three Tonto Apache Tribe, White Mountain monuments. The fourth newsletter in Apache Tribe, Yavapai Apache Nation, May 1999 described the decision to Yavapai-Prescott Tribe, and Zuni Tribe. prepare a plan concurrently with the All ten tribes were contacted by letter Forest Service Flagstaff Lake Mary and telephone, inviting them to attend Ecosystem Area planning process. All an introductory meeting in October 1997. comments received through June 1999 Six of the ten tribes participated in the were considered in this EIS. The Purpose October meeting, and four participated of and Need for the Plan, Need for the in a December 1997 consultation GMP, and Description of Scoping Process meeting. As of February 1998 sections describe the issues and concerns participating tribes included Hopi, raised and sort the responses into several Hualupai, Navajo, White Mountain categories. Apache, Yavapai Apache, Yavapai- AGENCY CONSULTATION Prescott, and Zuni. At the first two consultation meetings A number of meetings were held with the tribes discussed the purpose and staff from the U.S. Forest Service and significance statements and agreed on Arizona Game and Fish Department. language for the final statements. They These meetings were held to discuss also discussed tribal involvement in impacts that the alternatives might have identifying culturally significant and on adjacent recreational activities and sensitive resources as well as plans for impacts to wildlife and their movement participation throughout the planning corridors and to try to ensure that NPS process. Early in 1998 the Hopi, Navajo, planning would be in support/harmony and Zuni Tribes agreed to conduct

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further NPS-sponsored research into Guadalupe Mountains NP tribal associations with park lands and Hubbell Trading Post NHS identify particular sensitive resources and Montezuma Castle NM management concerns for the EIS. Navajo NM Representatives from three tribes Organ Pipe Cactus NM Petrified Forest NP attended the final tribal consultation Pipe Springs NM meeting in August 1998 and assisted with Rivers and Trails Conservation the development of alternatives. Early in Assistance, Intermountain Support 1999 the Hopi Tribe and Navajo Nation Office, Santa Fe submitted to NPS reports identifying Southern Arizona Group culturally sensitive resources and specific Tonto NM recommendations for the GMP. Western Region All ten tribes originally identified Department of the Army, Corps of continued to receive newsletters and Engineers invitations to consultation meetings Department of Transportation, Federal throughout the planning process. Tribal Highway Administration interests and concerns were fully considered in the planning process and in Environmental Protection Agency the development of alternatives in the U.S. Postal Service GMP. Indian Tribes LIST OF RECIPIENTS Havasupai Tribe Federal Agencies Hopi Tribe Cultural Preservation Office Advisory Council on Historic Preservation Water Rights Hydrologist Department of Agriculture Hualapai Tribe Animal Damage Control Navajo Nation Natural Resource and Conservation Bodaway/Gap Chapter Service Cameron Chapter Leupp Chapter Animal and Plant Health Inspection Tuba City Chapter Service Department of Agriculture Historic Preservation Department Forest Service Forest Section Tonto NF Division of Economic Development Prescott NF Division of Natural Resources USFS Regional Office Lands Department Kaibab NF Navajo Tribal Ranches Coconino NF, Mormon Lake District Coconino NF, Peaks District Pueblo of Zuni Heritage Historic Preservation Department of Interior Fish and Wildlife Service San Juan Southern Paiute Tribe Arizona Ecological Services Tonto Apache Tribe Geological Survey National Biological Survey White Mountain Apache Tribe National Park Service Canyon de Chelly NM Yavapai Apache Tribe Glen Canyon NRA Cultural Preservation Grand Canyon NP Yavapai Prescott Indian Tribe

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State Government Mountainaire Fire Department Department of Environmental Quality Northern Arizona Council of Governments Forest Service Timberline-Fernwood Fire Department Department of Mines and Minerals Organizations/Businesses Department of Public Safety AandS Distributing Department of Transportation Design Section A.B.A.T.E. Parkways and Historic Scenic Roads A5 Adventures Absolute Bikes Department of Water Resources Access Fund Game and Fish Department Affordable Housing Coalition American Motorcyclist Association Office of the Governor Andy’s Body Shop State Historic Preservation Office Arizona 4WD Clubs Arizona State Parks Arizona Archeological and Historical Society State Land Department Arizona Bowhunters Forestry Division Urban Planning Division Arizona Cattlemen’s Association Arizona Riparian Council Local Government Arizona Rough Riders Four-Wheel Drive Club City of Flagstaff Arizona Snowbowl Chamber of Commerce City Council Arizona Snowmobile Association Convention and Visitor Bureau Arizona State Association of 4WD Clubs Fire Department Arizona Wildlife Federation Police Department Arizona-Southern California Rocky Public Library Mountain Elk Foundation Unified Public Schools Ascend Arizona Unified School District Aspen Sports Utilities B A S S Visitor Center Babbitt Ranches (Coconino Plateau Citizens Utilities Natural Reserve Lands) Babbitt’s Backcountry Outfitters City of Sedona Bellemont Baha’i School Public Library Big Joes Cycles Coconino County Book Nest Attorney Canyon Country Outfitters Board of Supervisors CCOEH Department of Community Development Central Arizona Grotto Highway Department CO Bar Livestock, LTD Parks and Recreation Sheriff’s Department Coconino Sportsmen Supervisors Cocopai RC and D Colorado Plateau Forum Doney Park Dames and Moore Fire Department Darmstadt Elementary School Water DBA Hart Ranch Kachina Village Fire Department Diablo Trust

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DNA Legal Services Mountain View Pediatrics Doney Area Plan Committee Mountaintop Honey Doney Park Interest Groups Museum of Northern Arizona Ducks Unlimited Inc. NAHB Earthlight National Parks and Conservation ENSR Consulting and Engineering Association Environmental Action Coalition Native Plant and Seed Federal Land Exchange Inc. Northern Arizona University First United Arizona Historic Commission Flagstaff Film Commission College of Engineering Flagstaff Hiking Club Department of Anthropology Flagstaff Jeep Tours Department of Geography Flagstaff KOA Department of Geology High Altitude Sports Training Complex Flagstaff Medical Center Outdoors Flagstaff Mountain Guides School of Forestry Flagstaff Riding Club Northern Arizona Association of Realtors Flagstaff RV Sales Northern Arizona Audubon Society Flying Heart Barn Northern Arizona Cattle Growers Forest Conservation Council Northern Arizona Flycasters Forest Guardians Northern Arizona Grotto Friends of Walnut Canyon Northern Arizona Riding Club Grand Canyon Trust Northern Arizona Trust Lands Inc. Grand Canyon Wildlands Council Northland Yamaha-Kawasaki Greater Arizona Bicycling Association Peace Surplus Outdoor Store Hanks Trading Post People for the West Hart Prairie Peterson Lumber Company Hart Ranch Ponderosa Outdoor/Sled Dog Inn High Desert Investments Popular Outdoor Outfitters Hitchin’ Post Stables Precision Pine and Timber Horse Trails Coalition Prescott Climbers Coalition IMFAM Associates Prescott College Environmental Center Kampground Owners’ Association RMRS-Flagstaff Karan English Rough Country Bowhunters Keep Sedona Beautiful Environmental Ruff’s Sporting Goods Quality Committee S.E.C. Lake Mary Fishing Boat Rentals Salt River Project Lockett Ranch Inc. Sanderson Ford Loose Spoke Sedona Westerners Lowell Observatory Shapins Associates Manterola Sheep Company Shriner’s Club Maricopa Audubon Sierra Club McCoy Motors Grand Canyon Chapter Michelback Ranch Legal Defense Fund Monte Vista Marine Plateau Group Mormon Lake Lodge Sinagua Trading Post Morrison Brother’s Ranch Single Track Mountain Bikes Mountain Man Events Sky Ranch Development, Inc. Mountain Mushers Smith Contracting, Inc. Mountain Sports Southwest Center for Bio Diversity

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Southwest Forest Alliance National Environmental Policy Act Southwest Information require the National Park Service to Southwest Parks and Monuments respond to “substantive comments.” A Association comment is substantive if it meets any of SWCA, Inc. the following criteria from Director’s Tametic Committee Order 12, Conservation Planning, Teton Mountain Bike Tours Environmental Impact Analysis, and The Arboretum at Flagstaff Decision-Making (NPS 2001). The Edge • It questions, with reasonable basis, The Game Plan the accuracy of information. The Nature Conservancy The Wilderness Society • It questions, with reasonable basis, The Wilson Foundation the adequacy of environmental Total Timber analysis. Trust for Public Land • It presented reasonable alternatives University of Arizona College of other than those proposed in the Agriculture plan. Vertical Relief Rock Gym Voters of Flagstaff • It would cause changes or revisions in Wildlife Society the preferred alternative. Arizona Chapter Arizona State University Chapter Comments from the Hopi Tribe expressed support for alternative #3, Expand Park Windmill Ranch Boundaries to Preserve Park Related Individuals Resources and Provide Diverse Opportunities for Visitor Use. There are more than 900 individuals to whom copies of the EIS were sent. A Six comments from individuals expressed complete listing of these names is opinions about the preferred alternative. available from the Superintendent, All of the six commentors generally Flagstaff Areas office, 6400 N. Hwy 89, agreed with the preferred alternative. Flagstaff, AZ 86004. Two disliked the construction of a new visitor center near Highway 89. One RESPONSES TO COMMENTS individual requested clarification on uses with in the monument. ON THE DRAFT PLAN Responses to Comments The National Park Service received 81 Concerning Closure of Cinder Hills comments on the Sunset Crater Volcano Off Highway Vehicle Area National Monument Draft Environmental The majority of comments from Impact Statement / Draft General individuals and the special interest letter Management Plan. One was from the were opposed to the closure of the Hopi Tribe, five were from federal and Cinder Hills to off highway vehicles. state agencies, three were from non- governmental organizations, one Letters received indicated that represented a special interest group, and clarification is needed on the alternatives 71 comments were received from and the impact on the Cinder Hills Off individuals Highway Vehicle (OHV) area. Areas of the document requiring clarification The Council on Environmental Quality included the current acreage in the (1978) guidelines for implementing the monument and the amount of OHV land

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that would be closed to OHV use. The boundary expansion is proposed between monument is currently 3,040 acres in size. Sunset Crater and FR 776. The number of Information is added to the document to acres proposed to be closed to OHV use clarify the number of acres impacted for in the preferred alternative is 0. each alternative. A summary of the Of the many letters received, some have acreages impacted by each alternative as ideas that were outside the scope of the they appeared in the draft EIS is included general management plan / here: environmental impact statement. The Acres to be closed National Park Service values this input and where applicable it will be taken Alternative to OHV use into account in future plans. However, Alternative 1 no response is provided to such 0 (Preferred) comments in the document. Alternative 2 240 Photocopies of the letters from the agencies, organizations, the special Alternative 3 Approx. 5,000 interest letter follow. These letters and the responses to them are provided. Based on comments, along with discussions with the U.S. Forest Service, the preferred alternative is modified. No

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RESPONSE TO COMMENTS

1) The language has been corrected.

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2) Language has been changed.

3) No action taken. General Management Plans locate facilities in areas and base effects on known information for those areas. More detailed studies and alternatives within areas are considered in future studies.

4) Language has been changed.

5) Language has been changed.

6) Language has been changed.

7) Language has been changed.

8) Map has been changed.

9) Map has been changed.

10) Language has been changed.

11) Language has been changed.

12) Language has been changed.

13) Language has been changed.

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14) This level of detail is beyond the scope of general management plans. The rabies issue is more appropriate to the park’s Integrated Pest Management Plan, last updated in 1996. This input will be taken into account in future plans.

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RESPONSE TO COMMENTS

15) Language has been changed

16) Paragraph has been changed.

17) Index has been changed

18) Tribal Consultation in preparation of the general management plan was extensive and is addressed in the Consultation and Coordination section. An additional heading is added for clarification.

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19) Language has been added.

20) No action required. Alternative #1, the preferred alternative does not propose expansion into or elimination of OHV use within the Cinder Hills area.

21) No action required. Fencing recommendations will be considered in future implementation planning.

22) Map is changed. The preferred alternative no longer includes the area between the south boundary of the park and FR 776. Fencing recommendations will be considered in future implementation planning.

23) No action required. The extended learning zone is intended to provide visitors opportunities to learn about resources. As stated in the management prescriptions, these areas would be managed “to ensure resource protection” and “intimate interaction with resource would be offered where possible without undue resource impacts.” During implementation planning, avoidance of the possible impacts you mentioned will be evaluated. If unavoidable, the recommended mitigation measures will be considered at that time.

24) No action required. Alternative 1 is the preferred alternative.

25) Language is corrected.

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26) No action taken. As stated, the boundary expansion between Sunset Crater Volcano and Wupatki National Monuments was rejected in light of current planning efforts of the Coconino National Forest and their desire to work cooperatively with NPS in managing resources on those lands. Although the U.S. Forest Service and National Park Service have different missions, both are tasked with protection of resources by legal mandates. Both agencies are guided by the National Historic Preservation Act, Archeological and Historic Preservation Act, the American Indian Religious Freedom Act, and the American Indian Graves Protection and Repatriation Act. We have no evidence that recreation, grazing, and other uses occurring on the USFS land are causing impacts outside of these legal mandates.

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27) A wilderness study is beyond the scope of this general management plan.

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28) No action required. No change regarding this policy is proposed.

29) Specific staffing recommendations are beyond the scope of this general management plan.

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RESPONSE TO COMMENTS

30) The need for the plan is documented in the Environmental Consequences section of the document under the No-Action alternative.

31) Language is changed regarding OHV impacts on the Monument.

32) Language is changed.

33) Preferred alternative is changed. None of the OHV area would be closed to OHV use in this alternative. Information regarding the other alternatives is added.

34) Preferred alternative does not impact OHV recreation.

35) Language is changed.

36) Language is changed.

37) Language is changed.

38) Language is changed.

40) Language is changed.

41) Language is changed.

42) Language is changed.

42) Language is changed.

43) No action taken. It is common knowledge that driving over vegetation can damage plants and move the soil substrate. Could not locate statement regarding “serious threat” to plants.

44) Language is changed.

45) Language is changed.

46) Preferred alternative is modified. There is no boundary expansion into the Cinder Hills OHV area, and therefore, no conflict with the FLEA plan.

47) Impacts on OHV users are covered in Ability to Experience Park Resources. Number of users affected is in Affected Environment under Ability to Experience Park Resources. Impacts to OHV users is covered in Environmental Consequences under Ability to Experience Park Resources. Cumulative effects are added.

250

APPENDIXES/REFERENCES

APPENDIX A: LEGISLATION

251 APPEMDIXES/REFERENCES

252

GLOSSARY

Advisory Council on Historic cultural landscape. A geographic area, Preservation (ACHP). An independent including both cultural and natural federal agency with statutory authority to resources and the wildlife or domestic review and comment on federal actions animals therein, associated with a historic affecting properties listed in or eligible for event, activity, or person or exhibiting listing in the National Register of Historic other cultural or aesthetic values. Places. cultural landscape inventory (CLI). The air quality. A measure of the health- CLI is a computerized, evaluated inventory related and visual characteristics of the air of all cultural landscapes in which NPS has often derived from quantitative or plans to acquire any legal interest. Its measurements of the concentrations of purpose is to identify cultural landscapes specific injurious or contaminating in the system and provide information on substances. their location, historical development, character-defining features, and air quality class II areas. Regions in management. The CLI assists park attainment areas where maintenance of managers in planning, programming, and existing good air quality is of high priority. recording treatment and management Class II areas permit moderate decisions. CLI forms, including maps, deterioration of existing air quality. drawings, and photographs, are alternative. One of at least two proposed completed and maintained at the regional means of accomplishing planning offices, with copies provided to the parks. objectives. cultural resources. An aspect of a archeological resource. Any material cultural system that is valued by or remains or physical evidence of past significantly representative of a culture or human life or activities that are of that contains significant information archeological interest, including the record about a culture. A cultural resource can be of the effects of human activities on the a tangible entity or a cultural practice. environment. They are capable of cumulative effects. The culmination of a revealing scientific or humanistic proposed action when added to past, information through archeological present, and reasonably foreseeable future research. actions; action can be taken by anyone backcountry. All nondeveloped areas and can occur inside or outside the park. within the park. Generally considered to ecosystem. A system made up of a be all areas beyond developed facilities community of animals, plants, and bacteria and visitor use areas, (operational areas, and its interrelated physical and chemical campgrounds, picnic areas, visitor centers, environment. visitor contact stations), developed interpretive areas (view points, wayside endangered species. Any species that is orientation exhibits, developed in danger of extinction throughout all or a archeological resources with designated significant portion of its range [16 USC trails), and designated trails, trailheads, §1532(6)]. and roads. environmental impact statement (EIS). Required by the National Environmental

253 GLOSSARY

Policy Act to examine a range of federal of physical characteristics that existed actions and their potential effects on the during its historic or prehistoric period; the human environment. extent to which a property retains its historic appearance. ethnographic landscape. Areas containing a variety of natural and cultural interpretation. A communication process resources that associated people define as designed to reveal meanings and heritage resources. relationships of our cultural and natural heritage to the public through firsthand ethnographic resource. A site, structure, experiences with objects, artifacts, object, landscape, or natural resource landscapes, or sites; facilitating a feature assigned traditional legendary, connection between the interests of the religious, subsistence, or other significance visitor and the meaning of the park by in the cultural system of a group explaining the park’s purpose and traditionally associated with it. significance; usually a single contact with a floodplain. A plain along a river, formed group or individual. from sediment deposited by floods. mitigating measures. Constraints, four-wheel-drive. Four-wheel-drive, requirements, or conditions imposed to differential transfer case disperses 50/50 reduce the significance of or eliminate an front and rear displacement. Trucks, cars, anticipated impact to environmental, buses, or sports utility vehicles with high socioeconomic, or other resource value clearance and the ability to operate off- from a proposed land use. pavement as well as on highways. National Register of Historic Places front country. Areas within the park that (NRHP). The comprehensive list of districts, contain development for visitor use and sites, buildings, structures, and objects of park operations. Generally considered to national, regional, state, and local be all areas with developed facilities and significance in American history, visitor use areas, (operational areas, architecture, archeology, engineering, and campgrounds, picnic areas, visitor centers, culture kept by NPS under authority of the visitor contact stations), developed National Historic Preservation Act of 1966. interpretive areas (view points, wayside natural soundscapes. The total ambient orientation exhibits, developed/stabilized acoustic environment associated with a archeological resources with designated given environment (sonic environment) in trails), and designated trailheads, trails, an area such as a national park or the total and roads. ambient sound level for the park. In a full-time equivalents (FTEs). Staff national park setting, this soundscape is positions that include 40 hours of work per usually composed of both ambient sounds week all year. and a variety of human-made sounds. This habitat. A specific set of physical sonic environment is an important conditions in a geographic area that resource of many parks; there can also be surrounds a single species, a group of important relationships between how this species, or a large community. In wildlife environment is perceived and understood management, the major components of by individuals and society. habitat are food, water, cover, and living riparian areas. Zones of transition from space. aquatic to terrestrial ecosystems, integrity. The authenticity of a property’s dependent on surface and/or subsurface historic identity, evidenced by the survival water for existence and which manifest the influence of that water.

254 GLOSSARY

scoping. Planning process that solicits ethnographic resources eligible for listing people’s opinions on the value of a park, in the National Register of Historic Places. issues facing a park, and the future of a U.S.C. United States Code. Contains the park. general and permanent laws of the United sensitive species. Those plant and States. animal species for which population visitor use. Visitor use of a resource for viability is a concern. inspiration, stimulation, solitude, State Historic Preservation Officer relaxation, education, pleasure, or (SHPO). An official within each state satisfaction. appointed by the governor to administer wetlands. Lands including swamps, the state historic preservation program marshes, bogs, and similar areas, such as and carry out certain responsibilities wet meadows, river overflows, mud flats, relating to federal undertakings within the and natural ponds. state. wilderness area. An area officially threatened and endangered species. designated as wilderness by Congress. Any species of fish, wildlife, or plant that is Wilderness areas will be managed to listed as threatened or endangered by the preserve wilderness characteristics and U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. shall be devoted to “the public purposes traditional cultural property (TCP). A of recreation, scenic, scientific, property associated with cultural practices educational, conservation, and historical or beliefs of a living community that are use rooted in that community’s history or are important in maintaining its cultural identity. Traditional cultural properties are .

255

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ARIZONA GAME AND FISH DEPARTMENT BILLS, DONALD J., MARGOT TRUINI, 2001 Arizona Heritage Data MARILYN E. FLYNN, HERBERT A. PIERCE, Management System. RUFUS D. CATCHINGS, AND MICHAEL J. RYMER ARNBERGER, L. 2000 “Hydrogeology of the Regional 1947 “Flowering Plants and Ferns of Aquifer Near Flagstaff, Arizona, 1994-97.” Walnut Canyon.” Plateau Vol. 20, pp. 29- Water Investigations Report 00-4122, U.S. 36. Geological Survey.

ASSOCIATION FOR BIODIVERSITY BOSTON, RICHARD L. INFORMATION. 1991 Black Falls Trading Post: Its 2000 Natureserve: an online Historical Significance. Northern Arizona encyclopedia of live, Version 1.2. (website University, Department of Anthropology, address: http://www.natureserve.org/). Flagstaff, AZ. Arlington, Virginia. BRANDT, ELIZABETH A. BALDWIN, ANNE R., AND J. MICHAEL 1997 Anthropological Literature Review BREMER and Annotated Bibliography for Sunset 1986 Walnut Canyon National Crater Volcano and Wupatki National Monument: An Archeological Survey. Monuments: Santa Fe, NM, National Park Western Archeological Center, National Service. Park Service. Publications in Anthropology No. 39, Tucson, AZ. BREMER, J. M. 1988 “Settlement and Land Use in the BATEMAN, GARY C. Walnut Creek Drainage of North Central 1979 “Natural Resource Survey and Arizona During the 12th and 13th Analysis of Sunset Crater Volcano and Centuries.” Unpublished Masters Thesis. Wupatki National Monuments, Preliminary Northern Arizona University, Flagstaff. Report (Phase III).” Prepared for the Office of Natural Resource Management BRIAN, NANCY J. Southwest Region, National Park Service. 1992 Historical Review of Water Flow Ms on file Wupatki National Monument. and Riparian Vegetation at Walnut 1976 “Natural Resource Survey and Canyon National Monument, Arizona. Analysis of Sunset Crater Volcano and Technical Report/Cooperative National Wupatki National Monuments.” Ms. on Park Resources Studies Unit. Number 44. File Wupatki National Monument. Report National Park Service, Flagstaff, Arizona. prepared by Northern Arizona University, 1985 “Historical Review of Water Flow Contract No. 950134. and Riparian Vegetation at Walnut Canyon National Monument, Arizona.”

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Ms. on file Walnut Canyon National CITY OF FLAGSTAFF Monument. Report to the National Park 2001 Report on the Flagstaff Area Service, Southern Arizona Group, Phoenix, Regional Land Use and Transportation Arizona. Plan. City of Flagstaff Planning Division, Flagstaff, Arizona. BRIGHT, JILL L., AND CHARLES VAN RIPER 1999 Flagstaff Area Regional Land Use III. and Transportation Plan. City of Flagstaff 2000 Pronghorn Home Ranges, Habitat Planning Division, Flagstaff, Arizona. Selection and Distribution around Water Sources in Northern Arizona. Technical 1998 Flagstaff Area Open Spaces and Report USGSFRESC/COPL/2000/18; U.S. Greenways Plan. City of Flagstaff Planning Geological Survey, Forest and Rangeland Division, Flagstaff, Arizona. Ecosystem Science Center, Biological Resources Division, Colorado Plateau Field CLARK, R. N. Station. Flagstaff, Arizona. 1976 “Control of Vandalism in Recreation Areas-Fact, Fiction, or BRITTEN, MIKE Folklore?” In Vandalism and Outdoor 1999 Trip Report for travel to Wupatki Recreation, USDA, U.S. Forest Service, National Monument, 16-18 June 1999. General Technical Report PSW-17: 62-72. Natural Resource Files, Headquarters Office, Flagstaff, Arizona. CLINE, PLATT 1994 Mountain Town: Flagstaff’s First BROWN, GREGORY, AND CHRISTIAN E. Century. Northland Publishing, Flagstaff. DOWNUM 1976 They Came to the Mountain: The 1997 Archaeological Inventory Survey of Story of Flagstaff’s Beginnings. Northern the CO-Bar Ranch. Northern Arizona Arizona University with Northland Press, University Archaeological Report No. 1145. Flagstaff. Report on file, NAU Department of Anthropology, Flagstaff. CODER, CHRISTOPHER, ET AL. 1995a 1994 Summary Report: Monitoring CHRISTENSEN, PAUL K. of Archaeological Sites along the Colorado 1982 Hydrogeology of Sunset Crater and River Corridor in Grand Canyon National Wupatki National Monuments. Park. Report on file, Grand Canyon Unpublished master’s thesis. Northern National Park Science Center, Grand Arizona University, Flagstaff. Canyon, Arizona. 1995b 1995 Summary Report: Monitoring CINNAMON, STEVEN K. of Archaeological Sites along the Colorado 1984 “Spring and Seep Investigation of River Corridor in Grand Canyon National Wupatki National Monument.” Park. Report on file, Grand Canyon Unpublished. Ms. on file, Flagstaff Area National Park Science Center, Grand National Monuments’ Research Library, Canyon, Arizona. Flagstaff, Arizona. N.d. Potsherd Survey to Determine COLTON, HAROLD S. Impacts of Visitor Use and Grazing. 1946 The Sinagua: A Summary of the Unpublished. Ms. on file, Flagstaff Area Archaeology of the Region of Flagstaff, National Monuments’ Research Library, Arizona, Northern Arizona Society of Flagstaff, Arizona. Science and Art, Flagstaff, Arizona. 328 pp. 1936 “The Basaltic Cinder cones and Lava Flows of the San Francisco Mountain

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GRATER, R. the National Park Service, Arizona 1935 Walnut Canyon Bird List. Western Ethnobotanical Research Association. Archaeological and Conservation Center Archives, National Park Service, Tucson, JENKINS, P., F. REICHENBACHER, K. Arizona. JOHNSON, AND A. GONDOR 1991 “Vegetation Inventory, GREEN, D. F., AND S. LABLANC, (EDITORS) Classification, and Monitoring at Walnut 1979 Vandalism of Cultural Resources: Canyon National Monument.” Study The Growing Threat to Our National Report to the National Park Service. Heritage. Cultural Resources Report No. 28. USDA, U.S. Forest Service, Southwest JOHNSON, CRAIG J. Region, Albuquerque, New Mexico. 1999 Cultural Resource Management at Wupatki National Monument: Managing a HAAS, G. E., AND T. J. WAKEFIELD Nonrenewable Resource. Northern Arizona 1998 National Parks and the American University, Department of Anthropology, Public: A National Public Opinion Survey Master’s thesis, p. 73. on the National Park System. National Parks and Conservation Association and JOHNSON, DARRYLL R., JUNE C. RUGH, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, MARK E. VANDE KAMP, AND THOMAS C. Colorado. SWEARINGEN 1994 “Minor Violations, Major Damage: HALDEMAN, J. R., AND A. B. Clark A Survey of Noncompliant Visitor Behavior 1969 “Walnut Canyon: An Example of and Managerial Practices.” Park Science Relationships Between Birds and Plant (Summer): 6-7. Communities.” Plateau, Vol. 41(4): 164-77. JOHNSON, DARRYLL R., AND MARK E. HOFFMEISTER, DONALD F. VANDE KAMP 1986 Mammals of Arizona. University of 1996 “Extent and Control of Resource Arizona Press, Tucson. Damage Due to Noncompliant Visitor Behavior: A Case Study from the U.S. HOLM, RICHARD F. National Parks.” Natural Areas Journal 1987 “Significance of Agglutinate 16(2): 134-41. Mounds on Lava Flows Associated with Monogenetic Cones: An Example at Sunset JOYCE. J. F. Crater, Northern Arizona.” Geological 1974 “A Taxonomic and Ecological Society of America Bulletin 99. September Analysis of the Flora of Walnut Canyon, 1987: 319-24. Arizona.” Unpublished master’s thesis. Northern Arizona University, Flagstaff. HOLM, RICHARD F., AND RICHARD B. MOORE LEE, MARTHA E., AND DOUGLAS 1987 “Holocene Scoria Cone and Lava STEPHENS Flows at Sunset Crater, Northern Arizona.” 1995 Anasazi Cultural Parks Study: In Geological Society of American Assessment of Visitor Experiences at Three Centennial Field Guide-Rocky Mountain Cultural Parks. Colorado Plateau Research Section, pp. 393-97. Station, Northern Arizona University, Flagstaff, Arizona. Technical Report HUISINGA, KRISTIN, PHYLLIS HOGAN, NPS/NAUCPRS/NRTR-95/07. KAREN WRIGHT, HELEN HAMILTON, AND SUSAN CROW LEE, MARTY, AND LOCHEN TREADWELL 2000 Special Status Plants of the Flagstaff 1999 1998 Survey of Flagstaff Monument Area National Monuments. Final Report to Visitors: Final Report. School of Forestry,

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Northern Arizona University, Flagstaff, MURDOCK, L. Arizona. 1994 “Analysis of Woodrat (Neotoma) Middens Found in Walnut Canyon, LIGHTFOOT, K. G., AND J. E. FRANCIS Coconino County, Arizona.” Unpublished 1978 “The Effects of Causal Surface master’s thesis, Northern Arizona Collection on Behavioral Interpretations of University, Flagstaff. Archaeological Data.” In An Analytical Approach to Cultural Resource MUSEUM OF NORTHERN ARIZONA Management: The Little Colorado 1929 “Sunset Crater and the Lava Beds.” Planning Unit, edited by Fred Plog, pp 83- Museum Notes of the Museum of 90. Anthropological Research Paper No. Northern Arizona. Volume 2, number 4. 23, Arizona State University, Tempe. October. Flagstaff, Arizona.

MACHLIS, GARY NATIONAL PARK SERVICE, U.S. 2000 Visitor Survey Card Project, DEPARTMENT OF INTERIOR University of Idaho Cooperative Park 2001 Draft NPS Species Flora and Fauna Studies Unit for the National Park Service, Database for Walnut Canyon National Moscow, Idaho. Monument, National Park Service Natural Resource Inventory and Monitoring MAGILL, ARTHUR W. Program, Colorado Plateau Cooperative 1992 Managed and Natural Landscapes: Ecological Studies Unit, Northern Arizona What Do People Like? Pacific Southwest University, Flagstaff. Research Station, USDA, U.S. Forest 2000 Flagstaff Areas Strategic Plan, Service, Albany, California. Research Paper Wupatki, Sunset Crater Volcano, and PWS-RP-213. Walnut Canyon National Monuments, McCLELLAND, L. F. FY2001-FY2005. Flagstaff Area Office, 1998 Building the National Parks: Historic Flagstaff, Arizona. Landscape Design and Construction. Johns 2000 Management Policies. Washington, Hopkins University Press, Baltimore, D.C. Maryland. http://www.nps.gov/planning/mngmtplc/ npsmptoc.html. MCCORMACK, DANIEL 1998 “Planning for Interpretation and 1989 “The Geology of Wupatki National Visitor Experience.” Division of Monument, Northern Arizona.” Thesis, Interpretation, Harpers Ferry Center, Geology Department, Northern Arizona Harpers Ferry, West Virginia. University, Flagstaff. 1997 Director’s Order-28, Cultural MENZEL, J. P. Resources Management. Washington 1996 “Historical Changes in Forest Office, Washington, D.C. Structure in the Ponderosa Pine Type, 1996 “Resources Management Plan.” On Walnut Canyon Area, Northern Arizona.” file. Flagstaff Area National Monuments Unpublished Masters Thesis, Northern Research Library, Flagstaff, Arizona. Arizona University, Flagstaff. 1994 “Draft Statement for Management, the Flagstaff Areas.” Wupatki, Sunset MOORE, RICK Crater Volcano, and Walnut Canyon 1994 Preserving Traces of the Past: National Monuments, Flagstaff, Arizona. Protecting the Colorado Plateau’s Archaeological Heritage. Grand Canyon 1993 Visual Quality of Built Environments Trust, Flagstaff, Arizona. in National Parks. Denver Service Center, Denver, Colorado.

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1990 Land Protection Plan, Walnut NIELSEEN, A. E. Canyon National Monument, Western 1991 “Trampling the Archeological Regional Office, San Francisco. Record: An Experimental Study.” American 1982a General Antiquity 56(3): 483-503. Management/Development Concept Plan, O’HARA, F. MICHAEL, AND CRAIG J. Wupatki and Sunset Crater National JOHNSON Monuments. Denver Service Center, 1997 Archeological Site Monitoring at Denver, Colorado. Wupatki National Monument, Summer 1982b Finding of No Significant Impact, 1997. Report on file, Flagstaff Area General Management/Development National Monuments Administrative Concept Plan, Wupatki and Sunset Crater Headquarters, Flagstaff, Arizona. National Monuments. Intermountain Support Office-Denver, Denver, Colorado. PERSONS, TREVOR B. 1981 Proposal/Environmental 2001 Distribution, Activity, and Road Assessment, General Management Mortality of Amphibians and Reptiles at Plan/Development Concept Plan, Wupatki Wupatki National Monument, Arizona. and Sunset Crater National Monuments. Final Report to the National Park Service, Denver Service Center, Denver, Colorado. USGS Forest and Rangeland Ecosystem Science Center, Biological Resources NATIONAL PARK SERVICE, U.S. FISH AND Division, Colorado Plateau Field Station. WILDLIFE SERVICE, BUREAU OF LAND Flagstaff, Arizona. MANAGEMENT, U.S. DEPARTMENT OF INTERIOR; FOREST SERVICE, U.S. PHILLIPS, BARBARA G. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE 1990 Riparian Inventory of Walnut 1998 Executive Summary to Congress, Canyon National Monument: Vegetation Recreational Fee Demonstration Program, Map, Sampling Plots, Annotated Checklist. Progress Report to Congress, Volume I- Tucson, Arizona: Southwest Parks and Overview and Summary. Washington, D.C. Monuments Association. http://www.nps.gov/ pub_aff/feedemo/recfee.htm. PILLES, PETER J. 1978 “The Field House and Sinagu NATIONS, J. DALE, AND RAYMOND L. Demography.” In Limited Activity and EASTWOOD Occupatin Sites: A Collection of N.d. “Potential Environmental Impact of Conference Papers, edited by Albert E. Future Surface Mining Operations on the Ward, pp. 119-34. Center for Coconino National Forest.” On file. Anthropoliogical Studies, Albuquerque, Flagstaff Area National Monuments’ New Mexico. Research Library, Flagstaff, Arizona. PILLES, PETER J. JR. NICKENS, PAUL R. 1974 “Post Sunset Crater Eruption 1991 “The Destruction of Archaeological Developments in the Sinagua Culture: A th Sites and Data.” In Protecting the Past, Re-evaluation.” Paper presented at the 39 edited by George S. Smith and John E. Annual Meeting of the Society for Ehrenhard, pp. 73-81. CRC Press, Ann American Archeology, Washington, D.C. Arbor, Michigan ROGGENBUCK, JOSEPH W., CAROLYN J. WIDNER, AND DENNIS W. STRATTON 1997 Reducing Theft of Petrified Wood at Petrified Forest National Park: A Final

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Research Report. On file, Petrified Forest 1995 “Visitors’ Responses to Uniformed National Park, Arizona. 160 pp. Park Employees.” Journal of Park and Recreation Administration 13(1): 73-85. SALOMONSON, MICHAEL 1973 “The Mammals of Walnut Canyon SWETNAM, T. W., W. E. WRIGHT, A. C. National Monument.” Ms on File Northern CAPRIO, P. M. BROWN, AND C. H. BASIAN Arizona University, Flagstaff, Arizona. 1990 Fire Scar Dates from Walnut Canyon National Monument. Final Report to the SCHON, K. National Park Service, Southern Arizona 2000 Saguaro National Park and Walnut Group Office, Tucson, Arizona. Canyon National Monument 2000 Fire Effects Report. Fire Effects Monitoring THOMAS, KATHRYN Program, Saguaro National Park. In Preparation. Vegetation Map of Wupatki National Monument. National SCHURIG, RUDOLPH G. Park Service Inventory Monitoring 1971 “Soil Survey of Wupatki National Program. USGS Forest and Rangeland Monument, Arizona.” In Soil Survey and Ecosystem Science Center, Biological Range Site and Condition Inventory. Resources Division, Colorado Plateau Field Report prepared by the U.S. Department Station. Flagstaff, Arizona. of Agriculture, Soil Conservation Service. 2001 Progress Report on Vegetation Ms on file Wupatki National Monument, Mapping for the Flagstaff Area National Flagstaff, Arizona. Monuments. Memorandum from the U.S. SMILEY, TERAH L. Geological Survey, Colorado Plateau Field 1958 “The Geology and Dating of Sunset Station, Northern Arizona University, to Crater, Flagstaff, Arizona.” In Guidebook the Division of Resources Management, of the Black Mesa Basin Northeastern Flagstaff Area National Monuments. Arizona, Ninth Field Conference. New THOMPSON, BEN H. Mexico Geological Society. 1945 Report to Mr. Mr. Tillotson, SPANGLE, P.F. Regional Direct, National Park Service, 1953 “A Revised Checklist of the Flora of Region Three, Santa, New Mexico. Ms. On Walnut Canyon National Monument.” file, Wupatki National Monument, Plateau Vol. 26, pp. 86-88. Flagstaff.

SPANGLE, P. F., AND E. L. SPANGLE U.S. DEPARTMENT OF INTERIOR 1954 Birds of Walnut Canyon. 1995 Secretary of the Interior’s Standards Southwestern Monuments Association, for the Treatment of Historic Properties. Globe, Arizona. Western Archaeological Washington, D.C. and Conservation Center Archives, http://www2.cr.nps.gov/TPS/secstan1.htm National Park Service, Tucson, Arizona. 1993 Secretarial Order No. 3175, SUTER, GLEN W., AND DANIEL S. JONES Departmental Responsibilities for Indian 1981 Raptor Research. Vol. 15, pp. 12-18. Trust Resources. Washington, D.C. http://www.doi.gov/oait/docs/policies.htm SWEARINGEN, THOMAS C., AND DARRYLL R. JOHNSON U.S. FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE, U.S. 1994 “Keeping Visitors on the Right DEPARTMENT OF INTERIOR Track: Sign and Barrier Research at Mount 1995 Recovery Plan for the Mexican Rainier.” Park Science (Fall): 17-19. Spotted Owl: Volume I. Albuquerque, New Mexico.

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U.S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY, U.S. WESTHEIMER, DUFFIE DEPARTMENT OF INTERIOR 1988 “Black Falls Trading Post: 1941- 2000 Hydrogeology of the Regional 1964.” Unpublished. Ms. on file, Flagstaff Aquifer Near Flagstaff, Arizona, 1994-97. Area National Monuments’ Research Water Investigations Report 00-4122, U.S. Library, Flagstaff, Arizona. Geological Survey. WILDESEN, LESLIE E. U.S. GENERAL ACCOUNTING OFFICE 1982 “The Study of Impacts on 1987 Cultural Resources: Problems Archaeological Sites.” In Advances in Protecting and Preserving Federal Archaeological Method and Theory Vol. 5, Archeological Resources. Government edited by Michael B. Schiffer, pp. 51-96. Accounting Office, Washington, D.C. Academic Press, New York.

VANDE KAMP, MARK E., DARRYLL R. WOOD, CHARLES A., AND JURGEN KIENLE JOHNSON, AND THOMAS C. SWEARINGEN 1990 Volcanoes of North America. 1994 “Preventing Visitor-Caused Damage Cambridge University Press, New York. to National Park Resources: What Do We Know? What Should Be Done?” Park WOOD, W. R., AND D. L. JOHNSON Science (Summer): 8-10. 1978 “A Survey of Disturbance Processes in Archaeological Site Formation.” In VANDIVER, V. W. Advances in Archaeological Method and 1936 Geological Report on Walnut Theory Vol. 1, edited by Michael B. Canyon, Arizona. Western Archaeological Schiffer, pp. 315-81. Academic Press, New and Conservation Center Archives, York. National Park Service, Tucson, Arizona. ZUBE, E. H., J. L. SELL, AND J. G. TAYLOR WETHERILL, M. “Landscape Perception: Research, 1937 Birds Seen at Walnut Canyon Application, and Theory.” Landscape National Monument. Western Planning 9: 75-96. Archaeological and Conservation Center Archives, National Park Service, Tucson, Arizona.

264

LIST OF PREPARERS

PREPARERS Marilyn Hof, Senior Planner, Denver Service Center, National Park Service. B.S. Anita Davis, Interpreter, Sunset Crater Recreational Resources, M.S. Recreational Volcano NM, National Park Service. B.S., Resources; 2 years Bureau of Land Wildlife Biology, M.S. Biology; 10 years Management, 20 years NPS. Responsible NPS. Responsible for impact analysis for management zones, alternatives sections on visitor use and experience. development, and carrying capacity analysis. Jeri DeYoung, Archeologist, Flagstaff Area Offices, National Park Service. B.I.S. Lori Kinser, Visual Information Specialist, Archaeology, History, Botany, M.A. Intermountain Support Office-Denver. 27 Anthropology (Historic Archaeology). 4 years NPS. Responsible for all graphics. years U.S. Forest Service, 6 years NPS. Carol Kruse, Interpretive Specialist, Responsible for alternatives development Flagstaff Area National Monuments. B.S. and impact analysis on historic character of Zoology; 30 years NPS park management the built environment. and interpretation. Responsible for Helen Fairley, Archeologist, Flagstaff development of newsletters, impacts on Area Offices, National Park Service. B.A. ability to experience park resources, and Anthropology, M.A. Anthropology description of alternatives. (Archeology). 5 seasons U.S. Forest Service, Todd Metzger, Chief Resources 3 years private consultant, 10 years NPS. Management, Flagstaff Area Office, Responsible for alternatives development National Park Service. B.A. Anthropology; and impact analysis on long-term integrity 8 years private practice, 13 years NPS. of archeological resources. Responsible for American Indian Sue Fischer, Former Interpreter, Wupatki consultation, alternatives development, NM, National Park Service, now at Grand and impact analyses on park neighbors; Canyon NP. B.A. Geology; 20 years NPS in local, state, and tribal land management; interpretation and employee training and and land/resource managing agencies and development. Responsible for alternatives operational efficiency. development and alternatives descriptions Steve Mitchelson, Former Natural for newsletter and draft document. Resource Specialist, Flagstaff Area National Sam Henderson, Superintendent, Monuments, now at the Intermountain Flagstaff Areas, National Park Service. B.S. Regional Office, National Park Service. B.S. Archeology, 32 years NPS, 26 years Biology; M.S. Plant Ecology; 17 years NPS, 1 Superintendent-11 Casa Grande Ruins, 5 year Corps of Engineers. Responsible for Walnut Canyon, 10 Flagstaff Areas. alternatives development and natural Responsible for the overall management resource impact analysis, including of the three Flagstaff Areas and impact threatened and endangered species and analyses on park neighbors; local, state, sensitive species, long-term integrity of and tribal land management; and natural systems and processes; long-term land/resource managing agencies and integrity of geologic resources, and operational efficiency. floodplains and wetlands.

265 LIST OF PREPARERS

Alexa Roberts, Anthropologist, sections pertaining to natural Intermountain Support Office-Santa Fe, systems/processes, National Park Service. Ph.D. Anthropology, threatened/endangered/sensitive species, 5 years private sector, 8 years Navajo and wetlands/floodplains/riparian Nation, 5 years NPS. Responsible for resources. alternatives development, American Indian consultation, and impact analysis on long- CONTRIBUTORS term integrity of ethnographic resources. National Park Service, Nicole Tancreto, Cartographic Technician, Flagstaff Area National Flagstaff Area Offices Monuments, National Park Service. B.S. John Bland, Protection Ranger, Sunset Ecology and Systematic Biology; 6 years Crater Volcano NM NPS. Contributed to natural resource impact analysis, including threatened and Mary Blasing, District Ranger, Wupatki NM endangered species and sensitive species, Tom Ferrell, Former District Ranger, long-term integrity of natural systems and Walnut Canyon NM processes, and floodplains and wetlands Bill Hudson, Former District Ranger, Christine Turk, Regional Environmental Wupatki NM, now District Ranger, Sunset Quality Officer, Intermountain Support Crater Volcano NM Office-Denver, National Park Service. B.A. Biological Sciences, 22 years NPS, 5 years U Judi Irons, NPS/USFS Interpreter DE College of Marine Studies. Responsible SuZan Pearce, Former Interpretive Ranger, for purpose and need, environmental Sunset Crater Volcano NM consequences, consultation/coordination, Al Remley, Archeologist, Flagstaff Area references, and appendixes. Monuments Terri Urbanowski, Landscape Architect, Nancy Schultz, Administrative Officer, Denver Service Center, National Park Flagstaff Area Monuments Service. B.S. Landscape Horticulture, M.L.A. Landscape Architecture, 15 years NPS, 3 Michael Stuckey, Former District Ranger, years private practice. Job Captain, Sunset Crater Volcano NM responsible for alternatives, management Richard Sullivan, Former Chief of zones, costs, and graphics coordination. Maintenance, Flagstaff Area Monuments Kim Watson, Chief Ranger. Responsible Michael Schneegas, Facility Manager, for alternatives development, impact Flagstaff Area Monuments analyses on park neighbors; local, state, and tribal land management, and National Park Service, land/resource managing agencies; ability Intermountain Support Office- to experience park resources; and operational efficiency. Denver Paul Whitefield, Natural Resource Kenneth Bennett, Historical Architect, Specialist, Flagstaff Area National Volunteer-in-Parks Monuments. B.S. Biology. 5 years Christine Maylath, Environmental Chihuahuan Desert Research Institute, 11 Protection Assistant/Planning Tech years NPS, including 2 seasons Guadalupe Mountains, 5 years Big Thicket, 4 years Chaco Culture, 6 months Flagstaff Monuments. Responsible for revising all

266 LIST OF PREPARERS

National Park Service Kath Farr, Supervisor’s Office Ken Mabery, Former Management Allen Madril, Archeologist, Peaks/Mormon Assistant, El Malpais NM Lake Ranger District U.S. Forest Service, Coconino Sandra Nagiller, Wildlife Biologist, Peaks Ranger District National Forest John Nelson, Recreation and Wildlife Staff Alvin Brown, Flagstaff Lake Mary Office, Peaks/Mormon Lake Ranger District Ecosystem, Peaks/Mormon Lake Ranger District Peter Pilles, Forest Archeologist, Supervisor’s Office Linda Farnsworth, Archeologist, Peaks Ranger District

267

INDEX

Arizona Game and Fish Department, 22, Flagstaff Lake Mary Ecosystem, ii 87, 102, 137, 174, 175, 176, 178, 179, Flagstaff Lake Mary Ecosystem Area, 195 180, 195 Forest Service, ii, 9, 10, 16, 19, 21, 24, 31, Babbitt Ranches, 95, 197 35, 39, 41, 42, 43, 44, 47, 59, 71, 77, 81, Bonito Park, iv, v, 2, 28, 36, 37, 39, 40, 42, 83, 85, 86, 87, 88, 94, 95, 96, 98, 99, 101, 43, 44, 46, 60, 63, 65, 67, 68, 74, 75, 76, 105, 129, 139, 146, 174, 175, 176, 177, 78, 80, 84, 88, 98, 106, 107, 108, 109, 178, 179, 180, 181, 182, 185, 187, 188, 110, 111, 112, 114, 119, 120, 126, 127, 192, 195, 196, 197, 200, 232, 262, 264, 128, 132, 133, 134, 138, 139, 140, 141, 265, 269, 271 142, 149, 150, 151, 157, 162, 163, 164, FR545, i, ii, iii, iv, v, vi, 2, 5, 37, 38, 39, 40, 168, 175, 177, 178, 179, 190, 254 41, 42, 43, 44, 45, 46, 47, 60, 61, 63, 69, boundary expansion, 37, 68, 109, 110, 117, 71, 74, 75, 76, 84, 85, 93, 94, 95, 96, 97, 119, 120, 124, 147, 148, 149, 150, 152, 98, 99, 103, 108, 119, 121, 122, 123, 126, 153, 200, 232, 250 129, 131, 132, 133, 134, 135, 140, 141, 142, 143, 147, 149, 151, 154, 155, 156, Bureau of Land Management, 16, 266, 269 157, 158, 161, 162, 163, 164, 165, 166, camping, ii, 34, 37, 39, 46, 94, 99, 105, 109, 167, 170, 171, 174, 176, 177, 178, 179, 112, 129, 138, 155, 163, 165, 174 180, 182, 184, 185, 186, 189, 190, 191, carrying capacity, 17, 18, 146, 269 192 Cinder Hills OHV Area, 44, 91, 94, 96, 129, FR776, v, 42, 44, 63, 69, 75, 96, 98, 108, 148, 149, 151, 155, 168, 178, 180 109, 122, 132, 133, 134, 135, 141, 143, 151, 162, 163, 164, 177, 178, 179, 180, city of Flagstaff, 19, 94, 174, 175, 179, 184, 189, 190, 191, 192 185, 197, 262 Grand Canyon NP, 196, 269 Coconino National Forest, ii, 3, 19, 29, 36, 39, 45, 75, 81, 83, 84, 85, 90, 91, 92, 95, guided activities, ii, iv, 22, 38, 41, 63, 131 96, 145, 147, 150, 151, 157, 160, 163, Havasupai, 22, 195, 196 165, 170, 232, 263, 266, 271 Hopi, 22, 28, 36, 78, 80, 82, 95, 96, 97, 123, cultural resources, 1, 4, 14, 15, 20, 24, 35, 178, 195, 196, 199 37, 43, 55, 57, 60, 61, 69, 75, 80, 92, 102, Hualapai, 196 106, 107, 108, 111, 112, 113, 115, 116, 145, 167, 179, 189, 190, 257, 258 management prescriptions, 23, 228 decision points, 21, 23, 31 natural soundscapes, 2, 11, 25, 69, 92, 157, 159, 165, 167, 170, 258 Doney Park, 5, 96, 99, 197, 198 Navajo, 22, 28, 36, 45, 47, 60, 79, 80, 82, endangered, i, iv, 5, 8, 9, 24, 31, 32, 57, 67, 86, 95, 96, 97, 101, 123, 174, 176, 178, 81, 82, 85, 86, 87, 137, 138, 139, 140, 180, 185, 195, 196, 270 141, 142, 143, 257, 259, 269, 270 noise, 2, 11, 12, 36, 85, 88, 96, 129, 133, fire, 10, 16, 26, 27, 28, 39, 82, 83, 84, 86, 139, 170 88, 91, 94, 96, 155, 156, 159, 161, 164, 165, 169, 171

269 INDEX

O’Leary Peak, 35, 38, 46, 80, 93, 98, 100, U.S. Geological Survey, 19, 95, 97, 261, 262, 104, 106, 108, 110, 111, 114, 124, 130, 263, 267, 268 131, 132, 138, 139, 140, 141, 145, 147, visitor center, i, ii, iii, iv, v, vi, 2, 22, 23, 26, 148, 149, 151, 156, 157, 158, 159, 163, 35, 37, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 46, 60, 61, 63, 164, 167, 168, 169, 170, 174, 175, 176, 65, 67, 68, 69, 72, 74, 75, 76, 78, 79, 81, 177, 178, 179, 181, 183, 186, 189, 190, 84, 93, 95, 96, 98, 99, 100, 103, 106, 107, 191, 192 108, 110, 111, 112, 113, 114, 115, 116, Off-road vehicles, 146 117, 118, 119, 121, 122, 123, 129, 131, 132, 133, 135, 140, 141, 143, 147, 148, Resources/Values at Stake, 24 149, 150, 151, 152, 155, 156, 157, 158, rights-of-way, 20, 83 159, 160, 161, 162, 163, 164, 165, 166, riparian, 26, 27, 57, 82, 83, 86, 197, 258, 167, 168, 169, 170, 171, 172, 173, 176, 261, 266, 270 177, 179, 180, 184, 186, 187, 188, 190, 192, 193, 194, 199 San Juan Paiute, 22 White Mountain Apache, 22, 28, 36, 195, telecommunications, 20, 35 196 threatened, i, iv, 8, 9, 10, 24, 31, 57, 67, 81, Yavapai Apache, 22, 195, 196 85, 86, 87, 137, 139, 141, 142, 143, 259, 269, 270 Yavapai-Prescott, 22, 195 Tonto Apache, 22, 195, 196 zones, i, 9, 21, 23, 31, 32, 56, 195, 269, 270 trip fact sheets, 22 Zuni, 22, 80, 123, 195, 196

270

NPS D-52a