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Sede Amministrativa: Università Degli Studi Di Padova Sede Amministrativa: Università degli Studi di Padova Dipartimento di Lingue e Letterature Anglo-Germaniche e Slave SCUOLA DI DOTTORATO DI RICERCA IN : SCIENZE LINGUISTICHE, FILOLOGICHE E LETTERARIE INDIRIZZO: LINGUISTICA, FILOLOGIA E LETTERATURE ANGLO -GERMANICHE CICLO: XXIV FEMALE ELEGIAC CHARACTERS IN T HE EXETER BOO K. A CRITICAL EDITION, WITH A CRITICAL HISTORY AND A VARIORUM COMMENTARY OF WULF AND EADWACER , THE WIFE’S LAMENT AND THE HUSBAND’S MESSAGE Direttore della Scuola: Ch.ma Prof.ssa Rosanna Benacchio Coordinatore d’indirizzo: Ch.ma Prof. ssa Annalisa Oboe Supervisore : Ch.mo Prof. Giuseppe Brunetti Dottoranda: Elisa Gianna Pastorello CONTENTS ABBREVIATIONS p. 3 PART ONE . THE MANUSCRIPT AND THE POEMS 1. INTRODUCTION p. 5 1.1 The Manuscript p. 5 1.2 The Poems p. 9 2. THE CRITICAL HISTORY OF THE POEMS p. 13 2.1 Wulf and Eadwacer 2.1.1 The First Riddle theory p. 13 2.1.2 The Dramatic Monologue theory p. 18 2.1.3 Old Norse parallels p. 23 2.1.4 The Exeter Wen-Charm p. 29 2.1.5 The ambiguity of Wulf and Eadwacer p. 32 2.1.6 Riddle-like features in Wulf and Eadwacer p. 39 2.1.7 Editing Wulf and Eadwacer p. 41 2.2 The Wife’s Lament 2.2.1 The exile’s lament p. 51 2.2.2 The wife’s lament p. 54 2.2.3 Old Germanic and Norse parallels p. 59 2.2.4 Celtic connections p. 67 2.2.5 Christian allegories p. 77 2.2.6 The speaker as a living dead p. 85 2.2.7 The wife’s abode p. 94 1 2.2.8 The ambiguity of The Wife’s Lament l. 34b p. 111 2.2.9 The problem of structure p. 117 2.3 Wulf and Eadwacer and The Wife’s Lament as Frauenlieder p. 127 2.4 The Husband’s Message 2.4.1The unity of the poem and its connection with the riddles p.137 2.4.2 Christian allegory p. 143 2.4.3 The speaker’s identity p. 150 2.4.4 The runic passage p. 159 2.5 Feminist readings of the poems p. 165 3. REMARKS ON THE CRITICAL HISTORY OF THE POEMS p. 175 BIBLIOGRAPHY p. 183 PART TWO . CRITICAL EDITION AND VARIORUM COMMENTARY 1. CRITICAL EDITION p. 201 Wulf and Eadwacer p. 201 The Wife’s Lament p. 203 The Husband’s Message p. 207 2. VARIORUM COMMENTARY p. 211 Wulf and Eadwacer p. 211 The Wife’s Lament p. 221 The Husband’s Message p. 239 2 ABBREVIATIONS WE : Wulf and Eadwacer WL : The Wife’s Lament HM : The Husband’s Message OE: Old English ME: Middle English MnE: Modern English 3 4 PART ONE. THE MANUSCRIPT AND THE POEMS 1. INTRODUCTION 1.1 THE MANUSCRIPT The three poems edited in this thesis have been handed down to us in a single manuscript, Exeter Cathedral Library MS. 3501, known as the Exeter Book or Codex Exoniensis. It is one of the four extant poetic codices in Old English, which were all written between the last forty years of the tenth and the first twenty years of the eleventh century, although the material they contain could be earlier. The dating of Old English poetry is a controversial issue, since the language of poetry, rich in formulas, poetic words and compounds, and apax legomenon , is crystallised at least so some extent. However, among the many uncertainties surrounding the Exeter Book and its texts, the approximate date when the manuscript was copied can be established between 965 and 975 thanks to codicological and palaeographical evidence. The codex is written in square minuscule, a script that belongs to the second phase of the Anglo- Saxon minuscule and that appeared from circa 920, lasting until the beginning of the eleventh century, when it was replaced by the round phase under the influence of the Caroline minuscule – the latter being the product of the simplification of script which spread from Benedictine monasteries from circa 950, and which was used just for writing in Latin up to the turn of the century. Square minuscule is the most formal type of Anglo-Saxon minuscule, and the exemplar in the Exeter Book is particularly elegant, being embellished by decorative hairline strokes 1. The codex has been identified with an entry in a donation list left to Exeter Cathedral by Leofric, the bishop who moved the see from Crediton to Exeter in 1050, and who left to the cathedral books and other gifts at his death in 1072. The above-mentioned list is found in folios 1 Information on Anglo-Saxon minuscule script comes from J. Roberts, Guide to Scripts used in English Writings up to 1500 , London: The British Library, 2008, pp. 38-41, 60. 5 1-7 of the manuscript, together with some legal documents; in the introduction to the facsimile edition of the MS., Förster 2 argued that these folios belonged to Cambridge University Library MS. Ii.ii.11, a gospel book, and his hypothesis was proved correct by Malmborg’s discovery of a piece of parchment missing from fol. 5 of the Exeter Book and still preserved in the above- mentioned Cambridge MS. 3 The entry usually connected to the Exeter Book is the following: i mycel englisc boc be gehwilcum þingum on leoðwisan geworht , meaning “one great English book on various things wrought in verse”. In other words, it is an anthology of Old English verse – an anthology in the true sense of the word, as it contains specimens of the most diverse poetic genres: Christological, hagiographic, allegorical, elegiac, heroic, penitential, enigmatic and wisdom poetry. The different types are not grouped together: actually, the poems with religious themes are scattered throughout the MS., and so are the elegies, and the riddles. This peculiar arrangement has originated much debate on the nature of the Exeter Book and on the way in which it was composed. One question concerns the possible sources, that is the codex or codices where the anthologist or the scribe found the different texts. The beginning of each poem is marked by an initial capital which is much larger than the other letters; the end of a text is indicated by a space which usually corresponds to one or two lines, and by particular punctuation marks. Krapp and Dobbie 4 point out that most of the poems are divided into sections similar to those found in the other Old English poetical MSS., but, unlike the poems of the Beowulf MS. and the Junius MS., the sections are not numbered The scribal divisions in the MS. have been interpreted in contrasting ways: since they sometimes seem to mark the beginning and ending of distinct poems where there are really only separate sections of the same 2 R.W. Chambers, M. Förster and R. Flower (eds.), The Exeter Book of Old English Poetry , London: Percy Lund, 1933. Förster’s hypothesis is on pp. 13-14. 3 This information is reported in G.P. Krapp and E.V.K. Dobbie (eds.), The Exeter Book , The Anglo-Saxon Poetic Records, III, New York: Columbia University Press, 1936, pp. x-xi. 4 G.P. Krapp and E.V.K. Dobbie (eds.), The Exeter Book , cit., pp. xvi-xvii. 6 text, some scholar take them as an indication that the MS. was copied by a scribe who not always had a clear idea of what he was copying. Others point out that the divisions might have already been present in the exemplars, and that, therefore, at least some of them might be authorial. After carefully studying the codex and the criticism on it, and after comparing the MS. with the other Old English poetical MSS., Bernard J. Muir, 5 the latest editor of the whole Exeter Book, argues that the sections were copied exactly as they were in the exemplars. 6 He also believes that there is an order in the book, although it is not so evident to modern readers. For instance, the first eight poems convey the ideal of Christian life from various viewpoints: the life of Christ, which is the paradigm for every Christian; the lives of two saints; the presence of the same ideals in the Old Testament; life after death, which awaits all those who follow God’s commandments. He finds another example of deliberate juxtaposition of texts towards the end of the MS., in a series of poems dealing with penitential themes, which he considers related to the Easter liturgy. The case of Riddle 60 and The Husband’s Message , which will be discussed in chapter 2.4.1, is taken by Muir as evidence that the compiler put together texts having some kind of thematic relationship, rather than as an indication that the scribe mistook the elegy for three riddles – the latter being the contention of several scholars. The MS. has 131 folios, but the first leaf was not numbered in the latest foliation; therefore, the numbering goes from 1 to 130. It measures circa 320 by 220 millimetres, and the written area on the folios measures circa 240 by 160 millimetres. It is composed of seventeen gatherings, of which eight are complete, being made of eight folios, while the remaining nine gatherings are made of five or seven folios; the presence of gaps in some of the texts indicates 5 B.J. Muir, The Exeter Anthology of Old English Poetry , Exeter: University of Exeter Press, 2000, pp. 16-25. 6 Muir has found correspondences between the sectional division on fol. 54v., in The Canticles of the Three Youths , and the version of the poem in the Junius MS., and between the sectional divisions in Soul and Body II (Exeter Book) and Soul and Body I in the Vercelli Book.
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