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ROOFTOP SOLAR POWER PRODUCTION POTENTIAL OF EXISTING PUBLIC HOUSING BUILDINGS IN SINGAPORE Dissertation in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of BACHELOR OF SCIENCE WITH A MAJOR IN SUSTAINABLE ENERGY TRANSITION Uppsala University Department of Earth Sciences, Campus Gotland Liew Chiat Chee Jamie 2021.06.25 ROOFTOP SOLAR POWER PRODUCTION POTENTIAL OF EXISTING PUBLIC HOUSING BUILDINGS IN SINGAPORE Dissertation in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of BACHELOR OF SCIENCE WITH A MAJOR IN SUSTAINABLE ENERGY TRANSITION Uppsala University Department of Earth Sciences, Campus Gotland Approved by: Supervisor, Christian Lewander Examiner, Simon Davidsson Kurland 2021.06.25 iii ABSTRACT The importance of increasing renewable energy production to facilitate a sustainable energy transition has been well-discussed and reinforced worldwide. In land- and resource-scarce and tropical Singapore, solar has been deemed the most feasible renewable energy technology for the country moving forward. Previous studies have focused on assessing the feasibility of various solar technologies. This paper instead analyses the rooftop solar power production potential of existing high-rise residential buildings in Singapore, and thus contributes to reaching the national solar goal using geographic information system geospatial imagery. For this study, the chosen focus area is the south of Jurong East in Singapore. Results show that solar deployment on all available public high-rise residential building rooftop areas in the focus area will be able to generate a total potential solar peak power and annual solar energy output of 2-megawatt peak and 2.8-gigawatt hour per year respectively. This equates to meeting the energy demand of 679 public residential apartments in the focus area and meeting 0.18% of the national solar goal of reaching 1.5- gigawatt peak by 2025. In an urban context, the use of geospatial analysis has been presented to benefit urban planning especially with regards to the integration of rooftop solar photovoltaic systems. Keywords: Sustainable Development, Energy Transition, Urban Development, Solar, Geographic Information System, High-Rise Residential Buildings, Singapore iv NOMENCLATURE ABBREVIATIONS RE Renewable Energy RES Renewable Energy Source EMA Energy Market Authority PV Photovoltaics URA Urban Redevelopment Authority HDB Housing & Development Board BIPV Building-Integrated Photovoltaics GIS Geographic Information System SLA Singapore Land Authority NUS National University of Singapore 3D Three-Dimensional SDG Sustainable Development Goal UN United Nation RQ Research Question COVID-19 Coronavirus IEA International Energy Agency SET Sustainable Energy Transition IRENA International Renewable Energy Agency USA United States of America Q1 First Quarter MP Master Plan MP19 Master Plan 2019 ESS Energy Storage System BCA Building and Construction Authority GMS Green Mark Scheme v GM Green Mark SLE Super Low Energy ZE Zero Energy MND Ministry of National Development EDB Economic Development Board LED Light-Emitting Diode ASEAN Association of Southeast Asian Nations CO2 Carbon Dioxide UNITS ° Degrees m² Square meter km² Square kilometre people/km² People per square kilometre kW Kilowatt MW Megawatt GW Gigawatt TW Terawatt kWh Kilowatt hour MWh Megawatt hour (1 000 kWh) GWh Gigawatt hour (1 000 MWh) TWh Terawatt hour (1 000 GWh) kWp Kilowatt peak MWp Megawatt peak GWp Gigawatt peak kWh/year Kilowatt hour per year kWp/m² Kilowatt peak per square metre kWh/m²/year Kilowatt hour per square metre per year vi kWh/kWp/year Kilowatt hour per kilowatt peak per year GWh/year Gigawatt hour per year tonnes/year Tonnes per year ktoe Kilo tonne of oil equivalent vii TABLE OF CONTENTS Page ABSTRACT .............................................................................................................. iii NOMENCLATURE .................................................................................................. iv TABLE OF CONTENTS .......................................................................................... vii LIST OF FIGURES ................................................................................................... ix LIST OF TABLES .................................................................................................... x 1 INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................ 1 1.1 AIM ...................................................................................................... 5 1.2 RESEARCH QUESTION .................................................................... 5 2 BACKGROUND .............................................................................................. 6 2.1 CONTEXT ........................................................................................... 6 2.2 NATIONAL PLANS ............................................................................ 10 3 LITERATURE REVIEW ................................................................................. 15 3.1 ROOFTOP SOLAR PHOTOVOLTAICS............................................ 15 3.2 BUILDING-INTEGRATED PHOTOVOLTAICS .............................. 16 4 METHODOLOGY AND METHOD ............................................................... 18 4.1 SELECTION OF FOCUS AREA ........................................................ 18 4.2 EMPIRICAL DATA – ASSESSING SOLAR POTENTIAL .............. 20 5 RESULTS ......................................................................................................... 24 5.1 IDENTIFICATION OF CLUSTERS ................................................... 24 5.2 RATIO FROM SELECTED HDB BUILDING ................................... 26 5.3 TOTAL SOLAR POTENTIAL ............................................................ 27 6 DISCUSSION AND ANALYSIS .................................................................... 29 6.1 INTEGRATION OF SOLAR ENERGY ............................................. 29 6.2 LIMITATIONS OF RESEARCH SET-UP .......................................... 32 6.3 ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS ......................................................... 32 6.3 SUGGESTIONS FOR FUTURE STUDIES ........................................ 33 7 CONCLUSIONS .............................................................................................. 35 viii REFERENCES ........................................................................................................ 36 APPENDIX A. CORRECTING MAPPING IMAGE DISCREPANCIES ............... 41 APPENDIX B. NUMBERING OF THE HDB BUILDINGS IN THE ................... FOCUS AREA ................................................................................. 42 APPENDIX C. BUILDINGS WITH VARIATIONS OF A SIMILAR .................... ROOFTOP DESIGN ........................................................................ 43 APPENDIX D. RESULTS OF HDB BUILDING ESTIMATIONS ........................ 46 ix LIST OF FIGURES Page Figure 1 URA planning regions ............................................................................... 2 Figure 2 Location of the HDB towns and developments......................................... 3 Figure 3 3D modelling of all the HDB buildings in Singapore by the Urban Analytics Lab ................................................................................. 4 Figure 4 Energy consumption sources for Singapore’s residential sector ............... 7 Figure 5 Installed capacity and number of grid-connected solar PV systems ......... 9 Figure 6 Focus area – south of Jurong East ............................................................. 19 Figure 7 HDB building number 20 in the focus area with a variation of the ......... “comb-shaped” rooftop design (left: OneMap, right: Google Maps) ....... 25 Figure 8 Identified HDB buildings in the focus area with tiled rooftops ................ 25 Figure 9 Identified buildings with existing rooftop solar installations (top: 8, ...... bottom: 14 – 17, 19 and 20) (yellow circle: building number 20) ............ 26 Figure 10 Original buildings categorisation of the focus area (red – HDB, ............. yellow – commercial, brown – industrial, blue – others) .......................... 41 Figure 11 Corrected buildings categorisation of the focus area (red – HDB, .......... yellow – commercial, brown – industrial, blue – others) .......................... 41 Figure 12 Numbering of the HDB buildings ............................................................. 42 Figure 13 Black dotted lines identifying rooftops with variations of the ................. “comb-shaped” rooftop design (red – HDB, yellow – commercial, ........ blue – others) (top: left side, bottom: right side) ....................................... 43 Figure 14 Focus area HDB buildings (top: left side, bottom: right side) ................. (yellow circle: identified “comb-shaped” rooftop design of HDB ........... building number 20) .................................................................................. 44 Figure 15 Estimation of total rooftop area (purple) and rooftop solar PV ............... installation area (yellow) at the chosen HDB building number 20 ........... 45 Figure 16 Estimation of total rooftop area (uniform purple) and available .............. rooftop area (multi-coloured) for the HDB buildings in the focus area .... 46 x LIST OF TABLES Page Table 1 Installed capacity and number of grid-connected solar PVs by user type by end of Q1 2020 ...............................................................
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