A.H.M.Mufas(1), A.H.M.Rifas(2), A.H.L. Fareeza(3) and O.D.A.N.Perera(1) Nutrition knowledge on dietrelated chronic non communicable diseases among the graduates from South Eastern University of Sri Lanka
(1) Department of Food Science and Technology, Faculty of Livestock Fisheries and Nutrition, Wayamba University of Sri Lanka, Sri Lanka. ( Email: [email protected]) (2) Department of Islamic studies, Faculties of Islamic Studies and Language, South eastern University of Sri Lanka. (3) Department of Management, Faculty of Management studies and commerce, South eastern University of Sri Lanka.
Abstract - The Purpose of this study is to understand of individuals plus households and early retirement, all the nutrition knowledge of the graduates on diet have a great impact on the economic productivity of a related chronic NCDs. A descriptive cross sectional country, bringing about the spiral of ill health and study was undertaken among 200 graduates of south poverty (Abegunde and Stanciole, 2006; Suhrcke et al., eastern university to assess the nutrition knowledge. 2005). Knowledge level analyzed with socio-demographic It has been projected that, by 2020, NCDs will characteristics. Overall knowledge of graduates was account for almost three-quarters of all deaths poor; not a single graduate identified with good worldwide, and that 71% of deaths due to ischemic knowledge. Gender, home area, religious group, heart disease (IHD), 75% of deaths due to stroke, and marital status of the respondents turned out to be not 70% of deaths due to diabetes will occur in developing associated with the knowledge level of the graduates countries (Barker et al, 1993a). The number of people (p>0.05). in the developing world with diabetes will increase by Keywords- Nutrition knowledge, NCDs, Diet, more than 2.5-fold, from 84 million in 1995 to 228 Graduates million in 2025 (Barker et al, 1993b). On a global basis, 60% of the burden of chronic diseases will occur in developing countries. In Sri Lanka, diet-related chronic Introduction NCDs currently account for 18.3 percent of all deaths Non-communicable diseases (NCDs), also and 10.2 percent of public hospital expenditures (but known as chronic diseases, are not passed from person 16.7 percent of all hospital expenditures). The current to person. They are of long duration and generally slow loss attributable to diet-related chronic disease is in progression. The four main types of non- estimated as 0.3 percent of GDP. In 2025, chronic communicable diseases are cardiovascular diseases diseases are expected to account for 20.9 percent of all (like heart attacks and stroke), cancers, and diabetes deaths. Currently, dietary factors account for 10-20 (WHO, 2011). NCDs have an impact on individuals percent of these chronic diseases. By 2025, dietary and families; they also affect economies, health factors (particularly overweight) will increase in structures and societies. Amongst the many importance to account for 18-40 percent of chronic implications of NCDs – reduced life expectancy, disease, and the importance of low birth weight as a overall reduction in consumption, income and savings predisposing factor will increase (Popkin et al, 2001)
[1] Proceedings of the Third International Symposium, SEUSL: 6-7 July 2013, Oluvil, Sri Lanka
Even though the genetic factor involving in the recommendations. Hence the study was carried out chronic NCDs, it is highly influenced by many with the objective of assess the nutritional knowledge environmental factors such as: Unhealthy foods: on diet related chronic NCDs among graduate students contain high-salt content, high-sugar content, high and to identify the source of knowledge on diet related trans-fatty acids, saturated fat and by sedentary life chronic NCDs among graduates. style. Since the traditional Sri Lankan diet is vegetable based, a large proportion of adults (82%) do not consume adequate amount of vegetables. Despite the Methodology availability of an abundance and variety of fruit in Sri A descriptive cross sectional study was Lanka, the average consumption is found to be undertaken to assess the nutrition knowledge on diet- inadequate. Despite a modest consumption of fat related chronic NCDs among graduates of south (15%-18%) by the Sri Lankans, higher percentage of eastern university of Sri Lanka, mainly in the field of saturated fats is included in the diet compared to arts, commerce and science. Purposive sampling unsaturated fat. Higher saturated to unsaturated fat method was used to select 200 graduates from different ratio is an important risk factor for development of area. Fifty (50) graduates from each batch from each cardiovascular diseases. The daily intake of salt (10g faculty (Faculty of Applied Science, Faculty of /day) and added sugar (60g/day –based on food Management studies and commerce, Faculty of arts, consumption data, 35 g/day based on individual Faculty of Islamic studies and Arabic language) were dietary records) is also high in Sri Lankan diet when recruited. Equal number of males and females were compared to WHO recommendations. Physical selected from each faculty. inactivity in moderate is a protective factor against many NCDs. Majority of Sri Lankans (78 %) are Self administrated questionnaire containing 36 engaged in moderate or higher level physical activities questions [Knowledge of Applied Nutrition (KN), (> 600 Metabolic Min /Week). However, only a small Knowledge of Food Preparation (KP) and Perceived proportion is engaged regularly in recreational activity. Confidence in Cooking Skills (PC)], (Whati, 2005) was Female are significantly sedentary (30%) compared to used to collect data from respondents. The questions males (19%) and this is also reflected in the higher were directed towards gaining information regarding mean BMI of the former. Alcohol consumption, graduates’ knowledge on diet-related chronic NCDs, Percentage of current drinkers is significantly higher sources of information, and socio demographic in males (26.0%) compared to females (1.2%). characteristics of the subjects. Knowledge was assessed However, less than five percent of male population by using score system. Data were analyzed by using takes alcohol more than 4 days per week (Ministry of descriptive statistics and SPSS software package. Healthcare and Nutrition Sri Lanka, 2009).
World Health Organization has proposed a Results and discussion number of actions to address the problem of unhealthy Preparation of questionnaire to check the eating behaviors. Among these recommendations, nutritional studies in a particular target group is a educating the people is expected to be more effective difficult task. Further, preliminary studies were to control the diet related chronic NCDs. It is widely conducted to choice the questions to include them in practiced in many developed countries, in the school the final questionnaire. Preliminary study describes an level as well as in the university level. evaluation of validity and reliability measures in a Graduates are the most important section in the questionnaire designed to assess knowledge of society. In future they are going to be the policy makers nutrition in graduates participating in this research, for in the country. Therefore it is important to estimate the that, 60 basic nutritional questions were included in nutritional knowledge on the diet- related chronic the questionnaire and was provided randomly to the NCDs among the graduates, since there is a deficiency graduates (Whati, 2005). in that knowledge we can make necessary
[2] A.H.M.Mufas, A.H.M.Rifas, A.H.L. Fareeza and O.D.A.N.Perera Nutrition knowledge on diet-related chronic non communicable diseases among the graduates from South Eastern University of Sri Lanka Table 4: Number and percentage of study of two times, the final questionnaire was sources of knowledge in which the prepared with 36 questions (Anderson, 2002). respondents received information on diet‐ related chronic NCDs. Table 2: Overall knowledge on diet related Source of information * Number(N) Percentage chronic NCDs according to the background News paper 129 64.5 variables (N=200) Magazine 110 55.0 Characteristics Number(N) Percentage Television 93 46.5 Faculty Internet 78 39.0 Faculty of Applied Science 50 25.0 University 57 28.5 Faculty of Management Health personals 43 21.5 studies and commerce 50 25.0 Leaflets 25 12.5 Faculty of arts 50 25.0 Radio 21 10.5 Faculty of Islamic studies and Family 17 8.5 Arabic language 50 25.0 Nutritionist/ dietitian 7 3.5 Age (years) Others 5 2.5 26-29 77 38.5 30-33 56 28.0 Table 2: Overall knowledge on diet related 34-37 67 33.5 chronic NCDs according to the background Gender variables (N=200). Male 100 50.0
Characteristics Knowledge Significane Female 100 50.0 Poor (%)* Home area Satisfactory (%)* Urban 113 56.5 Faculty Semi urban 40 20.0 2 Faculty of 17(34.0) 33(66.0) X =46.007 Rural 47 23.5 Applied 126(84.0) 24(16.0) df = 1 Science Other p=0.001 Religious group faculties Muslim 168 84.0 Gender Hindus 20 10.0 2 Male 74(74.0) 26(26.0) X =0.613 Christian 12 6.0 Female 69(69.0) 31(31.0) df = 1 p=0.433 Buddhist 0 0.0
Home are Nutrition knowledge may influence dietary Urban Semi 79(69.9) 34(30.1) X2 =0.322 behavior directly or through nutrition attitudes. urban / Rural 64(73.6) 23(26.4) df = 1 Dietary behavior may further become dietary patterns p=0.570 and influence one’s nutrient intake. Therefore, Religious group understanding people’s nutrition knowledge, attitudes, Muslim 120(71.42) 48(28.5) X2 =0.003 Others 23(71.87) 9(28.12) df = 1 and behavior is the basis for nutrition education p=0.959 (Stanek and Sempek, 1990; McIntosh et al, 1990). Marital status Studies on nutritional knowledge in Sri Lanka are very Single 95(68.84) 43(31.16) X2 =1.545 rare, among them; there is no such research on the Married 48(77.41) 14(22.58) df = 1 knowledge of graduate students on diet-related chronic p=0.214 non communicable diseases done in the past years.
Finally each question was checked for answering According to the results, the overall knowledge correctly by 5 to 95% of the target population. The of graduates on diet related chronic NCDs were poor question does not fulfill the above requirement is (refer: Table 3). Not a single graduate identified with removed from the questionnaire. After the preliminary good knowledge. Faculty of applied science had 33%
[3] Proceedings of the Third International Symposium, SEUSL: 6-7 July 2013, Oluvil, Sri Lanka of satisfactory level in knowledge. Nonetheless, it was In case of individual source of information about significant when compare to the other faculties. As in the diet related chronic NCDs; from the all source the case of applied science, increase in the satisfactory graduates are getting their knowledge where news level difference may be due to the early knowledge they paper and magazines are used as an important source gained during the advanced level studies. There was no for getting their knowledge (refer: Table 4). Since, significant difference between the knowledge score and some of the TV channels showing their advertisement of the gender found (p>0.05), in another research, for their commercial purpose; it is too used by the which conducted in Thailand, Comparison of graduates to gather their knowledge on chronic non knowledge between male and female adolescents communicable disease. Diet related Chronic NCDs found that female had more nutrition knowledge than associated with health complications, such as an males with statistical significance at the 0.01 (Ruamsup increased risk of type 2 diabetes and cardiovascular and Charoenchai, 2011). disease (CVD) (Moller and Kaufman, 2005). When the graduates experience the diet related NCDs This deviation in results may be due to the themselves, they go to health personals that also found literacy level, is higher in Sri Lanka when compare to be a source of providing the knowledge. Only 3.5% to other developingcountries and its’ almost equal of graduates gain their knowledge from the nutritionist among male and female (Central Bank of Sri Lanka, / dietitian. Nonetheless, people seldom seek nutrition 2005). counseling from dietitians because it is not covered by There is no significant difference between the the National Health policy and only some of the knowledge score and home area of the respondents private hospital having the dietitian and it’s very rare (p>0.05). Where 84% of them had poor knowledge, in government hospitals. As a result, medical which is higher than the semi urban / rural area practitioners or nurses have become the major sources graduates. Most of the rural area is now being of nutrition information many studies have indicated urbanized and most of the people in Sri Lanka going that the nutrition knowledge of doctors and nurses is towards the sedentary life style without knowing the not satisfactory (Dappen et al, 1986; Harrison et al, consequences of it. In another study which mainly 1969). targeted on Taiwanese Elderly persons who were female, with lower educational levels, and living in Table 3: Overall Knowledge of on diet‐ remote areas scored lower on the knowledge scale than related chronic non communicable males with higher educational levels and living in more diseases (N=200) urban areas (Lin and Lee, 2005). However, the result Level of knowledge Number (N) Percentage variation may be due to the knowledge level gaining on diet related chronic NCDs of the people who living Poor ( 1-12) 143 71.5 in either urban or rural are similar. Satisfactory (13-24) 57 28.5 Good (25-36) 0 0.0 As in the case of religious group, there was no Total 200 100.0 Buddhist graduate found. Most of the graduates were Minimum: 6 Maximum: 23 Standard deviation: 4.07 identified to be Muslims therefore, their knowledge level on diet related chronic NCDs were compared with other religious group (refer table 2). There was Conclusion /Suggestion no significant different found among religious group, and the knowledge level was almost same (p>0.05). It The overall knowledge of graduates on diet implies that the availability of sources of knowledge on related chronic NCDs was poor. Gender, home area, diet related non communicable disease was low in religious group, marital states of the respondents every ethnic group and the lifestyle of all religious turned out to be not associated with the knowledge groups was interrelated. There is no association found level on related chronic NCDs. Statistically there was with the nutrition knowledge on diet related chronic significant association found between the faculty of NCDs and marital status of the respondents (p>0.05). applied science with other faculties. Increase of the
[4] A.H.M.Mufas, A.H.M.Rifas, A.H.L. Fareeza and O.D.A.N.Perera Nutrition knowledge on diet-related chronic non communicable diseases among the graduates from South Eastern University of Sri Lanka knowledge level of graduates might increase the Central Bank of Sri Lanka. (2005). The Consumer awareness and it would lead to guide the society to Finances and Socio Economic Survey Report minimize the diet related chronic NCDs. So it is 2003/04. Part 1. Colombo, Sri Lanka. suggested that the Nutrition studies should be added Dappen, A., Gessert, C., Walsh, J. (1986).Nutrition as a compulsory subject in each and every degree education for family practice residents. Journal of programmes provided by Sri Lankan Universities to Medical Education; 61: 837-839. feed the knowledge on diet related chronic NCDs. Since this study was only restricted to the graduates of Harrison, G.G., Sanchez., A.M., Young, C.M. South Eastern university of Sri Lanka due to the time (1969).Public Health Nurses' knowledge of constrain and resource limitation. It is recommended; Nutrition. Journal of American Diet Association; in future, further studies should be carried out 55: 133-139. throughout country to find out knowledge level of the Lin, W., and Lee ,Y.W. (2005).Nutrition knowledge, graduates on diet related chronic NCDs. attitudes, and dietary restriction behavior of the Taiwanese elderly Program of Nutritional Science Acknowledgment and Education, Department of Human Development & Family Studies, National Taiwan Authors wish to express their great thankfulness Normal University, Taipei, Taiwan, ROC Asia to the graduate’s students of South Eastern University Pacific Journal on Clinical Nutrition;14 (3):221- of Sri Lanka who took part actively during these 229. studies and to Department of Food Science and Technology, Faculty of Livestock Fisheries and McIntosh, W.A., Kubena, K.S., Walker, J., Smith, D., Nutrition, Wayamba University of Sri Lanka for the Landmann, W.A. (1990). The relationship financial support during this study. between beliefs about nutrition and dietary practices of the elderly. Journal of American Diet Association; 90: 671-676. References Moller, D.E., Kaufman, K.D. (2005).Metabolic Abegunde, D. and Stanciole, A., (2006). An estimation syndrome: a clinical and molecular perspective. of the economic impact of chronic non- Annual review of medicine 56:45–62. communicable diseases in selected countries�. Popkin, B.M., Horton, S., Kim, S. (2001).The [Online] World Health Organization, nutritional transition and diet-related chronic Department of Chronic Disease and Health diseases in Asia: implications for prevention. Promotion. Food Consumption and Nutrition Division Anderson, A.S., Bell, A., Adamson, A., Moynihan, P. International Food Policy Research Institute 2033 (2002). A questionnaire assessment of nutrition K Street, N.W. Washington, D.C. 20006 U.S.A. knowledge--validity and reliability issues. Public Ruamsup, J., Charoenchai, A.(2011). Knowledge, Health Nutrition. Jun; 5(3):497-503. Awareness and Practice about Food and Barker DJP et al (1993a). Type 2 (non-insulin- Nutrition of Adolescence in Muang District, dependent) diabetes mellitus, hypertension and Prachinburi Province. Faculty of Home hyperlipidaemia (syndrome X): relation to Economics Technology, Rajamangala University reduced fetal growth. Diabetologia, 36:62--67. of Technology Phra Nakhon, Thailand.
Barker DJP et al (1993b). Growth in utero and serum Stanek, K., Sempek, D. (1990).Food supplement use as cholesterol concentrations in adult life. British related to nutrition knowledge and dietary Medical Journal, 307:1524-1527. quality of the elderly. Journal of Nutrition Elderly; 10 (1): 33-44.
[5] Proceedings of the Third International Symposium, SEUSL: 6-7 July 2013, Oluvil, Sri Lanka
Suhrcke, M., Rocco, L., Mckee, M., Urban, D., Steinherr, A. (2005). Economic consequences of chronic diseases and the economic rationale for public and private intervention. OHA conference. 21st October 2005. Oxford University.
The national policy & strategic framework for prevention and control of chronic non- communicable diseases (2009). Ministry of Healthcare and Nutrition Sri Lanka.
Whati, L.H. (2005). The development of a valid and reliable nutrition knowledge questionnaire and performance-rating scale for urban South African adolescents participating in the ‘birth-to- twenty’ study. Thesis for M.Sc in Nutrition Science. University of Stellenbosch, South Africa.
World Health Organization, (2011). Global Health Observatory on Non Communicable Disease.
.
[6] Kandiah Arunthavarajah(1) Educational activities of American Missionaries in Jaffna (17961948)A Historical view
(1) Dept.of History, University of Jaffna, Sri Lanka. ([email protected])
Abstract: The reign of British in Jaffna was distinct The research methodology is based on history. from other European powers especially from those of The primary sources for this study include the British Portuguese and Dutch. These distinctions were based documents, notes, letters and books written by the on political, economical and socio cultural levels. priests who had come here to propagate Christianity Jaffna was not an exception for these changes. The in Jaffna and archaeological and other historical period of Portuguese and Dutch made small changes materials. I have utilized as secondary sources, books in the life style of people, whereas the changes made and articles in the journals, magazines and internet during the British reign were remarkable. The main based sources. reason for these changes was the arrival of Christian Key Words: Bahthi Movement, Guru kula education, Missionaries and their services. The American Women education, missions schools Missionaries became more prominent as their services were more public oriented. As a result of this they could also imprint their name in the history of Jaffna. American Missionaries and their The notable period of the impact of the Missionaries arrival in Jaffna was from the 1820s to early 20th century. During this The Bahthi Movement which originated in period they engaged themselves in printing and publishing translations of English works into Tamil. Massachusetts formulated American mission in 1810. Printing publishing and establishment of primary , During their early days they travelled to India, China secondary and tertiary educational Institutions and and Burma to spread Christianity in Oriental provision of health care for residents of the Jaffna countries. In this manner Rev. Samuel Newell peninsula . These activities resulted in many social (Missionary) went to India. But permission was not changes amongst Jaffna Tamils and some of them granted to him by the English government. So he survive even today. started his journey towards Island of Mauritius to They also led to the attainment of a lopsided continue his services there. Accidentally he reached literacy level among residents in the relatively small Galle face harbor because of the sorrowful incident peninsula. This is cited by scholars as one of the that happened on his way to Mauritius. Rev. Samuel primary factors contributing to the recently entered Newell arrived in Sri Lanka in 1813, (Veluppillai,C,D. civil war. Many notable educational Institutions within 1992, pp.11-15.) as the Missionary sponsored by the the Jaffna peninsula owe their origins to the American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missionary activities from America. The services on Missions(ABCFM). The British Colonial Office in education, carried out by the American Mission India and Sri Lanka restricted the Americans to the brought many changes in the lives of those who relatively small Jaffna peninsula for geopolitical reasons resided in Jaffna. Thus the main objectives of this for almost 40 years. He landed in Galle and finally research are to explain how and where these changes reached Jaffna city. Although he spent most of his occurred, how the inhabitants of Jaffna faced the career in India, particularly in Bombay he was impact of these changes and also to document all these instrumental in starting the American Mission in changes.
[7] Proceedings of the Third International Symposium, SEUSL: 6-7 July 2013, Oluvil, Sri Lanka
Jaffna. At that time Sir. Robert Brownrigg was the educational system that was prevailing in Sri Lanka Governor, in charge of the coastal areas of Sri Lanka. before the arrival of Portuguese was not properly Being pleased with the Missionary, the governor institutionalized. Furthermore, during that period recommended Jaffna as the area to be served. people did not have the habit of writing on paper. The education system that prevailed during that period was Rev. Samuel Newell accepted the traditional educational system. The traditional recommendation of the governor and served Jaffna for educational system prevailed in the areas where there about 45 days and sent a report to the head office in were Tamils and also where there were Sinhalese. America. In that report he requested that the services (Abeyasinghe,Tikiri. pp.5-9.) In a general sense these of Missionaries were essential to Jaffna. His request was two were called native educational traditions. accepted and a lot of missionaries were sent to Jaffna. He was followed by other Missionary families such as During the early days, Brahmins were generally Rev. Edward Warren, who arrived 1816.He took special responsible for education. The houses of Brahmins interest in educating the people of the area in both were the educational centers. And this education English and their native Tamil language. Further, the system was known as Guru Kula educational system . first group of Missionaries was sent by the head office But it was taken up by Buddhist monks around 3rd in 1816 . They first came to Colombo and served there century B.C with the influence of Buddhism. for a short period and then they reached Jaffna with (Heaiwasam,D,P,G. 1969, p.08.). Brahmanical their families and settled down in places like Tellipallai educational system was strong in the following places and Vaddukkoddai and continued their services. of Jaffna namely Uduppiddi, Puloly, Velanai, Arali (Jebanesan, S. 1992, p.24.) The second set of ,Atchuveli, Karainagar, Varani, Chunnakam, Tellippalai missionaries were sent in 1819, They too brought along and Madduvil. (Sasikala, Kurumoorththi. 2013, p. with them their families and settled down in areas such 41.). Only a small group of people enriched themselves as Manipay, Uduvil and Pandaitharrippu. They further with this education system and they were not willing extended the areas that they served. to share it with others. The subjects that they taught were Tamil literature, Tamil Grammar, Hinduism, One of the main intentions of these American Logic, Astrology, Sanskrit and Ayurvedic medicine. Missionaries was evangelization among the natives. Yet this responsibility regarding education was later on Since they had chosen education as the prelude to taken up by kings who ruled Jaffna after 13th century evangelization lot of institutions from primary schools and the kings considered it as one of their obligations. to colleges were established in different parts of Jaffna. (Ambikaibakan,K. 1969, p.45.) These rapid changes gave way to a new trend in the Jaffna educational tradition. Even though the services This traditional educational system fulfilled the regarding education were religious oriented the whole requirements of Tamils to some extent. The people of society of Jaffna showed a rapid growth in education. Jaffna were mostly of Agricultural society. They considered that it was sufficient, if people were literate. Later on primary education was taught through village The nature of education in Jaffna schools. Because of the close relationship that Jaffna before the arrival of American had with South India, Jaffna education too was based Mission on Saiva tradition. (Because of the set up, the During that time system in Jaffna education was educational system too was based on Hindu tradition). basically Hindu. The educational system too was based The general aims of this educational trend were, to on Hindu tradition. The influence of Hindu tradition develop Tamil education make the children devotional was there in each and everything in their culture, and obedient and to teach them Tamil Grammar and habits and in the life style of the people. The make them to read and write. (Sivalingarajah,S. March
[8] Kandiah Arunthavarajah Educational activities of American Missionaries in Jaffna (1796-1948)-A Historical view
1983, p. 69).But this native educational trend degraded write. Liberal policy was followed by the Dutch. They as a result of Portuguese rule and their interest in gave priorities also for appointment to the natives who Catholic religious education. (Arumugam,V. 1976, were good in education. As a result of this, education p.94.) was developing in this period too.
After the fall of Jaffna kingdom, Portuguese reign Even though the education that was brought up became dominant. Traditional education imparted on from the period of Jaffna kings kept on continued the Thinnai was preserved along with the introduction during the times of Portuguese & Dutch, it was of another new educational system known as Kovil influenced by Christianity. But during this period it pattu (Parish Schools) education system. The was difficult for all to get the education and the higher educational service conducted by the priests who educational system too was hard to follow. Hardly served in the churches were known as Kovil pattu anyone paid attention regarding to the education of educational system. It is the Franciscan priests who women even though the Dutch paid little attention to came to Jaffna during the Portuguese period women’s education. under these circumstances established these Kovil pattu schools for the first time American missionaries made some noticeable changes and taught religion , reading and writing skills. These through their educational services during the British schools mostly taught religious preaching and through period. this education they tried to convert people to Catholicism. The Portuguese priests who were engaged in educational activities learned the native tongue. The educational activities They also gave some priorities to the native teachers, converted them and used them for educational The British government which ruled Jaffna at the purpose in their Kovilpattu schools.9 (Jebanesan,S. time when the missionaries arrived here was not 2009, p.20.)The literary tradition that developed from interested in the education of the natives. At the same Jaffna kings period was influenced by Catholicism time the natives of that period showed little interest in during Portuguese period. education . Some native scholar like Senathiraja mudaliyar from Irupalai, Arulampala mudaliyar from In 1658 Dutch captured Jaffna from Portuguese. Uduppiddy and some others at Vannarponnai As a result of this all the churches and Kovil pattu established schools and educated students. But only a schools established by Portuguese were converted into few availed themselves of this opportunity in these protestant Churches and educational centers for schools. (Ruberu Ranjith. 1969, II, p.418. )But it was Protestant priests. Since Dutch were more interested impossible for all to get educated. The credit goes to in merchandise /commerce they did not interfere the Missionaries to change this system and provide much with the activities of the natives. education for many irrespective of race, religion and social status. Since this approach was not a hindrance for the development of Tamil Hindu tradition of the natives In keeping with their aim to propagate their both traditional education imparted in the Thinnai and religion, the American Missionaries used education as Kovil Pattu education system were continued for their the means to achieve their goal after their arrival here. administrative purposes, Dutch divided Jaffna As a result , schools were opened in several parts of the peninsula into Kovil Pattus and built a primary school Jaffna district. Though these schools were set up for in each of these kovil pattus for their educational religious propaganda, the education of the Tamils 10 activities. (Sivalingarajah,S. p.13.). Protestant religious improved as a result of their activities. The education was prominent in these centers where they Missionaries started their educational service by also taught some basic methods of how to read and setting up two schools at Mallakam and Tellippalai
[9] Proceedings of the Third International Symposium, SEUSL: 6-7 July 2013, Oluvil, Sri Lanka
with thirty students in 1816. These were started by This provision might be due to the fact that the Hindu Edward Warren. By 1848 105 Tamil Schools and students who did not like to study under the Christian sixteen English schools were founded. Mission centers teachers in the schools. could study under the Hindu were soon opened in nine locations. At the outset teachers . When one considers this fact, it is clear that Hindu teachers were employed .Writing, reading and the Missionaries wanted to give opportunities for all . simple verses in Tamil were taught at these schools They were successful in their endeavor. with these , geography, mathematics and Christianity One may cite the introduction of higher included in the western educational curriculum also educational system in Jaffna in the English medium as were taught in same schools. (Jebanesan,S. 1983, p. 25.) the turning point in the history of education started by The Missionaries generally set up schools in the the Missionaries. A high school called the “Batticotta villages. They were established near the residences of Seminary” was established by the Missionary Daniel the Missionaries. The basic education was imparted Poor at Vaddukoddai in 1823. He also functioned as free in Tamil medium schools. Annually about 300- the first principal of this high school . This is one of the 400 students who could read passed out from these oldest schools in Asia. Though the medium of schools. At the initial stage Missionaries used the instruction was English, the school promoted the study buildings of the Dutch for their educational activities. of Tamil and Sanskrit. Besides, the development of But as the number of schools increased later, they Tamil Prose, publication of newspapers etc also were used huts built with earthen walls and thatched with encouraged at this institution. (Nadarajah, G., 2005, PP Cadjan. As the missionaries expanded their 1-5.) They continued to introduce the western system educational activities the number of schools also of education and western educational curriculum in increased in course of time. In this respect the increase Jaffna and fostered them. in the number of schools and the students boys and Another important aspect of the educational girls who studied from 1819 to 1917 are listed below activities of the American Missionaries was the (Jebanesan,S. 1983, p. 25.) interest on female education. The female education Table 1: Number of schools and the was not given due importance in the Jaffna educational students from 1819 to 1911 in Jaffna set up at that time. Some people considered that the girls should not touch the manuscript used for writing Year Schools Boys Girls while learning. The Missionaries had the credit of 1819 15 633 10 introducing female education as for males in Jaffna. 1824 90 2864 613 At the outset education was imparted for females 1836 155 6037 1000 and males together. As the girls showed interest in 1868 60 1598 728 education in course of time, the Missionaries 1879 121 8120 1400 established separate schools for the girls . As a result, Mrs. Harriet Winslow a great – great – grand mother 1884 138 8332 1751 of the late secretary of state John Foster Dulles, 1900 133 10224 2791 established a girls’ school with a hostel at Uduvil in 1911 118 9893 3544 1824. This was the first girls’ school not only in Jaffna but in Asia as well. Here the subjects were taught in Tamil with English also as a subject. The girls who Though the purpose of the American studied here belonged to the age group 5 to 11 years. Missionaries was to promote their religious activities (Harrison Minnie Hastings., 1925, P.12.) The girls who Hindu teachers also were employed to these schools. studied here and passed out worked for social welfare
[10] Kandiah Arunthavarajah Educational activities of American Missionaries in Jaffna (1796-1948)-A Historical view and promoted female education. The female education that of the students was 3624. (Though the Hindus was an important contribution of Missionaries to the established more schools later the American Jaffna society as they were the pioneers in this respect. Missionaries continued their educational activities. Thus they fostered education and continued to Generally, the instruction on Christianity was promote the welfare of the people. given the top priority. The missionaries observed educational setup of Jaffna and formulated the syllabus accordingly. They also observed the traditional Conclusion Thinnai. (a front part of the teachers house) schools The American Missionaries came to Jaffna with which were the then primary schools. The Missionaries the purpose of propagating their religion. They organized the schools into primary, intermediary and adopted educational and medical services as the means high schools. The students of the primary schools used to achieve their goal. They won the admiration of the to write on earth and read their lesson. After they people of Jaffna by these social services. Education could read and write, they had to memorize certain formed the basis of all their activities and hence they portions of the Bible and submit them to the teachers. concentrated on education. As a result, in the They learned to write and read manuscripts (made of educational set up of Jaffna. Many could receive Palmyra leaves) Some elementary code of conduct as education irrespective of caste and other differences. found in the Tamil works Atticudi, Konraiventan, Of particular importance are the western system of Muthurai, Nalvali etc were written in these education higher education and female education. manuscripts and the students had to memorize and People of Jaffna were provided with the opportunities submit them also. As the content of education and to benefit by these. The educational activities of the number of students increased the Missionaries feel the American missionaries in Jaffna in the 19th century still importance of the printing press. Accordingly they set continue to remind the people of Jaffna about their up a printing press and started publishing important valuable service. books on both religious and secular. Western knowledge was introduced through the printing of books including those on science. Western scientific References subjects were introduced and important books were translated into Tamil and taught in the schools. They Arumugam,V. Ilankajil saivak kalviyin valarchchi, also setup a library by the side of the schools. Thus the Thiruketheeshwara thirumanjana malar(Tamil), importance of school libraries were emphasized to the Aalayath thiruppanich sabai, Colombo, 1976. teachers and students Abeyasinghe,Tikiri. Jaffna Under the Portuguese, Lake Thus the Missionaries were greatly interested in House Investment Ltd, Colombo. the educational service. But the mission commission Ambikaibakan,K. “Navalar kalvippani,” Navalar from America came here in 1855 and after studying noottandu vela malar(Tamil), Nallur, 1969. then situation they found fault with the Missionaries that they were more interested in education than on Heaiwasam,D,P,G. “Kalvjil powththa marabou”, Christian propaganda. As a result of this the Illankai kalvi noottandu malar I(Tamil), Kalvi educational activities received a setback. From this kalasara aluvalgal amaichchu, 1969. time onwards the educational activities of the Hindus increased. In 1868 the number of mission schools was Harrison Minnie Hastings., Uduvil 1824-1924, Being the History of one of the oldest girls school in Asia, 60 and that of the students was 2332. But there was a American Ceylon mission press, 1925. decline. The number of Hindu schools was 132 and
[11] Proceedings of the Third International Symposium, SEUSL: 6-7 July 2013, Oluvil, Sri Lanka
Jebanesan,S. Vana Daniel poor Kathai(Tamil), Americca Illangai mission achchagam, Thellippalai, 1992.
Jebanesan,S. Ilankaith thamilar chinthanai valarchchijil America mission(Tamil), Kumaran publishers, Colombo, 2009.
Jebanesan,S. America missionnum Ilankajil Tamil valarchchiyum (Tamil), America mission press, Thellippalai, 1983.
Nadarajah, G., Jaffna College, Undergraduate Department, American Ceylon mission press, 2005.
Ruberu Ranjith. Piriththaniyarkalin aramba kalvi muyatsegal, Illankai kalvi noottandu malar I (Tamil), Kalvi kalasara aluvalgal amaichchu, 1969.
Sasikala, Kurumoorththi. Yalppanaththu pen kalviyin Thottmum valarchchiyum (Tamil), M.phil(not published), University of Jaffna, 2013.
Sivalingarajah,S. “Yalppana Kudanattil 19 noottantil nelavia paramparia kalvimoorai”, Chinthanai (Tamil), University of Jaffna, March 1983.
Veluppillai,C,D. Americca Illangai mission sariththiram (Tamil), Americca Illangai mission achchagam, Thellippalai, 1992.
[12] Balasundaram Soba(1) Challenges Encountered by Schools in Implementing Compulsary Education fl;lhaf; fy;tpia mKyhf;Ftjpy; ghlrhiyfs; vjpu;Nehf;Fk; rthy;fs;
(1) Department of Education and Childcare, Eastern University, Sri Lanka. ([email protected])
Abstract: It is obvious that education is the base for Introduction to the research the long lasting development of a country. At times there may be many challenges and obstacles upon the Introduction smooth implementation of compulsory Education. In xU ehl;bd; epiyj;J epw;ff; $ba this regard, this research aims at identifying the mgptpUj;jpf;F ce;J rj;jpahf miktJ challenges encountered by the schools of Manmunai fy;tpNaahFk;. ,e;j tifapy; xU gps;is jd; South West Educational division in the Batticaloa tho; ehspy; fw;Wf; nfhs;Sk; rfy fy;tpr; district. This research clearly states the importance of nraw;ghl;Lf;Fk; mj;jpthukhf mikAk; compulsory education in a child’s life and by fl;lhaf; fy;tp topaikf;fpd;wJ. fl;lhaf; fy;tp gw;wp 1939k; Mz;L 31k; ,yf;f fy;tpr; identifying the challenges in the implementation of rl;lj;jpy; Fwpg;gplg;gl;ljd; epkpu;j;jk; 5-14 compulsory education it discovers the reasons why the taJf;Fl;gl;l midtUk; fy;tpiaf; fw;Wf; students did not receive compulsory education. nfhs;tJ mtrpakhFk;. ,g; gUtj;Jg; gps;isfspd; fy;tpNa xU ehl;bd; epiyj;J Keywords: Compulsary education, Challenges, epw;ff; $ba mgptpUj;jpf;F mj;jpthukhf Implementing miktjhy; jw;nghOJ fl;lhaf; fy;tp taJ 5-16 taJ tiunad Ma;T RUf;fk; : xU ehl;bd; epiyj;J epw;ff; fl;lhakhf;fg;gl;Ls;sikAk; Fwpg;gplj;jf;fjhFk;. $ba mgptpUj;jpf;F mj;jpthukhf miktJ ,e; epiyapy; ehl;by; epiyj;J epw;ff; $ba fy;tp vd;gjid vtUk; kWf;f KbahJ. mgptpUj;jpia Vw;gLj;jp khWk; cyfpy; mjdbg;gilapy; fl;lhaf; fy;tpia rthy;fis vjpu; nfhs;sTk;> mtw;iw mKyhf;Ftjpy; ghlrhiyfs; vjpu;Nehf;Fk; ntw;wpfukhf Mf;fpf; nfhs;tjw;Fk; fl;lhaf; rthy;fis ,dq; fhZtjw;fhfNt kl;lf;fsg;G fy;tp mbg;gilahf mikfpd;wJ. khtl;lj;jpd; fy;tpapy; gpd;jq;fpa epiyapYs;s kz;Kid njd; Nkw;Ff; Nfhl;lj;jpw;Fl;gl;l ghlrhiyfis mbg;gilahff; nfhz;L ,t; Background of the study Ma;T Nkw;nfhs;sg;gl;Ls;sJ. Ma;Tg; Ma;Tf;Fl;gLj;jpa ghlrhiyfspy;; gpuNjrj;ijg; nghWj;j tiuapy; ,t;tha;T khztu;fs; fw;wypy; Mu;tkpd;wpf; fhzg;gly;> Kf;fpaj;JtKilajhfTs;sJ. ,t;tha;thdJ ghlrhiyia tpl;L ,il eLNt ntspNaWjy;> fl;lhaf; fy;tp;ia mKyhf;FtjpYs;s ghlrhiyf;F tUif juhky; tPl;bNyNa rthy;fisAk;> fl;lhaf; fy;tpia khztu;fs; ,Uj;jy;> ghlrhiyapy; rpwg;ghd Kiwapy; ngw;Wf; nfhs;shikf;fhd fhuzq;fisAk; fw;wy; fw;gpj;jy; nraw;ghLfs; Muhe;J> fl;lhaf; fy;tpapd; mtrpaj;ij Kd;ndLf;fg;glhik> NghjpasT kdpj> ngsjpf ngw;Nwhu;fSf;Fk;> khztu;fSf;Fk; vLj;Jf; tsg;gw;whf;Fiw> ngw;Nwhu; fy;tp njhlu;ghf fhl;Lfpd;wJ. ,jD}lhf ehl;bid epiyj;J mf;fiw nrYj;jhik Nghd;w gy epw;Fk; mgptpUj;jpg; ghijf;F nfhz;L nry;y gpd;dzpfspNy ,t;tha;Tj; jiyg;G njupT KbAk; vd;gJ jpz;zk;. nra;ag;gl;Ls;sJ.
[13] Proceedings of the Third International Symposium, SEUSL: 6-7 July 2013, Oluvil, Sri Lanka
Ma;Tg; gpuNjrj;jpy;; fl;lhaf; fy;tpiag;;; 4. 6-14 taJila khztu;fs; fl;lhaf; ngw;Wf;nfhs;shky; mNdfkhNdhu; tPl;by; fy;tpiag; ngw;Wf; nfhs;tjpy; ngw;Nwhupd; ,Ug;gjw;F FLk;gg; gpd;dzp> ghlrhiyg; gq;fspg;G vj;jifaJ vd;gij gpd;dzp> nghUshjhu epiy> Nghjpa ,dq;fhZjy;. cs;sPLfs; ,d;ik> fw;wy;> fw;gpj;jy; nraw;ghLfs; Nghd;w gy;NtW gpd;dzpfs; fhuzkhfpd;wd. ,t;thW gps;isfspd; fy;tp Statement of the problem ghjpg;ghdJ ehl;bd; mgptpUj;jpia xl;L nkhj;jkhfNt ghjpg;gilar; nra;fpd;wJ. 1. fl;lhaf; fy;tpapd; mtrpak; gw;wp mwpahjth;fsha; ngw;Nwhh;> r%fk; fhzg;gLtNjhL> gps;isfSf;Ff; fl;lhaf; Justification to the study fy;tpiag; ngw;Wf; nfhLg;gjpy; ngw;Nwhh; tpUg;gk; Fiwthf ,Uj;jy;. fl;lhaf; fy;tp ngWk; tajpNyNa gps;isf;fhd MSik> Ez;zwpT tsu;r;rp> 2. ghlrhiyAld; ngw;Nwhupd; ,ilj;njhlu;G fw;gid mikg;Gf;fisf; fz;Lgpbj;jy;> jkJ Fiwthf ,Ug;gNjhL> ngw;Nwhhfs;; fy;tp jPu;g;Gf;fSf;F ju;f;f uPjpahd epahaq;fis gw;wpa mf;fiw ,y;yhky; fhzg;gly;. ntspg;gLj;jy; vd;gd tpUj;jpailtjdhy; midj;Jg; gps;isfSf;Fk; fy;tpiag; ngw;Wf; 3. mjpfhpj;j khzth; ,iltpyfy; nfhLf;f Ntz;ba Njitg;ghLs;sJ. fhzg;gLjy.; ,jdhNyNa xU ehl;bd; epiyj;J epw;Fk; 4. gUtfhy njhopy; eilngWk; ehl;fspy; mgptpUj;jpia Vw;gLj;j KbAk;. khztu;fs; ghlrhiyf;F r%fkspf;fhik. ngw;Nwhu;fSf;F fl;lhaf; fy;tpapd; 5. khztu;fs; fw;wypy; Mu;tkpd;wpf; mtrpaj;ij Gyg;gLj;j Ntz;bAs;sJ. mj;NjhL fhzg;gly;. fl;lhaf; fy;tpiag; ngWk; trjp tha;g;Gf;fisAk; Vw;gLj;jpf; nfhLg;gjw;Fk; 6. khztu;fspy; ngUk;ghyhNdhu; vOj ,t;tha;T mtrpakhfpd;wJ. thrpf;fj; njupahj epiyapy; fhzg;gly;.
fl;lhaf; fy;tpiag; ngw;Wf; nfhs;tjpy; 7. gpujhd ghlq;fSf;fhd Mrpupau;fs; khztu;fs; vjpu;Nehf;Fk; ,lu;ghLfisAk; NghjpasT ,y;yhik. ,t;thW khztu;fs; fy;tpiaj; njhlu 8. ghlrhiyapy; fw;gpj;jy; Jizr;rhjdq;fs;> Kbahky; Nghtjw;F ngw;Nwhu;fs; vt;thW Ma;T $l trjpfs;> Ma;T $lg; fhuzkhfpd;wdu;> fl;lhaf; fy;tpia ghtidf;;Fhpa nghUl;fs; Nghd;wd eilKiwg;gLj;Jtjpy; fy;tpg; gzpg;hsu;fs;> mjpgu;fs;> Mrpupau;fs; Nghd;Nwhu; vt;thwhd ,y;yhik. gpur;rpidfSf;Fk;> rthy;fSf;Fk; Kfk; 9. Mrphpah;fs; rpwe;j fw;gpj;jy; KiwfisAk;> nfhLf;fpd;wdu; vd;gijf; fz;lwpa El;gq;fisAk; ifahs KbahJs;sik. ,g;gpuNjrj;jpw;F ,t;tha;T mtrpakhfpd;wJ. 10. Mrpupau;fspy; ngUk;ghyhNdhu; efu;g; gpuNjrj;jpypUe;J tUif jUgtu;fshff; Research Objectives fhzg;gly;;.
1. fl;lhaf; fy;tpiag; ngw;Wf; nfhs;sg; ghlrhiyf;Fr; nry;yhj khztu;fis Literature Review ,dq;fhZjy;;;;;. ,yf;fpa kPsha;T vd;gJ Xh; Ma;thsuhy; 2. ,g; gpuNjr khztu;fs; fl;lhaf; fy;tpiag; Fwpg;gpl;l gpur;rpid njhlh;ghf Vw;fdNt ngw;Wf; nfhs;shikf;fhd fhuzq;fis cUthf;fg;gl;l vz;zf;fUtpid fz;lwpjy;. mwptjD}lhfj; jdJ Ma;Tg; gpur;rpid rhh;ghd 3. khztu;fs; fl;lhaf; fy;tpiag; ngw;Wf; vz;zf;fUitg; Gjpjhf tbtikj;Jf; nfhs;tjw;Fg; ghlrhiy ve;jstpw;F $h;ikg;gLj;Jtjw;F cjTfpd;wJ. gq;fspg;Gr; nra;fpd;wJ vd;gij mwpjy;. ,t;tha;tpid Nkw;nfhs;tjw;fhf ,yf;fpa kPsha;Tr; nraw;ghlhdJ gy;NtW topfspy; Nkw;nfhs;sg;gl;Ls;sJ. me;j tifapy; Ma;Tj;
[14] Balasundaram Soba Challenges encountered by schools in implementing compulsory education jiyg;Gld; njhlh;Ggl;l E}y;fs;> fl;Liufs;> fl;lhaf; fy;tpiaf; fw;Wf; nfhs;tjpy; rQ;rpiffs;> tho;tpaw; fsQ;rpaq;fs;> nry;thf;Fr; nrYj;Jk; FLk;gf; fhuzpfs;> Fwpg;Gf;fs;> Rw;wwpf;iffs; kw;Wk; gy;NtW ghlrhiyf; fhuzpfs;> r%fg; nghUshjhuf; Mtzq;fs; vd midj;J ntspaPLfisAk; fhuzpfs; gw;wpAk;> fl;lhaf; fy;tp fw;gpf;Fk; Njbf;fz;L gpbj;J gy;NtW jiyg;Gf;fspy; MrpupaUf;F ,Uf;f Ntz;ba cau; gz;Gfs; ,yf;fpa kPsha;T Nkw;nfhs;sg;gl;Ls;sJ. gw;wpAk; tho;tpaw; fsQ;rpaq;fs; %yKk; mit njhlu;ghd E}y;fspypUe;Jk; ngw;Wf; ,yq;ifapd; fy;tp tuyhw;wpy; 1939k; nfhs;sg;gl;ld. ,t;thW gy;NtW topfspy; Mz;bd; 31k; ,yf;f fy;tpr; rl;l Vw;ghLfs;> ,yf;fpa kPsha;Tr; nraw;ghL ,lk; ngw;Ws;sJ. mjidj; njhlu;e;J 1943> 1959> 1964> 1967k; Mz;Lfspy; fl;lhaf; fy;tp gw;wp $wg;gl;l fUj;Jf;fs;> 1978y; fl;lhaf; fy;tpia cWjpg; Research Methodology and Data gLj;Jk; gpukhzq;fs; ghuhSkd;wj;jpy; Analysis epiwNtw;wg;gl;lik> 1997 November 25 jpfjp mjp tpNrl tu;j;jf khdpapy; 1003/5 vd;w Ma;T Kiwik rpwg;ghff; fhzg;gLk; ,yf;fk; nfhz;L gpuRupf;fg;gl;l fl;lhaf; fy;tpr; gl;rj;jpNyNa jPh;Tfs; ek;gfj;jd;ikahdjhf rl;lk;> ,r; rl;lj;jpy; Kf;fpaj;Jtg;gLj;jpf; fhzg;gLk;. ,e;j Ma;T Kiwapy; Ma;tpid $wg;gl;l tplaq;fs;> 1998 [dtupapy; xOq;F Nkw;nfhs;s vt;thW jfty;fs; ngwg;gl;ld> tpjpfs; mKYf;F te;jik njhlu;ghd khjpupj;njupT vt;thW ,lk; ngw;wJ> ve;j Ma;T fUj;Jf;fs;> ghlrhiy kl;l fl;lhaf; Kiw gad;gLj;jg;gl;lJ> juT Nrfupf;f fy;tpf;FO> gpuNjr kl;lf; fl;lhaf; fy;tpf;FO vt;thwhd fUtpfs; gad;gLj;jg;gl;ld. Ma;T Mfpatw;wpd; nraw;ghLfs;> ,yq;ifapy; nra;ag;gl;l ,lq;fs;> fl;lhaf; fy;tp mKyhf;fg;gLk; tpjk;> [dhjpgjp Ma;Tf;Fl;gLj;jg;gl;lth;fs;> juTg;gFg;gha;T Jupj eltbf;if FOthy; rpghu;R nra;ag;gl;L mKy;gLj;jg;gLk; nraw;ghLfs; Nghd;w gy;NtW Kiwfs;> vd;gd njhlh;ghd tplaq;fs; ,e;j tplaq;fs; ahTk; nghJf; fy;tpr; rPu;jpUj;j Ma;T Kiwapaypy; cs;slf;fg;gLfpd;wd. mwpf;if> gj;jpupiffs;> mit njhlu;ghd Ma;T vd;gJ njhlu;r;rpahd Njliy E}y;fspypUe;Jk; ngw;Wf; nfhs;sg;gl;Ls;sJ. Kd;ndLf;fpd;wJ. ,e;j tifapy; kz;Kidf; fy;tpahdJ efu> fpuhk> gpuNjr NtWghfs; njd;Nkw;Ff; Nfhl;lg; ghlrhiyfspy; fl;lhaf; ,d;wp midj;J tpjkhd gps;isfSk; fw;Wf; fy;tpia mKyhf;Ftjpy; ghlrhiyfs; nfhs;s Ntz;Lk; vd;w fy;tpapy; rkj;Jtk; vjpu;Nehf;Fk; rthy;fis mbg;gilahff; gw;wpa fUj;Jf;fs;> w.w.c fd;dq;fuhtpdhy; nfhz;ljhf Nkw;nfhs;sg;gLk; ,t;tha;T 1.10.1945 Kjy; mKyhf;fg;gl;l ,ytrf; fy;tpj; msitepiy Ma;thf tbtikf;fg; gl;Ls;sJ. jpl;lk;> tpiykjpg;gw;w Kj;jhf msit epiy Ma;Nt jw;fhy epfo;fhy mwpKfg;gLj;jg;gl;l ,ytrf; fy;tpapdhy; cz;ik epiyfis Muha;e;J rupahd juT> ngw;Wf; nfhs;Sk; ed;ikfs;> ghlrhiyfspy; jfty;fis mopf;Fk; Kiwahf mike;Js;sJ. Muk;gkhd jha;nkhopg; Nghjid> Gyikg; guprpy; jpl;lk; Nghd;wthwhd rktha;g;Gf; fl;lhaf; fy;tpia mKyhf;Ftjpy; tya> Nfhl;ghl;Lf;F mbg;gilahf mike;j jpl;lq;fs; Nfhl;lf; fy;tpajpfhupfs;> mjpgu;> Mrpupau;fs;> gw;wpa ,yf;fpa kPsha;Tr; nraw;ghlhdJ ghlrhiy mgptpUj;jp rq;f cWg;gpdu;fs; rQ;rpiffs;> mit njhlu;ghd E}y;fspYUe;J Nghd;Nwhu; vjpu; nfhs;Sk; gpur;rpidfs; jdpj; ngwg;gl;ld. jdpahf Nehf;fp cz;ik epiyia ,d;W ghlrhiyfspy; ghupa gpur;rpidahf ntspg;gLj;Jtjhf ,t;tha;T mike;Js;sJ khwpAs;s ,iltpyfs;> xU khztd; ,iltpyFtjw;F FLk;g tWik> ghlrhiy> Ma;tpd; ntw;wpahdJ Nrfupf;fg;gLk; #oy;> nghUshjhuk; Nghd;w fhuzpfs; vt;thW juTfs;> jfty;fspd; tif> juk; vd;gdtw;wpy; fhuzkhfpd;wJ Nghd;wthwhd tplaq;fs; ahTk; jq;fpAs;sJ. me;j tifapy; ,t;tha;tpid ,iza jsq;fspypUe;J ngwg;gl;ld. Nkw;nfhs;tjw;F>
[15] Proceedings of the Third International Symposium, SEUSL: 6-7 July 2013, Oluvil, Sri Lanka
1. tpdhf; nfhj;J Ma;thsuhy; njupT nra;ag;gl;l Ma;Tg; gpuNjrkhdJ 21 ghlrhiyfisf; nfhz;Ls;s 2. Neh; fhzy; NghjpYk; ghlrhiy nry;yhj> ,iltpyfpa 3. fye;Jiuahly; khzth;fs; mjpfkhff; fhzg;gl;l 10 ghlrhiyfs; Ma;T kjpupahfj; njupT 4. Mtzq;fs; Mfpa fUtpfs; nrg;gkhf nra;ag;gl;;ld. tbtikf;fg;gl;ld.
Table 3.1: Schools chosen for research
ghlrhiyapd; tif (5-14) (5-14) ngah; taJf;Fs; taJf;Fs; ghlrhiy ,iltpyfpNahh; nry;Nthh; kl;/Kidf;fhL tpNtfhde;jh tpj;jpahyak; 1C 789 165 kl;/mk;gpshe;Jiw fiykfs; tpj;jpahyak; 1C 525 155 kl;/FStpdkL tpehafh; tpj;jpahyak; III 17 94 kl;/fLf;fhKid thzp tpj;jpahyak; II 256 76 kl;/kfpobj;jPT ru];tjp tp;j;jpahyak; II 494 76 kl;/murbj;jPT tpf;Nd];tuh tpj;jpahyak; 1C 486 49 kl;;/nfhf;fl;br;Nrhiy ,.kp ghlrhiy 1C 653 45 kl;/gz;lhupahntsp j.f.ghlrhiy II 144 44 kl;/fw;Nrid murpdh; jopo; fytd; ghliy II 131 35 kl;/Kjiyf;Flh kfh tpj;jpahayk; 1AB 487 35
Source: Divisional Education office njupT nra;ag;gl;l 10 ghlrhiyfSk; Ma;Tf; Data analysis Fbj;njhifapy; cl;gLtJld; khjpupfshf 10 ghlrhiyfspd; mjpgh;fSk;> 78 Mrpupah;fs;> 20 fl;lhaf; fy;tpia mKyhf;Ftjpy; ghlrhiy mgptpUj;jpr; rq;f cWg;gpdh;fs;> ghlrhiyfs; vjpu;Nehf;Fk; rthy;fis mwpe;J Nfhl;l> tyaf; fy;tpg;gzpg;ghsh;fs; Nghd;Nwhu; nfhs;Sk; nghUl;L gy;NtWgl;l tplaq;fs;> khjpupfshfj; njupthfpdh;. 10 ghlrhiyfspYk; gy;NtW topfspYk; tpdtg;gl;ld. ,e;j fw;gpf;fpd;w 234 Mrpupah;fisAk; 3:1 vd;w tifapy; fl;lhaf; fy;tpiag; ngw;Wf; tPjj;jpy; vspa vOkhw;W Kiw mbg;gilapy; nfhs;shj gps;isfs;> gps;isfs; fl;lhaf; njupT nra;ag;gl;ls;sdh;. fy;tpiag; ngw;Wf;nfhs;shky; ntspNawpaikapy; nry;thf;Fr; nrYj;Jk; mjpgu;fs;> Mrpupau;fs;> ghlrhiy ghlrhiy> r%ff; fhuzpfs;> khztu;fs; mgptpUj;jpr; rq;f cWg;gpdh;fs;> Nghd;Nwhuplk; fl;lhaf; fy;tpiag; ngw;Wf;nfhs;tjpy; ngw;w juTfs;> jfty;fs; ahTk; gFg;gha;Tf;F ngw;Nwhu;> ghlrhiyfspd; gq;fspg;Gf;fs; cl;gLj;jg;gl;ld. ,t;tha;tpd; juTg; gFg;gha;T Nghd;wtw;iw fz;lwpAk; Nehf;Fld; juTfs; Kiwfshf mstwprhh; KiwAk;> gz;gwprhh; Nrfupf;fg;gl;L gFg;gha;T nra;ag;gl;Ls;sJ. KiwAk; gad;gLj;jg;gl;Ls;sNjhL> ,jd; gb mjpgu;fspd; fUj;Jf;fSlhf gFg;gha;Tf;F cjtpahf fzdp nkd;nghUl;fs; mwpag;gl;l tplaq;fshtd gad;gLj;jg;gl;ljd; %yk; Neh;j;jpahd Ma;Tf;fhf njupT nra;ag;gl;l Ma;Tg; ek;gfkhd gFg;gha;thf mike;Js;sJk; gpuNjrg; ghlrhiyfspy; khztu;fs; Fwpg;gplj;jf;fJ. 67%
[16] Balasundaram Soba Challenges encountered by schools in implementing compulsory education fl;lhaf; fy;tpiag; ngw;Wf; nfhs;fpd;w khztu;fs; fl;lhaf; fy;tpiag; ngw NghjpYk; 33% khztu;fs; fl;lhaf; fy;tpapy; Kbahikf;fhd tPl;Lr; #oy; fhuzq;fshf> ,Ue;J tpLgl;l epiyapy; fhzg;gLfpd;whu;fs; ngw;NwhUf;Ff; fy;tp gw;wpa Nghjpa tpopg;Gzu;T vd;gJ ngwg;gl;l juTfspy; ,Ue;J ,d;ik> FLk;g tWik fhuzkhf mwpag;gl;Ls;sJ. gps;isfisg; gUt fhyj; njhopypy;
,Nj Nghy; Mrpupau;fspd; fUj;Jf;fspD}lhf mwpag;gl;l tplaq;fshtd Fig 4.1 khztu;fspy; 66% khztu;fs; ehshe;jk; ghlrhiyf;F r%fkspf;fpd;w NghjpYk; 34% khztu;fs; ghlrhiyf;F ,e;epiyapy; khztu;fs; fl;lhaf; r%fkspf;fhJs;sikia Mrpupau;fs; fy;tpiag; ngw;Wf;nfhs;shikf;;fhd cWjpg;gLj;jpAs;sdu;. khztu;fs; ghlrhiyf;F fhuzq;fspy; tPl;Lr; #oy; fhuzp 67% r%fkspf;fhikf;fhd fhuzq;fshf> tWik nry;thf;Fr; nrYj;JtjhfTk;> 33% ngw;Nwhu;fspd; mf;fiwaPdk;> je;ijAld; ghlrhiyr; #oy; fhuzp nry;thf;Fr; gps;isfis $yp Ntiyf;F mDg;Gjy; nrYj;JtjhfTk;> mwpa Kbe;Js;sJ. Nghd;wtw;iw ,dq;fhl;bAs;sdu;.
Fig 4.2 Fig 4.3
[17] Proceedings of the Third International Symposium, SEUSL: 6-7 July 2013, Oluvil, Sri Lanka
ghlrhiyr; #oy; gw;wpf; Fwpg;gpLifapy; ngw;Nwhu;fs; fy;tpapd; Kf;fpaj;Jtj;ij fl;lhaf; fy;tpia mKyhf;Ftjpy; ghlrhiyr; mwpahikapdhy; gps;isf;F fy;tpiag; ngw;Wf; #oy; nghUj;jkhf mikatpy;iynad 65% nfhLg;gjpy; 25% ngw;Nwhu;fNs mf;fiwAld; Mrpupau;fs; Fwpg;gpl;Ls;sdu; nraw;gLtjhfTk; Vidatu;fs; XusNt mf;fiw nrYj;JtjhfTk; jkJ fUj;Jf;fis ntspg;gLj;jpdu;.
Fig 4.4
,t;thNw ghlrhiy mgptpUj;jpr; rq;f Fig 4.6 cWg;gpdu;fspd; fUj;Jf;fspD}lhf mwpag;gl;l tplaq;fshtd Ma;Tg; gpuNjrj;jpy; 67% tyaf;fy;tp> Nfhl;lf; fy;tp Nkw;gl;l khztu;fs; ghlrhiyia tpl;L gzpg;ghsUldhd Neu;fhzY}lhf ,iltpyfpAs;sjhfTk;> fl;lhaf; fy;tpia njuptpf;fg;gl;l tplaq;fshtd> khztu;fs; mKyhf;Ftjpy; gpd;tUk; rthy;fs; fl;lhaf; fy;tpiag; ngw Kbahky; fhzg;gLtjhfTk; Fwpg;gpl;Ls;shu;fs; ghlrhiy ntspNaWfpd;wikf;fhd fhuzq;fshf mgptpUj;jpr; rq;f cWg;gpdu;fis xd;wpizg;gJ gpd;tUtdtw;iw ,dq;fhl;bAs;sdu;. fbdk;> nraw;wpl;lq;fis mKy; nra;tjpy; ,lu;ghLfs; Vw;gly;> ngw;Nwhu;fs; ghlrhiy ngw;Nwhupd; tWik> ngw;Nwhu; fy;tp gw;wpa mgptpUj;jpr; rq;fj;jpd; fUj;Jf;fisr; tpopg;Gzu;tpd;ik> ghlrhiyf;Fk; tPl;Lf;Fk; nraw;gLj;jhik. ,ilNaahd J}uk; mjpfk>; Nghf;Ftuj;J trjpapd;ik> r%fj;jpd; fy;tp gw;wpa vjpu;kdg;ghq;F. nghUj;jkw;w ghlrhiyr; #oy;> vOj thrpf;fj; njupahj khztu; mjpfk;> mwpthw;wYf;Nfw;g fw;wy; fw;gpj;jy; nraw;ghLfs; fpukkhf eilngwhik> ghlj;jpl;lj;Jf;Nfw;g kl;LNk ghlq;fis elj;jpr; nry;yy;> khzt Mrpupa ,ilj;njhlu;G Fiwthf;ff; fhzg;gLjy;> nghUj;jkhd fw;gpj;jy; El;g Kiwfis ifahshik Nghd;wdthFk;.
Fig 4.5
[18] Balasundaram Soba Challenges encountered by schools in implementing compulsory education
Research findings and ,lg; ngau;T fhuzkhd fl;lhaf; fy;tpiag; ngw;Wf; nfhs;s gps;isfSf;F recommendations ghlrhiyf;Fr; nry;y Kbahj epiy Njhd; khztu;fs; njhlu;r;rpahf ghlrhiyf;F wpaJld;> fl;lhak; gpuNjrj;ij tpl;L kf;fs; tuhky; ,Ug;gJld; tFg;giwr; nraw;ghLfspy; ntspNaw Ntz;ba #o;epiy Vw;gl;l jdhy; mrke;j Nghf;if ntspg;gLj;Jfpd;wdu;. ,jdhy; mf; fhyg;gFjpapy; khztu;fSf;F fy;tp mtu;fs; tPl;bypUe;J ghlrhiyf;F kWf;fg;gl;lik ,jdhy; rpW njhopy;fshd r%fkspf;Fk; NghJ fw;gjw;fhd Maj;jj;Jld; ke;ij Nka;j;jy;> fis gpLq;Fjy;> fjpu; tuhjjhy; fy;tp kPJs;s ntWg;gpdhy; fhyg; nghWf;Fjy;> tpwF ntl;Ljy; Nghd;w $yp Nghf;fpy; mtu;fs; r%fj;jpy; jupj;J epw;Fk; Ntiyapy;
[19] Proceedings of the Third International Symposium, SEUSL: 6-7 July 2013, Oluvil, Sri Lanka
gps;isfs; ghlrhiyf;Fr; nry;tjw;fhd ngw;Nwhu; jkJ gps;isfs; ghlrhiyf; toptiffis Vw;gLj;jpf; nfhLf;Fk; nghUl;L fy;tpia njhlr;rpahfg; ngw Ntz;Lk; vd;gjpy; murrhu;gw;w epWtdq;fspd; cjtpapidg; mf;fiwaw;w epiyapYs;sjid Ma;tpd; %yk; ngw;Wf; nfhLj;jy;> fz;lwpag;gl;l gy nraw;ghLfs; vLj;Jf; fhl;Lfpd;wd. ,jdhy; fl;lhaf; fy;tpia ghlrhiyf;Fr; rPuhf tuhj khztu;fspd; mKyhf;Ftjpy; ghlrhiyfs; ngUk; rthiy ngw;Nwhu;fspd; kPJ eltbf;if Nkw;nfhs;sy; vjpu;Nehf;Ffpd;wd.
khztu;fspd; Ra fw;wiy mjpfupf;Fk; ,jd; fhuzkhf gps;isf;F mwpTiu tifapYk;> fy;tp ehl;lj;ij mjpfupf;Fk; toq;f Ntz;ba Kf;fpa nghWg;Gs;stu;fshf tifapYk; mjpgu;> Mrpupau;> khztu;> ngw; Mrphpau;fs; fhzg;gLfpd;whu;fs;. ,q;F fw;gpf;Fk; Nwhu;fs; ,ize;j tifapy; nraw;wpl;lq;fis Mrpupau;fs; efu;g;Gwj;jpypUe;J tUtjdhy; ghl eilKiwg;gLj;j Ntz;Lk;. tplaq;fspy; kl;LNk ftdk; nrYj;j Kbfpd;wJ. mj;NjhL fl;lhaf; fy;tp taJf;Fupa Kiwapy; ghlrhiyfspy; efu; gpuNjr Mrpupau;fs; fw;gpj;jy; nraw;ghLfis ifahs KbahJ jq;Ftjw;fhd tpLjp trjpfis Vw;gLj;jpf; s;sikahy; Mrpupau;fSk;> khztu;fSk; nfhLj;jy; Ntz;Lk; fw;wy; fw;gpj;jypy; gy gpur;rpidfis ifshS fpd;whu;fs;. vdNt khztu;fSf;F ghlrhiy rfy ghlq;fSf;Fk; cupa Mrpupau;fs; kPjhd tpUg;gkpd;ikahy; ghlrhiyf;Fr; epakpf;fg;gLtJld>; Fwpg;gpl;l ghlq;fisg; nry;yhNjhu; njhif mjpfupj;Jf; fhzg;gL Nghjpg;gJ njhlu;gpy; NghJkhd gapw;rpfis tjdhy; ghlrhiyfs; fl;lhaf; fy;tpia toq;Fjy; Ntz;Lk;. mKyhf;Ftjpy; rthy;fis vjpu;nfhs;fpd;wd. khztu;fSf;F Muk;g tFg;Gf;fspypUe;J ,e;j tifapy; ngw;Nwhu;fs; fy;tp gw;wpa nkhopj;jpwd; tpUj;jpf;fhd gpuj;jpaf Kf;fpaj;Jtj;ijg; Gupe;J nfhs;tNjhL> nraw;wpl;lq;fis eilKiwg;gLj;j Ntz;Lk;. Mrpupau;fs; gps;isfs; tpUk;Gk; gbahd fw;wy; xt;nthU Mrpupau;fSk; ,uz;L fw;gpj;jy; nraw;ghl;il Nkw;nfhs;s Ntz;Lk;. gps;isfisg; nghWg;ngLj;J mtu;fSf;F vOj> mj;NjhL mjpgu;> fy;tpg; gzpg;ghsu;fs;> thrpf;ff; fw;Wf; nfhLj;jy; Ntz;Lk;. ghlrhiy mgptpUj;jpr; rq;f cWg;gpdu;fs; Nghd;Nwhu; gps;isapd; Njitia ,dq;fz;L ghlrhiyr; #oYld; ngw;Nwhiu mur> murrhu;gw;w epWtdq;fspd; cjtpiag; ,izf;Fk; tifapy; ngw;Nwhu; Mrpupa rq;fk;> ngw;Wf; nfhLg;gjd; %yk; tWik epiyapYs;s fl;lhaf; fy;tpf; FO> vd;gtw;iw cUthf;fp gps;isf;Fk; fy;tpiag; ngw;Wf; nfhLf;f mtw;iw tpidj;jpwd; kpf;fjhf;Fjy;. Ntz;Lk; vd;gNj Ma;tpd; KbthFk;. NkNy Kd;itf;fg;gl;Ls;s jPu;Tfis mbg;gilahff; fl;lhaf; fy;tp tajpy; je;ijAld; nfhz;L ghlrhiyfs; nraw;gLk; NghJ njhopYf;Fr; nry;Yk; Mu;tj;ijf; Fiwg;gjw;F fl;lhaf; fy;tpia mKyhf;FtjpYs;s MNyhridfis toq;Fjy;. rthy;fis ntw;wp nfhs;s KbtNjhL ehl;bd; epiyj;J epw;ff; $ba mgptpUj;jpia Vw;gLj;j KbAk;. Conclusion cyf re;ij Nghl;b epiyia Kd;ndLj;Jr; nry;Yk; xd;whf ,d;iwa References fy;tpapd; Nghf;F fhzg;gLfpd;wJ. ,e;epiyapy; mypahu;-A-vy;> 1995> fy;tpapay; Nehf;F> khztu;fs; fl;lhaf; fy;tpiag; ngw;Wf; igj;Jy; Wpf;kh gjpg;gfk;> rk;khe;Jiw. nfhs;shikapy; FLk;gk;> ghlrhiy> r%fk; mQ;ryh lg;spt; ypl;by;> 2000> ,yq;ifapy; Nghd;w fhuzpfs; nry;thf;Fr; nrYj;Jfpd;wd. Muk;gf;fy;tpr; rPh;jpUj;jk;> fy;tp ,jdhy; fl;lhaf; fy;tpia mKyhf;Ftjpy; ntspaPl;Lj; jpizf;fsk;;> ,RWgha. ghlrhiyfs; gy;NtW tpjkhd rthy;fSf;F Kfk; nfhLf;f Ntz;bAs;sJ. mUs;nkhop-nr> 2008> fy;tp Ma;T Kiwfs;> vtf;fpwpd; mr;rfk;> kl;lf;fsg;G.
[20] Balasundaram Soba Challenges encountered by schools in implementing compulsory education
cyfehju; etuj;jpdk;> 2001> vy;NyhUf;Fk;;;;;; rQ;rpiffs; fy;tp > V-N[-gjpg;gfk; nfhOk;G. 1. mftop> 2005> f\;lg; gpuNjrf; fy;tpg; fUzhepjp-vk;> 2008> fw;wy; fw;gpj;jy; gpur;rpidfs;. Nkk;ghl;Lf;fhd topKiwfs; NrkkL gjpg;gfk;> nfhOk;G. 2. mftpop> 2008> fy;tp Xu; mbg;gil cupik re;jpuNrfuk;-Nrh> 1995> Gjpa Ehw;whz;Lf;fhd 3. tho;tpaw; fsQ;rpak;> njhFjp-12. jQ;rhTu; fy;tp> ju;\dh gpuRuk;. gy;fiyf;fofk;.
re;jpuNrfuk;-Nrh> 1996> fy;tpr; nraw;ghl;by; 4. nghJf;fy;tpr; rPh;jpUj;j mwpf;if – 1997. Gjpa nrynewp; fs>; ftpjh gjpg;gfk;> kJiu. gj;jphpiffs;. tPuNrfhp gj;jphpif> 13.03.2011> rpd;dj;jk;gp-f> 2007> fytp; Ma;tpay;> ehfk;khy;. jpdf;Fuy;> 15.02.2011 rpd;dj;jk;gp> mr;RNtyp ,izajs Kftupfs; jduh[;.ij> 2008> xLf;fg;gl;Nlhu; fy;tp> ,yq;if Kw;Nghf;Ff; fiy ,yf;fpag; http//ta. Wikipedia.org / Wiki /Ma;T). Nguit> nfhOk;G. http//www.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Education. ngNuuh.b.V> 1997> fw;gpg;gjw;fhd Rje;jpuKk; http//www.tamilsguide.com. fw;gjw;fhd Rje;jpuKk;> fy;tp Muha;r;rpj; Jiw> Njrpa fy;tp epWtfk;> kfufk.
[21] Gamini Samaranayake(1) Changing University Student Politics in Sri Lanka: From Norm Oriented to Value Orient Student Movement
(1) Dept. of Political Science, University of Peradeniya, Sri Lanka
Introduction The third part examines the nature and type of student organizations. The fourth part examines the Student politics is a significant phenomenon in response of the government or the university. The University education in Sri Lanka. Involvement of final part is the observations which include student in politics has a long history and has always recommendations. reflected the social and political changes in the country. Consequently the current, student councils are highly politicized bodies and the universities are Analytical Framework strong centers of youth led agitation. In a sense it could The analytical framework is based on the analysis be stated that the universities are barometers of social made by David J. Finlay’s pamphlet titled “Youth and and political discontent. Politics: A Pre-theoretic Model” has been of special relevance to this paper.1 Youth are perceived of, as In tracing the history of student politics until actors in any political system. If a political system is 1960, Sri Lanka did not have a single student to persist, one of its major tasks is to provide for a movement. However, with the expansion in the minimal level of support for a regime of some kind. Yet number of universities student councils became a wing political system generally does not conceive of students of the radical or leftist political parties. After 1971, as participants in politics. Where students find university student politics become a part and parcel of themselves ignored by or participatory roles in the insurrectionary violence and guerrilla warfare in Sri adult power structure, they are likely to seize the Lanka. The causes behind the changing students initiative in an effort to make their demands know.2 politics is closely linked to the expansion of university The result is confrontation politics between students education and the changes in the selection of members and authority. to student bodies.
According to this analytical framework Finlay Aims and Objectives argues that confrontational politics arises out of four main reasons. The first is the lack of integration into The main objective of this paper is to examine the adult power structures and decision making processes. causes behind changing student politics in Sri Lanka. The second is the degree to which a political authority This paper is therefore divided into four major parts. is recognized as being legitimate. Confrontation This first part deals with the analytical framework of politics also results when students feel that authority is the paper. The second part deals with factors that have not acceptable or legitimate. The legitimacy contributed university student politics in the country. orientations of students are an expression of their
1. David J. Finlay, “Youth and Politics: A Pre-theoretical Model”, La Jell, (California, Behavioural Science Institute, (nd). 2. David J. Finlay, p.2.
[22] Gamini Samaranayake Changing University Student Politics in Sri Lanka: From Norm Oriented to Value Orient Student Movement
evaluation of the appropriateness or inappropriateness oppositional activity is decreased. It does not leave of authority, particularly a political regime. space for oppositional politics due to the small student bodies, residential accommodation of quality There are three possible legitimacy orientations: standards, and close student supervision through low supportive, oppositional and acquiescent. When student-faculty ratios, tutorials and geographic student regard authority is legitimate, they will tend to isolation of the campus. perform supportive or acquiescent roles in relation to the political system. However, when students do not The mass educational system does not give any grant legitimacy to the system, their behavior is guaranty of elite status to students. They have more oppositional and confrontational. time to enroll to national politics rather than in the elite system. In countries where the economic According to David J. Finlay the third cause of infrastructure fails to keep pace with the educational student involvement in politics is the process of expansion, career opportunities are apt to be politicization. Politicization means the degree of insufficient to meet the high expectation of graduates. political awareness and involvement in the world of Thus the introduction of mass education may lead to politics and government.3 According to him the level student frustration and alienation. As a result what of politicization contributes to the level and type of emerges is a class of career students, unable and political participation of student. perhaps unwilling to leave the university, who are active dissidents in the political process. He further argues, that the levels of politicization correlate with the levels of participation. There are The second variable is the ability of the political three politicization levels as minimal, moderate and elites to employ sanctions against oppositional political high. A high level of politicization leads to riots and activity. rebellion, moderate participation results in demonstrations and the formation of parties and The third variable is the congruity of the student minimal politicization confines the orientation to and political elite. At least three factors must be voting and discussion. considered in establishing a degree of congruity or incongruity between students and political elites. In addition there are some systemic variables influencing the political behavior of students. They are The first is similarity or differences in social as follows: backgrounds and recruitment. The second is the existence and extent of competition among elites. The 1. The structure of the educational system; third factor is the extent of shared (or opposed) attitudes, beliefs and values. 2. The propensity of the authorities to sanction political opposition; On the basis of the above-mentioned model the 3. The degree of relationships between the roles of students can be presented as follows: student population and the political elite. 1. In a mass educational system with a low sanction The structure of the education system may be student politicization will be acquiescent or elite or mass in both quantitative and qualitative terms. supportive in the minimal or moderate activity The legitimacy orientation of students in an elitist ranges if elite congruity is at the moderate to high system tends to be supportive and the salience of end of a continuum.
3. Ibid.
[23] Proceedings of the Third International Symposium, SEUSL: 6-7 July 2013, Oluvil, Sri Lanka
2. If however, elite-student congruity is low for legitimacy orientation will be supportive and significant proportions of the student population, politicization levels will skew toward higher supportive orientations will be less frequent and participation, particularly if a mobilization oppositional orientations will increase and will be system demands overt manifestations of directed against the regime. support.
3. In a mass educational system in a closed political 8. If, however, elite-student congruence is low, system with a high propensity to sanction (but legitimacy orientation will again move into the with the sanction function still low) if student- ambivalent or opposed categories but activity will elite congruity is high, participation will be dimin9sh to inactivity or minimal activity. The largely ritually supportive or acquiescent, high sanction function combined with the oppositional activity will be more sporadic than careerist-orientation of elitist students will sustained and will be at a high participation level severely mitigate overt opposition at any level. when it does occur. For an example there will be fewer attempts to form political parties but Given the possible combinations of these three demonstrations and riots will occur involving a systemic variables, what kind of situations are larger number than no 2. conducive to student activism in politics? What conditions determine whether student activism will be 4. If student-political elite congruity is low, directed mainly against the authority structure of supportive orientations at any level of society or whether it will be expressed through participation will largely disappear as students traditional affiliations with status quo political parties move into acquiescence and increasingly or social fraternities? sporadic opposition. Oppositional politicization is at its height in this category with the largest To answer these questions it is necessary to number in the perceptually-related but minimally differentiate two types of student movements. The first participant category. The discussion stage of are those students organizations which are norm- oppositional politics will be at sustained levels oriented, that is interested in affecting particular norms initiated by the highly politicized participants. It or means to attain agreed upon social values. is this cell of the model that provides instances of Generally, such student movements are concerned student riots that precipitate government or primarily with particular issues such as student rights, regime change in developing countries. university reforms, or a particular government policy. These movements tend to be transitory. Periods of 5. In an elitist educational system in an open polity intense activism on specific issues are often followed if the student-political elite congruence is high, by a sharp decline in activity once that issue has the politicization distribution will be normal and declined in salience. legitimacy orientations will be supportive. A second type of student movement is value- 6. If however, student-political elite congruence is oriented, that is, concerned with ultimate ends or basic low, legitimacy orientations will shift to conceptions about social institutions. Value-oriented ambivalence or opposition and levels of movements tend to press for more extreme and politicization will correspondingly depart from ideological programs than do norm-oriented groups. normal as the ambivalent take refuge in inactivity and opposed become more active. Norm-oriented student movements tend to arise in either elitist or mass system when there is low 7. In an elitist education system in a closed polity congruity between students and elites and a low where the sanction function is at high levels, if propensity to sanction by authorities. The low sanction students-political elite congruence is high, function enhances the probabilities of successfully
[24] Gamini Samaranayake Changing University Student Politics in Sri Lanka: From Norm Oriented to Value Orient Student Movement resolving particular issues, and with success militancy population in two respects. The first is the structural declines. changes in university education. David J. Finlay perceives a dichotomy in the educational system Value-oriented student movements tend to between elitist and mass educational system. develop where congruity between students and elites is According to him an elite system is one in which low and where a high propensity to sanction exists. restrictiveness of the upper-levels of the educational The high sanction function minimizes opportunity for pyramid virtually guarantees the elite status of those in activism and alienates students. Thus, for those who institutions of higher education. are highly politicized, radicalism is virtually the only, available alternative to acquiescence, and it is the From the inception the education structure at the highly politicized students who are affiliated with University of Ceylon could be safely inferred as an value-oriented movements. elitist education with English as the sole media of instruction. It provided residential facilities and was an exclusive university with a limited student population. Causes of Students Politics The structural focus was on imparting the British University education in Sri Lanka began with the model of education. The curriculum, examination and establishment of a University College in 1921 with 115 teaching patterns of the university were derived from students. The University of Ceylon was established in the University of London. The University of Ceylon 1942 with 904 students. Currently, there are 14 built on the Ox-bridge model and initially established conventional universities, three campuses, 9 in Colombo in 1942 and moved to Peradeniya in 1952 undergraduate and 7 post-graduate institutions providing education to a student population of 72, 000 With the expansion of university education along students in the country. The rapid expansion of free with change of medium of instruction from English to education from primary education to tertiary Sinhala and Tamil and admission policy university education has led to this rapid enrolment and education in Sri Lanka moved from Elite to mass completion rates in primary and secondary education model. The more significant feature of mass university and the demand for tertiary education. There are also education is the changing socio-economic composition degree awarding fee levying institutions and 72 cross of the student population from the period 1960 border universities. The Open University which has onwards. There is a marked transition from the high 27 regional centers provides a broad based distance representation of the Urban English speaking middle education. class to a high representation of the rural Sinhala- Buddhist among student cadres. This trend has been a The transformation of system of education from result of the standardization and district quota system an elitist-oriented education to a mass based system introduced from 1973. Furthermore, the change of over the years has contributed the change of political socio-economic background of the student population participation of students in Sri Lanka. According to vividly indicates from the employment structure of the David J. Finlay the main cause of student involvement parents of the university students. According to the in politics is the process of politicization. According to University Grants Commission (UGC) Statistical him the level of politicization contributes to the level Handbook of 1988/89 the employment structure of the and type of political participation of students. A high parents of the students in that academic year was level of politicization leads to riots and rebellion, weighted to the low-income category. Nearly 40 moderate participation results in demonstration and percent of the parents of the university students had a the formation of parties and minimal politicization monthly income less than Rs.1000. confines the orientation to voting and discussion. The expansion in the number of universities and The expansion of university education the student population was not marked by a contributed to the politicization of the student concomitant expansion in facilities fro extra-curricula
[25] Proceedings of the Third International Symposium, SEUSL: 6-7 July 2013, Oluvil, Sri Lanka activities, sports and infrastructural services. What is significant of the growth and Furthermore, staff-student relation have not developed development of the student movement is the decline of or deterioted. The remaining staff-student relations in the student organizations belong to the political elites universities do not encourage meaningful academic such as the United national Party (UNP) and the Sri relationship. Lanka Freedom Party ISLFP) and orthodox left-wing parties and the emergence of student organization In spite of the structural changes in the system of dominated by the clandestine or semi-clandestine education from elite to a mass, there has been no youth movements. This development shows changing corresponding change in the aspirations of the relation between political elite and the university students. The emphasis continues to be on white collar student in the country. employment. This emphasis necessitates rapid economic development to meet the aspiration and expectation of university students. However, due to the Type of Student Organization slow growth of the country’s economy the Student movement can be distinguished as either opportunities for employment are fast dwindling. An norm-oriented or value-oriented movements. A norm- additional 20,000 graduate annually enter the labour oriented movement is an attempt to restore, protect force leading to a steady expansion in the rate of modify or create norms in the name of a generalized employment among graduates. belief. It is concerned with a specific limited issue such as student’s rights, university reforms, or a particular Underemployment is another facet of the government policy. A value-oriented movement refers economic dynamics related to student unrest and their to a student movement that is fundamentally oriented involvement with political violence organization. The toward rendering some change in the social structure. level of underemployment is manifest in the type of It is characterized by a concern for broad ideological employment opportunities offered to social science issues and is associated with revolutionary graduates. Around 8000 graduate were temporarily organizations. absorbed into the public sector in 1994 for a monthly salary of RS.2, 500 amounting to a daily wage of Rs. With the change of the education system the 113. As a result, university education has become a typology and pattern of student organizations have source of frustration rather than a means of upward change. Prior to 1977, there were more norm or mobility. The structural changes in education and the theoretical oriented and belong to the national political decline in white colour employment opportunities are parties. During this period student politics were causal factors of the politicization of university dominated either by Lanka Jathika Shisya Sangamaya, students. the Student wing of the Pro Moscow Communist Party (CP) or the Lanka Shishya Sammelanaya, a student Ability to impose sanctions is another facet of wing of the Lanka Sama Samajaya Party (LSSP). In student discontent related to student unrest and their terms of ideology, the CP was committed to the Soviet involvement with confrontational politics. “Raggins” line while the LSSP followed the Trotskyite ideology. within universities which has become a widespread These tow student organizations were subsequently problem within universities can be cited as an issue challenged by the Socialist Student Union (SSU) which where authorities have failed to impose sanctions was the student wing of the pro Mao-Communist effectively. Initially, ragging began as clean fun but has Party (CPP). During this period student issues were now degenerated into one of the worst forms of dominated by issues of student welfare. student behavior and has increased dramatically. Consequently, the smooth functioning of law However this situation changed from the mid and order within universities are under threat 1970s and resulted in more value or action oriented and the authorities are not in a position to enforce student organizations. Consequently, the ideology and discipline. perception of the student movement shifted from
[26] Gamini Samaranayake Changing University Student Politics in Sri Lanka: From Norm Oriented to Value Orient Student Movement interpretations of Marxism to varying interpretation of students for national issues based on the political ethno-nationalism. The student bodies perceived agenda of hidden forces. A key mobilizing factor is the themselves as a vanguard of social changed. This shift issue of free education and opening up tertiary in ideology led to a process of alienation where student education to the private sector. politics separated from national politics and merged with underground organizations controlled by the The Inter University Students federation (IUSF) militant youth. is another development in student politics in the country. The organization serves as a bridge between The shift in paradigms also changed issues which the student politics and underground organizations. were the centre of agitation. Issues were no longer The Inter University Student Federation (IUSF) a cat’s confined to on-campus educational issues, but also paw of the militant Janatha Vimkuthi Peramuna (JVP) involved secondary educational and national issues. manipulates student politics for its political agenda. Of these issues the following are noteworthy: the issue Currently the university student politics is controlled of the North Colombo Private Medical College, and by the Inter University Student Federation. Although, the Indo-Sri Lanka Accord of 1987. it is not a legal entity recognized by the University Act of 1978, it functions as a de facto student federation. Student councils play a significant role in It serves as a bridge between student politics and politicizing the student population in the universities. insurrectionary movements in the country. Until 1968, student councils were selected through the system of election based on halls of residence. Since The direct impact of student politics on 1968, the election system changed into a direct election insurrectionary movement s is witnessed in the at university level. Currently, the open election system composition of the Janatha Vimukthi Peramuna (JVP) has been done away with and student councils are polit-bureau before the insurrection from 1987 to selected through systematic manipulation. A 1989. Of the 13 members in the polit-bureau of the significant development has been the importance JVP 9 were university students In the Central attached to the batch, which has become the nucleus Committee out of 49, 10 were university students. of student politics within the university. The general According to the University Grants Commission student meeting is replaced by the batch meeting. The (UGC) 300 students are reported missing due to the decision taken at batch meeting is not disputed and is insurrection from 1987-1989, and 227 were in custody accepted as the general will of the students. Each batch while 49 are reported dead. Thereby, the legitimacy elects two students as batch representatives per orientation of university students has changed. academic year. These batch leaders become leaders of Consequently, the nature and scope of student politics the students union. The representation to the student has shifted from pro-system oriented politics to union is also based on the batch representations. confrontational politics. These changes in the system of union have contributed to the imposition of the unions and will of the student In an elite education system, the general union on the university student population in general. atmosphere is not conducive for highly politicized This also discourages the formation of alternative student bodies which challenge the authority of the students groups. authorities maintained a monopoly of the university decision making process as exemplified in the The student council with the blessing of the IUSF University Acts of 1972 and 1978. The universities were converts new students though the “ragging” (a system also in a position to maintain law and order in the of induction for new students) and indoctrination absence of a decisive challenged from the student body. classes and mobilize students for confrontational As a result, the university is in a position to impose politics with the administrative and decision making sanction where and when necessary, and maintain institutions including the Vice Chancellors of the low and order without upsetting the university respective universities. Furthermore, it mobilizes calendar.
[27] Proceedings of the Third International Symposium, SEUSL: 6-7 July 2013, Oluvil, Sri Lanka
However, the change in the education system However, the University Act of 1978 once again from elite to mass system change in the level of created separate universities and left no provision for politicization and the legitimacy orientation of the student councils to forge links forming an integrated university student had a direct impact on the authority body. Besides, the act abolished the system of of the university. nominating student representatives to the senate but allow nominate to the faculty board. In 1978 a separate The policy making authority of the ministry of minister was appointed in charge of university Higher Education, University Grants Commission and education. The most significant event was the the university has already been challenged by the Inter abolishment of the student councils by the University University Student Federation. It has developed a Amendment Act of 1985. According to the act students parallel organization to the UGC concerning student councils were to be replaced by a new committee affairs. chaired by the vice chancellor (vc). These student committee were never formed and action The change of the higher education system in committees(ac) emerged as a result. As a result of these addition to free education fee levying or private acts, universities came increasingly under government universities is a tenacious issue that has implications control and directs. on national politics. The confrontational politics spearheaded by the student unions which target Since 1994 governments have introduced special decision making bodies such as the Ministry of Higher employment programme for graduates. They have Education and the University Grants Commission has been recruited as teachers, development officers and placed these institutions in a difficult situation where trainees in the graduate scheme in order to ease the change management and maintaining the normal problem of employment. functions of the universities are of primary concern. In such an operating environment all forms of change It is evident that the universities have become a even minor changes are difficult and it is imperative forum for student/youth unrest. It is mainly due to that the universities do not precipitate national crises due to the lack of mechanism which address student at a time when delicate and decisive social and issues and grievances. Therefore, it is necessary to economic measures are being undertaken by the review the existing student counseling system. In order Government of Sri Lanka. to overcome the student discontent, it is necessary to take steps to develop social and personal relation between the university staff and students. Besides, Government Response university authorities, students and government have Given this situation, the response of the to develop a type of mutual understanding among government is important in the context of student and themselves through dialogue and discussions. youth confrontational politics. Increasingly, successive Furthermore, it is necessary to promote the social life, governments appointed commissions and brought in leisure time activities and extramural activities of legislature/act in order to align the university system students. according to the changes. Of these, the Educational Act of 1972 was a landmark in the development of Observations and Conclusion universities and student politics in Sri Lanka. Through the act the universities merged as the “University of Sri It is obvious that politicization of university Lanka”. This merger gave rise to the Inter University student and their deviation from the national Student Federation (ISUF). This act also made democratic politics has become a major challenge to provision for student Councils to nominate the policy makers of the higher education in the representatives to the senate and the faculty board, and country. In the absence an articulate and coherent introduced the student counseling system. policy addressing the problem of political violence in
[28] Gamini Samaranayake Changing University Student Politics in Sri Lanka: From Norm Oriented to Value Orient Student Movement the country, the student movement continues to be voice of discontent and agitation. Furthermore, their alienation from the mainstream socio-economic and political system has led them to take up an agitational and confrontational stand. It is not possible to alleviate the problems of student and youth without addressing major issues in relation to the higher education in the country.
[29] K.Vijaya(1) and P.Maheswari(2) Prospects of Tourism through Software Industries in India
(1), (2) Department of Historical Studies, Quaid E Millath Government College for Women (Autonomous), Mount Road, Chennai, Tamilnadu, India.
Abstract: Tourism is an important catalyst emerging In addition to fuelling India’s economy, this as a global phenomenon in the socio-economic industry is also positively influencing the lives of its development in the modern times. Software industry people through an active direct and indirect in India through its business activities promotes contribution to the various socio-economic parameters tourism as a most profitable industry and also credited such as employment, standard of living and diversity with contributing a substantial amount of foreign among others. It is the IT-BPO industry that has led exchange. Development of Information Technology India’s transformation, from an agrarian economy in has transformed the contemporary business to services economy. The tourism industry in India is environment in the tourism sector. This paper substantial and vibrant and the country is fast highlights the new dimension of the development of becoming a major global destination. IT expands tourism supported by technological progress. tourism opportunities beyond cultural tourism, treasure hunting, religious tourism etc. India’s travel Keywords: Tourism, IT industry, MICE, Global and tourism industry is one of the most profitable Trade, Global Sourcing and business tourism. industries in the country and also credited with contributing a substantial amount of foreign exchange. “Travel to and stay in places outside their usual The impact of IT industry result in the millions of environment for more than twenty-four hours and not international and domestic tourists exploring India more than one consecutive year, for leisure, business and annually thereby strongly influencing the national other purposes.” economy.
-The World Tourism Organization (WTO) Information Technology and Tourism is primarily related to promote the process of new form Tourism is essentially an expression of natural of business tourism. Dimitrios Buhalis Carlos Costa human instinct for experience, education and (2006 ) says that Meetings, Incentives, Conferences and entertainment. It is also an important vehicle in Exhibitions (MICE) which is considered as the fastest widening socio-economic and cultural contacts and growing sections of the International tourism market. also plays a pivotal role in the social progress. Tourism According to Bhatia (2001) Conventions and firms operate in a business environment where conferences are today acknowledged as a significant innovation is important for their survival. The segment of the tourism industry. IT industries also economic consequences of these phenomenons are conduct various forms of business meetings, wide ranging. Globalization of tourism activities and International conferences and conventions, events and the changes in tourism demand and attitudes creates a exhibitions in the country. A strong competition dynamic sector where modernization has acquired amongst various destination countries in the world is central importance. The motivations for tourism also being held to produce packages to attract consumers include social, religious and business interests. IT-BPO at the global level. Hence the paper studies the impact sector has become one of the most significant growth of IT industry in enhancing the tourism sector in catalysts for the Indian economy. India. It further aims to analyses the problems faced by IT industry in promoting the business tourism in India.
[30] K.Vijaya and P.Maheswari Prospects of Tourism through Software Industries in India
International Tourist Arrivals to India DSCI is to build the trustworthiness of Indian companies as global sourcing service providers and to According to the Indian Ministry of Tourism send out messages to clients worldwide that India is a (India Tourism Statistics 2010), report that more than secure destination for outsourcing, where privacy and 5.5 million foreign tourists had visited India in 2010, protection of customer data are enshrined in the global representing an annual growth rate of 11.8 percent. Of best practices followed by the industry. the 940 million international tourist arrivals worldwide, India accounted for 59 percent, placing the country in 40th place in the rank of foreign tourists worldwide. In terms of the amount of money spent by international visitors, India ranked 16th in the world. About 900,000 foreign tourists, 16% came from the U.S., and 700,000-13.5 % had came from the United Kingdom. As per the report of US today (traveltips.usatoday.com 2013) the top three nationalities visitors were Bangladeshi, Canadian and German. American visitors spent the most money, about $103.5 billion or 11 percent, while Spanish tourists spent $52.5 billion and French visitors $46 billion. Travel and tourism play an important role in India's economy. In comparison with other nations, India ranks 14th in the world in terms of its tourism sector's contribution to the GDP. Tourism can offer direct and indirect aid to a nation's economy. Direct benefits include economic support for hotels, retail shops, transportation services, entertainment venues and attractions, while indirect benefits include Global Sourcing – A key route for government spending on related infrastructure, plus promoting tourism the domestic spending of Indians employed in the tourism sector. IT industry in India a key driver for the Tourism, as one of the important foreign growth of economic development has brought exchange earning industries, has manifested great tremendous success to the country reflecting a better potential of growth under liberalized Indian economy. global image. As India’s economy has improved with the advent of the information technology boom of the 21st century, so has its population's ability to travel. NASSCOM Global Trade Development (2012) report denotes that in the face of the volatility in economic environment and currency, 2011 recorded Building international linkages and creating steady growth for the technology and related services partnership with global trade bodies is a key focus for sector, with worldwide spending exceeding USD 1.7 NASSCOM. Some of key activities of the global trade trillion, a growth of 5.4 per cent over 2010. According development programme are to engage with to the NASSCOM report (2012), the Indian IT-BPO international stakeholders, the government, customers industry has undergone a rapid evolution, as it has kept and associations to collaborate on issues related to abreast of what the global markets require in terms of international policy, visa/work permits and business products and services. The IT-BPO industry has partnerships, inward and outward delegations, country shaped itself into a process-oriented, best practices- reports that highlight market opportunity assessments focused and skill-rich entity that has found favour with with relevant trade bodies. NASSCOM describe global customers. Software products, IT and BPO (2011) that Data Security Council of India (DSCI) is a services continued to lead, accounting for over USD 1 not-for-profit organisation, established with the motive trillion – 63 per cent of the total spend. An article in of building a credible and committed body to uphold Hindu Business line (9 December 2012) described that data privacy and security standards. The mission of Global In-House centres (GIC) have played a key role
[31] Proceedings of the Third International Symposium, SEUSL: 6-7 July 2013, Oluvil, Sri Lanka in the IT-BPO sector’s phenomenal growth story, and the like. Following are the important summits and establishing ‘proof of concept’ and branding India as a meetings conducted by NASSCOM in relation to global sourcing destination. MICE. (Annual report 2010-2011).
w India–China Business and Technology Achievements Cooperation Summit 2010 in China - The summit hosted by the Indian Embassy in In relation to Indian IT-BPO Industry Beijing was a strategic attempt to create NASSCOM (nasscom.org, 2012) states the following: awareness about the capabilities of the Indian l Milestone year for Indian IT-BPO industry- IT industry. 15 Indian IT companies and aggregate revenues cross the USD 100 billion about 300 attendees from state-owned mark, exports at USD 69 billion. Chinese enterprises had participated.
l Within the global sourcing industry, India w NASSCOM organized a networking session was able to increase its market share from 51 in New Delhi on July 30, 2010 for its per cent in 2009, to 58 per cent in 2011, members to engage a business delegation with highlighting India’s continued China. competitiveness and the effectiveness of w NASSCOM hosts UK Immigration Minister India-based providers delivering Damian Green- NASSCOM held a meeting of transformational benefits. its members with UK Immigration in New l Software and services revenues (excluding Delhi on August 25, 2010. Hardware), comprising nearly 87 per cent of w the total industry revenues. A business delegation where Minister of Communications, Finland, visited Delhi, l The industry’s share of total Indian exports Delegation included leading companies from (merchandise plus services) increased from the Information, Communication and less than 4 per cent in 1998 to about 25 per Technology domain on January 19, 2010. cent in 2012. w The delegation was part of the Ministerial l Emerging verticals (such as healthcare, delegation led by the President of Korea, for government and utilities), Emerging the Republic Day celebrations in India. The geographies (such as Asia Pacific and EMEA) session was well attended by around 65 – highest IT adopters growing nearly twice Indian companies and provided an excellent the mature geographies and verticals. platform for Indian and Korean companies l The year witnessed a pronounced shift to networking and explore business smaller contracts while mature verticals and opportunities. segments were growth driver for global w NASSCOM organised a delegation to the sourcing deals. Nordic region of Denmark and Sweden in l Global sourcing landscape is shifting as May, 2010. Seventeen member companies vendors are becoming more ‘customer- were part of the delegation. Meetings, obsessed’. presentations and networking sessions were organised in both Sweden and Denmark. MICE of NASSCOM w NASSCOM organised a delegation to the Germanic region of Switzerland and The tourism industrygenerally defines business Germany from June 14-17, 2010. tourism as trips that bring together groups for four purposes- meetings, incentives, conventions and w Fifth Indo–German ICT Conference, in exhibitions, commonly known as MICE. It includes Cologne, Germany which was hosted by individual business travel, expenditures for BIKTOM, the IT association of Germany, and accommodation, meals, transportation, entertainment supported by NASSCOM.
[32] K.Vijaya and P.Maheswari Prospects of Tourism through Software Industries in India
w In Jordan, the NASSCOM delegation built up global business valuable brand equity in the attended the Mena ICT Forum, which is global markets. They emerged as the most preferred widely considered one of the region's destination for business process outsourcing (BPO) foremost ICT and ICTES industry events. The and a key driver of growth for the software industry conference was held in Amman, Jordan under and the services sector. the patronage of His Majesty King Abdullah II, at the King Hussein Business Park. In the changing world of today, opportunities have become inseparably linked with advances in IT. w Delegation to Latin America (Brazil and Infosys, Annual report (2009-2010) shows that they Chile) - NASSCOM organised it’s first-ever having subsidiaries in Australia, China, Sweden, Brazil, delegation to Brazil and Chile between Poland, Mexico, USA and Thailand. Infosys set up a October 24 to 30, 2010. scalable recruitment and human resources management process, which enables us to attract and w In Chile, meetings and roundtables were retain high caliber employees, taking total strength to organised by CORFO (the Chilean economic approximately 1,13,800 employees, of which development agency), government agencies, approximately 1,06,900 are technology professionals, ATCI (the IT association of Chile) and the including trainees. Wipro scaled up delivery centers Indian Embassy in the country. across the globe in China, Atlanta in United States and Curitiba in Brazil. The Annual report of Wipro (2009- The key focus of the delegation was on exploring 2010) reveals the fact that their global corporation business and partnership opportunities, especially for having operations in more than 35 countries through small and medium companies in the areas of banking, 80 subsidiary companies, a few joint ventures and engineering and manufacturing. These provided associate companies13. With over 160,000 employees NASSCOM member companies with an excellent wearing the TCS badge with pride and passion, the opportunity to build business linkages in the booming integration of work and wellness is critical to their IT and outsourcing industry regions. A number of long-term success. This ensures that not only are TCS business trips are made by foreigners to India and energized to meet the critical demands of global Indians to foreign who will often add a weekend break customers and a growing market but also participate or longer holiday to their trip. (Economy watch, 2010) and contribute to a unique employee experience study reveals that Foreign tourists spend more days in during their career with the Company. India than almost any other country worldwide. Tourist arrivals have increased by over 22% per year The Annual report of TCS (2009-2010) highlights till 2010, with a 33% increase in foreign exchange that they are the largest private sector employer in earnings recorded in 2004. While India's major India with total employee strength of 160,429 during convention centers and hotels meet business tourism March 31, 2010 including those in its subsidiaries. This requirements, the largest benefit to the buyer is India diverse and global base of employees from 80 itself. MICE market travelers, as well as individual nationalities is central to sustaining TCS’ competitive business travelers, have the opportunity to explore edge. TCS has 10,400 non-Indian nationals (including diverse activities in conjunction with their business subsidiaries) amongst its employee base globally. agenda. Hence MICE business tourism was promoted International TCS initiatives are at UK, Ireland, Chile, through IT sector in India. Mexico, Ecuador, North America and Singapore. The Company’s major markets and clients are from The US, An outlook of Top three IT Europe and UK. The Company continues to invest in human resources development. Analysing top firms in companies – Global business India results that global business partnership and Going global has meant that Indian IT-BPO outsourcing has proved to be a premier source of mass companies also help in boosting the economies of the employment across the country. Tourism facilitates countries where they play, by participating in the business contacts, widens markets and helps to development of the local ecosystem. India's top promote broad based employment and income outsourcing firms such as Infosys, Wipro and TCS generation. Globally, an ever increasing number of destinations have opened up and invested in tourism
[33] Proceedings of the Third International Symposium, SEUSL: 6-7 July 2013, Oluvil, Sri Lanka development, turning modern tourism into a key destinations. According to (Tholons study, 2011) by driver of socio-economic progress through creation of 2020, nearly 18-20 per cent of India’s exports are jobs and enterprises, infrastructure development and expected to be achieved from the IT-BPO industry. earning export revenues. As an internationally traded Interestingly, the employment opportunities have service, inbound tourism has become one of the touched different sections of society, travelling beyond world’s major trade categories. the metros. This study substantiates that IT sector development act as a vehicle for the tourism progress in India. To attract the foreign tourists in India, liberal Challenges policies and reduction in taxes along with a comprehensive package for attracting tourist and c While business tourism grows, the Indian foreign investment are the need of the hour. Keeping hotel industry experiences difficulty keeping in view the Indian tourism can be made stable by up with the demand and coupled with leisure making a special strategic framework of promotional tourism expansion, occupancy rates are high. policy in and outside India. All it requires is that India should promote adventure tourism, concentrate on c Traditional onsite projects such as managing domestic tourism, rather than inbound tourism and takeover of an existing outsourcing contract launch a publicity campaign for tourism promotion. among other activities through videoconferencing.
c Battling increased immigration scrutiny and Acknowledgements pushing harder to increase profitability by We are very grateful to our institution for their shipping more work offshore. motivation and encouragement. We dedicate our c Increased visa rejections are forcing Indian IT sincere thanks to the family members for their support firms to change their entire outlook towards and help. the way they do business. c Major problems faced by the tourists are the References terrorist activities, war-like situations and safety and security. Bhatia, A.K 2001, International Tourism Management, 1st edn, updated 2002,2004,2006,2007,2008, c The most common set of impediments viewed 2 March 2013, consist of managing and processing of visas,
[34] K.Vijaya and P.Maheswari Prospects of Tourism through Software Industries in India
Ministry of Tourism ,2011, India Tourism Statistics 2010 , (R.H.Khwaja, Secretary) Ministry of Tourism, India.
NASSCOM, 2010-2011, Annual Report 2010-2011, (Harsh Manglik, Chairman), NASSCOM, New Delhi.
NASSCOM, 2011, National Association of Software and Service Companies– Affiliated Organisations, New Delhi, viewed 1 March 2013, http://www.nasscom.org/affiliated-organisations
NASSCOM, 2012, Strategic Review Report 2012, (Chairman), NASSCOM, New Delhi, viewed 1 March 2013,
NASSCOM, 2012, Indian IT-BPO Industry, NASSCOM, New Delhi, viewed 1 March 2013, < http://www.nasscom.org/indian-itbpo-industry>
Tata Consultancy service, 2009-2010, Annual Report 2009-2010, ( NChandrasekaran CEOandMD) Tata Consultancy service, Mumbai.
The Hindu, Business line, Global cos hiring PhDs for KPOs in India: Experts 9, December, 2012.
Tholons study , 2011, IT-BPO Industry’s Direct & Indirect Economic Impact (Clark Lester Bautista), Tholons, India. traveltips.usatoday.com 2013, viewed 1 March 2013,
Wipro, Annual Report 2009- 2010, (Vineet Agrawal President,) Wipro, Bangalore.
[35] N. Sivakumar(1), W.K. Ranjith Dickwella(2) and M.M. Ihjas(3) Challenges Faced by Eastern Provincial Council of Sri Lanka
(1), (2), (3) Department of Political Science, University of Peradeniya, Sri Lanka. (email: [email protected])
Abstract: This paper attempts to explore the Provincial Council system was introduced and they are challenges faced by the Eastern Provincial Council being considered as sub-national governments. The (EPC) of Sri Lanka with regard to human and fiscal EPC is one of them. Better sub-national governance resources. It was found that, EPC had not been can also be defined as the effective and efficient bestowed the enough opportunities to establish its own exercise of authority and powers at sub-national level administration. In allocating staff to the EPC attention with the ample scope for the participation of the local had not been paid to provide staff with necessary people. technical skills. EPC lacks control over the executive level personnel supplied by the central government. The Eastern Province comprises 15 percent of the Above all, the fiscal devolution has not brought a land area of the country, 25 percent of the coastal belt meaningful allocation of finances to meet the general and 8 percent of the country’s population. The three functions assigned to the EPC, thus making it districts in the eastern province are; Ampara, dependent largely on the central government’s funds. Batticaloa and Trincomalee. Eastern Province has a multi ethnic Population composition. According to Keywords: Eastern Province, Eastern Provincial the 2012 census report, 617,295 (39.79%) Tamils, Council, Human Resource, Fiscal Resource, 569,738 (36.72 %) Muslim, and 359,136 (23.15%) Subnational governance Sinhalese are living in the eastern province. There are social, economic, political and religious patters deeply- Introduction rooted in the region that make the Tamil speaking parts of Batticaloa and Ampara Districts, and even the Sub national governments are an important southern parts of Trincomalee District culturally and feature of modern States that strive to maintain an sociologically distinct from Jaffna and from the effective and efficient administration of governmental Upcountry Tamil region (Neville 2010, p.170). There affairs. In particular, this has become very common in are 43 Local Authorities administering and delivering States with large land area and ethno-cultural diversity. the local government services in the eastern province. Sri Lanka (officially, The Democratic Socialist Republic They are the 2 Municipal Councils, 4 Urban Councils of Sri Lanka) is a tropical island, comprised of a total and 37 Pradeshiya Sabhas. terrain of 65,610 square kilometers. Though comparatively small, it is a land of diversity-diversity The Proclamation “merging” the Northern and of peoples, scenery, climate, and religions. Sri Lanka Eastern Provinces was issued on 08.09.1988 became an independent state in 1948, after nearly four (Wickramaratne 2010, p.09). Though the merged of the and half centuries of colonial domination (from 1505 North-Eastern Province never officially acknowledge. to 1948), by the Portuguese, the Dutch and the British. In 2006, the Proclamation made by the President The centralized system of Sri Lanka, failed to satisfy the “merging” the Northern and Eastern Provinces was aspirations of the people and there was growing challenged (Ibid p.9-10). Consequently on 16th October insistence on decentralization of administrative 2006, the North-East Province has been de-merged processes in order to achieve rapid economic and into two separate provinces (Northern Province and social development of the country (). In Sri Lanka, the Eastern Province) and administration of the two
[36] N. Sivakumar, W.K. Ranjith Dickwella and M.M. Ihjas Challenges Faced by Eastern Provincial Council of Sri Lanka provinces was brought under two Governors (). Then personnel such as Sri Lanka Administrative Service, Sri following the end of armed hostilities in the Eastern Lanka Planning Service, Sri Lanka Engineering Province in July 2007, elections to the EPC were held Service, Sri Lanka Accounting Service, and Sri Lanka on 10th May 2008 (CPA 2010, p.22). The EPC Scientific Service to EPC. All the Provincial Ministry experiencing increasing pressure to provide accessible Secretaries belong to the centrally organized Sri Lanka and affordable infrastructure and basic services in the Administrative Service. Other staff members come war ravaged areas. Indeed adequate institutional within the Provincial Public Service. The framework capacity is prerequisites to getting things done. with regard to the Provincial Public Service Commission and Provincial Public Service in the Material and Methods Provincial Councils Act is one of the most unsatisfactory features of the Thirteenth Amendment Non-probability sampling (purposive sampling) scheme. The Act promotes the control of the Provincial was used to select the respondents meant to collect Public Service by the Governor. Further the section 32 primary data. Also in-depth and semi-structure of the Provincial Councils Act vests appointment, interview methods were used. Secondary data also transfer, dismissal and disciplinary control of such took significant place in this study. They were collected officers (Provincial Public Service) with the Governor from relevant existing literatures such as books, of the EPC. As a consequence the elected members of constitutional law, Act, case laws, previous research the EPC do not have control over their public officers works, seminar papers, reports, journal and official who are expected to implement the decision of the website of EPC, local government, and related private EPC. Also the nature of the Provincial Public Service and non-profit sectors. The study was carried out based Commission is such that it inspires no confidence as on both qualitative and quantitative methods. However to its impartiality and independence. It is symptomatic the qualitative method meant to analyze and interpret of the weak institutional framework that no one makes data was given priority. any material distinction between the Governor and the Provincial Public Service Commission (CPA 2010, Results p.60).
Due to the prolonged civil war that lasted for The Provincial Public Service Commission more than twenty five years, the country faced appoints the other grade personnel. Also it deals with immeasurable suffering. The Northern and Eastern transfers, promotion, extension, retirement approval, Provinces of Sri Lanka are mostly ravaged areas by civil re-instatement, termination of service, conducting war. Consequently many challenges emerged related to exams and interviews for recruitment and promotion. infrastructure development, rural development, In case of staff grade personnel, they would be recalled resettlement, human security, human rights, livelihood by the central government at any time. Another and social security. Sub-national governments in war problem is, when a vacancy occurs in a staff grade ravaged areas are experiencing increasing pressure position, EPC has to wait until the National Public from their citizens, civil society organizations, and the Service Commission or the relevant line ministry to media to provide accessible and affordable appoint or transfer a new person. Noteworthy, there infrastructure and basic services. Indeed the were delays in appointing the personnel to particular appropriate provisions meant to strengthen the EPC post. Some of the Cadres requested by the EPC were (sub-national government) are prerequisites to getting not approved by the Central Government on time. In things done. However, it was found that, the EPC does 2010 and 2011 two Deputy Director (SLPS) Cadres not have adequate institutional capacity, thus it faces were requested by EPC, but only one cadre was challenges. approved.
Cadre Creation and Appointment: The Central Skills of Staffs: The inadequacy of the human Government recruits and transfers staff grade resource is one of the factors which contribute for the
[37] Proceedings of the Third International Symposium, SEUSL: 6-7 July 2013, Oluvil, Sri Lanka weak institutional capacity of the EPC. According to and Training Department (MDTD) intend to provide the Chief Minister of the EPC, the council had been multiple training. Mission of the MDTD is to Facilitate working towards regional development without a Development of the Eastern Province through proper development plan. Thus, it faced challenged enhanced public sector competence by serving as related to identification of problems, and mobilizations premier and principal agent for human resource of resources as well as balanced regional development development. (http://www.ep.gov.lk/ -Budget Speech 2012). The EPC does not have adequate resources to draft a The NGOs, INGOs and donors also organized comprehensive development plan. The need for a various workshop and training programs meant to comprehensive long term development plan for the improve the capacity of EPC’s staff. Most of the eastern province has been widely felt at all levels. programs were conducted for the improvement of However, considering the emerging socio economic productivity of their non-staff grade personnel. They situation in the Province a quick initiative was taken are not in a position to implement a comprehensive and prepared five years plan such as Eastern Human Resource Management (HRM) policy. Development Plan 2012-2016-Volume I, and Eastern Development Plan 2012-2016, Volume III, Sector Devolved Revenue Power: The decentralization Analysis. To achieve this task, a team of experts theorem asserts that the assignment of public equipped with necessary knowledge and experience expenditure powers to Provinces must be determined was mobilized. The senior officials from the EPC by adequate finances to meet such needs. Revenue contributed as a working committee to this mobilized rising powers assigned to EPC include a combination team to complete these documents (http://www.ep.gov.lk/). of tax and non-tax sources. Provincial revenue sources have been identified under the Ninth Schedule of The legislation is thus the framework by which Thirteenth Amendment to the Constitution. EPC governments of whatever persuasion seek to achieve passed the finance statute in 2008 for devolved revenue their purposes. Statutes are necessary for running the and it is in the process of collecting revenue. EPC. The subject allocated to the EPC cover a range of items, which are of particular relevance to the regional Business Turnover Tax (BTT) was the major development and Provincial governance. Very recently revenue source of EPC. It has been observed that the a legal unit has been established at EPC. They allocated operation of the provincial BTT and other similar 0.50 million through Criteria Based Grant to establish national taxes resulted in tax on tax. This has caused a the unit (EPC Annual Implementation Programe- high tax burden particularly, on Small and Medium Status Report-2012). The officials and the elected Enterprises (SME) and consumers. With a view to Provincial Councilors are extremely eager to prepare avoiding this complicated tax system, the BTT statutes on an emergency basis. For this purpose collected by the Provinces was abolished by the ‘Statute Drafting Unit’ with the necessary human and National Budget - 2011 presented before the material resources is pre-required. But the biggest Parliament. In order to supplement the reduction of challenge is the unavailability of qualified personnel revenue collected by the Provinces, a special revenue (Legal Draftsman). EPC is not properly equipped to sharing system was introduced by the National Budget the specialized task of making statutes. – 2011 (The Finance Commission 2011). To implement this policy decision, Secretary to the Human Resource Development: Training is General Treasury issued the Fiscal Policy Circular No: another alternative that can significantly improve the 01/2010 on 29th of December, 2010. The Ministry of capacity of government institutions. Various training Finance and Planning decided to transfer 5% of the programs have been conducted intending to improve revenue to the EPC for the implementation of Budget the capacity of EPC’s staffs. They obtained multiple Proposals – 2011. After introduced the New Revenue training in provincial as well as national level. The EPC Sharing System, the actual transferred amount to the established a unit namely Management Development EPC was 1,020.62 million Rupees.
[38] N. Sivakumar, W.K. Ranjith Dickwella and M.M. Ihjas Challenges Faced by Eastern Provincial Council of Sri Lanka
Grants from Central Government: The Central annual budget. There is, accordingly, heavy Government allocates fund to EPC from the Annual dependence by the EPC financially, on the Centre. For Budget on the recommendation and in consultation instance the higher amount money had been allocated with the Finance Commission (FC). The FC is required for the EPC in 2011 by the central government to consult with and recommended to Government (Finance Commission 2011). It was found that the needs of the EP so as to enable allocations from the massive amount allocated to EPC in order to Annual Budget funds as are adequate to meet such implement the ‘Eastern Reawaking’ programe. needs of the EPC. Financial transfer to EPC constitutes an annual cycle. It comprises; Assessment of the ‘Needs Low Revenue Collection: The Financial of the Province’, Allocation of funds from the Annual Commission (FC) is mandated by the Constitution to Budget and Apportionment of Funds between the focus on achieving balanced regional development. Provinces. Furthermore, EPC gets funds through Block The per capita income is one of the indicators Grant, Matching Grant, Criteria Based Grant (CBG), considered by the FC while recommending fund for Provincial Specific Development Grant (PSDG), the EPC. The purchasing power is an important Education Sector Development Project (ESDP) and indicator which covers various aspects; namely UNICEF/UNFPA. poverty, economic development capacity and standard of living. It was found that, Per capita income in the The fiscal aspects relates to the assignment of Western Province in 2009/2010 is the highest (Rs.11, revenues to undertake the expenditure responsibilities 561) among all Provinces of the country. Meanwhile arising from the subjects and functions transferred to the Per Capita Income of the eastern province is low the EPC. Fiscal aspects also extent to the arrangements (Rs.5, 663) compared to other Provinces. It may be to address imbalances in the availability of resources attributed to the conflict situation existed in the eastern arising from the revenue powers and expenditure province. responsibilities, usually provided for through intergovernmental transfers (IPPA 2007, p.6). The The private sector investment is low in EP. There fiscal resources should be adequate to meet the Eastern are issues related with security in the eastern province. Provincial public expenditure. In case of EPC, the fiscal In early 2009, UNHCR also expressed its concern grants which allocated to the EPC through the FC regarding the security situation, calling upon the insufficient. Also they were not allocated on time. Government of Sri Lanka to investigate reported human rights abuses and urging the relevant The Provincial Council List contains various authorities to provide adequate security to civilians in items relating to taxation and other revenues the region (UNHCR 2009, p.8). The situation created recoverable by EPC. However, since the main taxes fear among the private investors. Thus they are not such as income tax, customs duty and the major willing to invest in eastern province. Consequently, the portion of the turnover tax accrue to the central revenue collected in EP in 2009 and 2010 are low government. From the total revenue of the Central compared to other Provinces. Government of this country the PCs are receiving only 10% for their development activities, and 90% of the Discussions state funds are spent for recurrent expenditure and salaries and maintenance work. Consequently the 90% Due to the prolonged civil war, the country faced of the state funds allocated for recurrent expenditure immeasurable suffering. Indeed the Northern and are used to pay the salaries of the public servants once Eastern Provinces of Sri Lanka are mostly ravaged appointed by the Central Government (Bandara 2009). areas by civil war. The EPC is experiencing increasing pressure from their citizens, civil society organizations, The Finance Commission at the centre is charged and the media to provide accessible and affordable with making recommendations to the government infrastructure and basic services. The EPC is expected regarding financial allocations to the EPC under the to be fundamental institutions with the responsibility
[39] Proceedings of the Third International Symposium, SEUSL: 6-7 July 2013, Oluvil, Sri Lanka for steering the ship of sub-national governance in p.10) believes that human resources are central to order to provide better service delivery to the citizens capacity development and is the most critical factor to simply because they: consider in analyzing capacity. Human resource with sufficient skills is essential for making comprehensive l Get popular legitimacy or mandate to govern development policy and gain the benefits from other their respective localities as they are normally elected by the local people especially in the sector meant to regional development. Eastern country with democratic polity. Province has a pluralist society with different political options. So, sufficient human resources with skills are l Enjoy the authority to make political choice: pre-required to balance pluralism and make good the choice in policy making, financial foundation for the policy which is appropriate to the resource mobilization (through the collection Province. Human resource dimension of capacity of revenues from tax and non-tax sources), relates to the ability of an organization to recruit, resource collection for delivery of goods and services at sub-national level and addressing utilize, train, and retain employees, especially those the local issues through the adoption of who are managerially, professionally, and technically appropriate mechanism and strategies. capable. Hence, the EPC must have power over its staff who are managerially, professionally, and technically l Work as multi-purpose institutions in the capable. It would enable the environment to work line process of delivering services and goods at with its priority and policy rather than depends on the sub-national levels. central government and its personnel. l Enjoy constitutional status In allocating staff to the EPC attention had not l Exercise statute making power been paid to provide Legal Draftsman. In 1988, when However adequate institutional capacity is a pre- the Provincial Council system started functioning, requisite for EPC to ensure better service delivery there were about 300 laws in force pertaining to within their respective legally recognized territorial subjects in the Provincial and Concurrent list boundaries. I was found that, the devolution (Wicramaratna 2010). All these referred to the arrangement did not empower the sub-national functions and powers of Ministers in the Central government (EPC) to work independently. Government. But, the EPC could enact very few numbers of statutes since 2008. Therefore, Statute In the words of James Gustava Speth, “Whenever Drafting Units with the necessary human and material change is for betterment, wherever human condition resources need to be established at the EPC meant to is improving, people point to governance as the key. draft essential statutes. The better governance is not just national- it is local, it is regional (Provincial) and global” (WHO 2000). Availability of sufficient financial resource is an Meaningful decentralization is a pre-requisite for important aspect of devolution of powers. Once the effective and efficient exercise of authority and powers powers are devolved through legislation, EPC cannot by sub-national government. The essence of proceed further unless they are in a position to meet decentralization is the dispersal of power and functions their financial needs and commitments. Thus, there are throughout a country. It also denotes the sharing of arrangements to meet the financial needs of EPC. The powers and functions between the central and local EPC gets funds through Devolved Revenue, Surplus on governments. Advance Account Activities, Profits made on enterprises directly run by the EPC, Grants from the An organization involves group of people Government on the recommendation of the Finance working together interdependently to achieve common Commission, Grants from Line Ministries and others goals, managing those human resources is one ways. Indeed the fiscal resources should be adequate to dimension that can significantly constrain or assist the meet the Eastern Provincial public expenditure. In case capacity of organization to perform. UNDP (1998, of EPC, the fiscal grants which allocated to the EPC
[40] N. Sivakumar, W.K. Ranjith Dickwella and M.M. Ihjas Challenges Faced by Eastern Provincial Council of Sri Lanka through the FC insufficient. Also they were not necessary human and material resources are yet to be allocated on time. Further EPC is mostly depending on established at EPC. Finally it is worth noting here, the Central Government funds except for the modest although EPC is facing challenges related to human amount of money they collect as revenue from the and fiscal resources, it is expected to provide affordable citizens of the respective provinces. Therefore, the services to the citizen. Therefore, the central Government has many chances to control fiscal government had better empower the EPC in order to capacity of the EPC. The central Government controls provide better services via sub-national government. its (EPC) finance capacity using various methods such as making delays to approve development budget by the Finance Commission as well as slashing significant References portions of approved budgets by the treasury etc. This Amarasinghe, Y.R. et al., eds. 2010. Twenty Two Years scenario is not appropriate in order to empower sub- of Devolution: An Evaluation of the Working of national government, thus it should be changed. Provincial Councils in Sri Lanka. Rajagiriya: Institute for Constitutional Studies.
Conclusion Active Citizenship for Development Network., 2011. What, Where and how Much is Government The resources capacity arrangements at the EPC Spending?. [online]. Available at: have proved what Navaratna Bandara noted in 2000, www.lawandsocietytrust.org/PDF/resource/Briefi “…despite the Constitutional devolution, the de facto ng_Paper_en.pdf [accessed 20.02.2012]. system in Sri Lanka still resembles de-concentration rather than devolution� (Bandara 2010, p.165). This is Bandara, A.M., 2001. The Administrative Organization and the Public Service. In Amarasinghe, Y.R., ed. attributed to the arrangements set by the Finance Devolution Experience in Sri Lanka (1988-1998) Commission for organizing central government grants the Administrative and fiscal implications. to the EPC and the restrictions upon the EPC to utilize Colombo: National Integration Programme Unit the Provincial Fund where all the Provincial revenue is (NIPU). Ch. 3. deposited. The powers on taxation are extremely limited so that the revenue which PC could raise Bandara, A.M., 2010. Provincial Public through taxation may not be significant. Further, 90 Administration. In Marasinghe. L., percent of the funds are coming from central &Wickramaratne.J., ed. 13th Amendment Essays government to the EPC. on Practice. Pannipitiya, Sri Lanka: A Stamford Lake Publication, p. 164-189.
However, it is clear from reading the 13th Centre for Policy Alternative (CPA)., 2010. Devolution Amendment as a whole, fiscal powers may be exercised in the Eastern province: Implementation of the by the EPC authorities (both taxation and spending thirteenth Amendment and public perceptions - powers), in reality, only at the pleasure of the Central 2008-2010. Colombo, Sri Lanka: CPA. Government. Sri Lanka’s experience in fiscal devolution under the Thirteenth Amendment has thus Daniel. H., 2008. Subsidiarity in Comparative suffered from inadequacies in design as well as in Perspective. Available at: www.pravo.unizg.hr/ _download/repository/Halberstam2.pdf practice, and especially from lack of coherence and [accessed: 11/02/2012] commitment in moving from centralized to devolved governance. Deputy Chief Secretary of EPC., 2010. Administrative Report 2010.Trincomalee, Sri Lanka: EPC. The inadequacy related to the human resource provided to the EPC has also contributed to the weak Hussain, M.S.M., 2010. Unique Higher Educational capacity basis of the EPC. The lack of control over the Guide to the Laws of Sri Lanka. Dehiwala, Sri Lanka: Perpetual Calendar Wizard’s Research executive level personnel supplied to the EPC is crucial Centre. challenge faced by EPC. Statute drafting Units with the
[41] Proceedings of the Third International Symposium, SEUSL: 6-7 July 2013, Oluvil, Sri Lanka
ICES., 1996. Sri Lanka: The Devolution Debate. Ruana Rajepakse., 2008. A Guide to Current Colombo: International Centre for Ethnic Studies Constitutional Issues in Sri Lanka. Rajagiriya, (ICES). Colombo: Citizens� Trust.
IPPA-Institute of Professional Public Administrators. The Government of Sri Lanka., 2010.Provincial Council 2007. The Operational Experience of Fiscal System of Sri Lanka.[online]. (last modified: Devolution and Provincial Finance in Sri Lanka- September 03 2010) Available at: Challenges and options in Getting to devolution www.priu.gov.lk/ProvCouncils/ProvicialCouncils. and Multi-Level Governance. Colombo. html [accessed: 05/10/2011]
Leitan, G.R.T., 2001. Sri Lanka’s system of Provincial The Finance Commission., 2012. Recommendation to Councils. In Amarasinghe.Y.R., ed. Devolution H.E. the President on the Apportionment Experience in Sri Lanka (1988-1998) the between the Provinces of Funds to be Allocated Administrative and fiscal implications. Colombo: from the Annual Budget 2012.[online]. Available National Integration Programme Unit (NIPU). at: www.parliament.lk/.../10082012/recommendatio Marasinghe, L., 2009. The Provincial Governor Rights n_of_the_finance_[accessed: 18/ 04/2012] and duties under the 13th Amendment. Colombo, Sri Lanka: Institute for Constitutional Studies. Uditha, E. & Mahen, G., 2009.Devolution of Powers: The Sri Lankan Experience. Colombo-5, Sri Marasinghe, L. & Wickramaratne, J., 2010.13th Lanka: Kamalasabayson Foundation. Amendment Essays on Practice. Pannipitiya, Sri Lanka: A Stamford Lake Publication. United Nations Development Program (UNDP)., 1997a. Re-conceptualizing Governance, Ministry of Finance and Planning- Sri Lanka, 2010. Discussion Paper 22. New York: Management Fiscal Policy Circular No:01/2010. [online]. Development and Governance Division, Bureau Available at:http://www.treasury.gov.lk/ [accessed for Policy and Program Support, UNDP. 15. 01.2012] Warnapala, W.A., 1997. Provincial Politics in Sri Lanka- Neville Ladduwahetty., 2010. Sri Lanka’s National An Analysis of the Southern Provincial Council Question- A Collection of Articles. Sri Lanka: Council Election – 1994. New Delhi: Navarag. Vijitha Yapa Publications. WHO., 2000. Issue Paper on: Urban Environment Parliament of the Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Management in Asia and the Pacific (Regional Lanka., 1987. Constitution of Democratic Socialist High-level Meeting in Preparation for Republic of Sri Lanka-1978. Colombo: Istanbul+5) Available at: Government Printing Cooperation. www.unescap.org/huset//hangzhou/paper/ governance_paper.htm[accessed: 11/16/2011]. Parliament of the Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka., 1987.Provincial Councils Act, No.42 of Wickramaratne, J,. 2010. The Constitutional 1987. Colombo: Government Printing Framework. In Amarasinghe, Y.R. et al., eds. Cooperation. Twenty Two Years of Devolution: An Evaluation of Parliament of the Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri the Working of Provincial Councils in Sri Lanka. Lanka., 1987.13thAmendment to the Constitution Rajagiriya: Institute for Constitutional Studies. of Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka, Ch. 1. 1987. Colombo: Department of Government Printing.
Provincial Planning Secretariat of EPC., 2010. Administration Report 2010.Trincomalee, Sri Lanka: EPC.
[42] S. Anuzsiya(1) Historiography in Different Themes (1) Department of Social Sciences, South Eastern University of Sri Lanka, Oluvil – 32360, Sri Lanka.
Abstract: This article is about the development of the Themes in History Writing: historiography in the twenty first century. The British To illustrate the interests of new history let me colonial rulers influenced the South Asian say a few words on its classical themes and look at Historiography. It reflects the society. Among the some of the writings on these in more detail. There are different themes in History writing I had chosen a few of course many areas of research that I could mention themes only. These themes are special interest to South but I have selected those I feel might be of special Asians and they are very concerned for the interest to South Asians or that have already been development of Historiography in History writings. explored by South Asian historians.01 There are many sources available for history writing. 1. Notions of Time Here I would like to highlight the empirical research is at the heart of new history writings. 2. Demography and the Family 3. Women’s History Keywords: Historiography, Colonial, Rulers, Oral 4. Oral History tradition, Reflection, Empirical 5. Mentalities
Introduction 1. Notions of Time Notions of time have been at the centre of new It is a great important to write research article in historians’ preoccupations. New history has not the development of the historiography in the twenty undermined the belief that the question of the first century. It is very timely, resonant and important historian is asked from the present to the past and that especially for those of us working in the field of South it deals with origins, evolutions and itineraries in time Asian History. As a region, that had experienced a that are fixed by dates. History, for conventional as long history of colonial rules and the South Asians well as new historians is a work about time. But in the history was concerned and written by the British case of new historians it is ‘time’ that is complex and Colonial rulers and administrators. The challenge of constructed, with multiple faces. In Annals history the decolonizing history has only served to stimulate individual agent and occurrence cease to be the central critical reflections on history and historiography. It elements in social explanation. Since events are surely ensured the constant renewal of the field. constituted largely by the force of many different conjunctural and structural circumstances, there is no Therefore it is not surprising that the field of homogeneous or continuous time. Fernand Braudel South Asian history has been at the forefront of critical insists upon the importance of the long – term (longue debates in writing of history and historiography in duree) with its stress on continuity. In his view, the recent times. movement of history is mediated through the relative immobility of ‘structures’, the relatively more mobile Here, I would like to explain my own sense of the ‘conjunctures’ and the fast moving ‘event’. His classic different new directions in history writing. They have, The Mediterranean and the Mediterranean World in the I believe, impacted the writing of history in general Age of Philippe II is a blueprint for historians looking and South Asian history particular. History reflects the for actual physical structures which lie invisible below social and other activities. the surface of social activities and are subject to different rhythms of time.02
[43] Proceedings of the Third International Symposium, SEUSL: 6-7 July 2013, Oluvil, Sri Lanka
Periodisation too is not taken for granted. New degree to the imperial restorations by Charlemagne history posits that each historical object has its own and Otto. Christianity had to appeal to secondary periodisation. For instance it would not be pertinent causes both structural and contingent in fashioning to adopt a political periodisation for the study of an explanations. economic or religious evolution. Like the peasant, the merchant was first subjected History is sometimes described as the science of to the cycle of seasons, the unpredictability of storms the consciousness of time. Leibnitz defined time as and natural cataclysms. But once commercial the order of non – contemporaneous things. There is networks were organized, time became an object of a today, there was a yesterday and there will be a measurement. For the Christian merchant, the time in tomorrow. But although new historians accept that the which he worked professionally was not the time in perception of ‘before’ and ‘after’ embodied in the which he lived religiously. Gradually the Church notion of order and succession gives history its entire adapted to the changing conditions of nascent distinction and originality as a branch of knowledge, capitalism. Condemnation of the offences which went they stress that there is an absolute and a relative time. by the name of usury became less rigid. The length of Time can be appropriated by people in a position of time required for fast, abstinence and Sunday rest were social or political dominance. As K.N. Chaudhuri no longer strictly prescribed but recommended. The perceptively remark: merchant’s time was freed from biblical time.
‘Expressions such as idle, industrious, leisured In the modern era, control over and classification and even obedient had little meaning without a of time were crucial. For instance the French concept of authority that appropriated in the name of revolution produced a new calendar and started duty the hours from the dawn to sunset in the lives of counting the years from the beginning of the farmers and artisans’03 revolution. In Sri Lanka, less dramatically, the government of Dudley Senanayake attempted to It is the time of public collectivities, societies, introduce the lunar month with a five day and six day states and civilizations. It serves as an anchor to staggered week. Notions of time have recently been members of a group. So the time of history is neither studied by historians of colonialism. Some of their physical time nor psychological time. Recently, studies have shown now colonialism imposed the anthropologists have looked at the time of cultures and western understanding of time as something that ruled focused their attention on time as a marker of social the life of the indigenous people often perceived as ‘lay transformation. They have shown us that there are natives’.05 different ways of understanding ideas and experiences of temporality. To illustrate this we can look at an 2. Demography and the Family essay by Jacques Le Goff, called Merchant’s Time and Historical demography came of age in the 1950s 04 Church’s Time in the Middle Ages. This essay traces in Europe when economic historian began to look into the transformation of the notion of time from one of a sources that had until then been exploited mainly by cosmic, divine, even mystical entity to one where it demographers. In France parish registers were subjects becomes a commodity – measurable, and accountable to new readings. A number of debates emerged. in crass monetary terms. There was in fact a conflict Among them was the thesis that demographic between these two conceptions of time. The major movements in the seventeenth and eighteenth points at issue were the following: centuries were linked to fluctuations in prices. Monthly and annual demographic curves were charted Medieval clerics regarded time in the light of with the help of data regarding marriages, baptisms biblical texts but during the course of the twelfth and deaths. To confirm or refute this interpretation century this traditional notion of time was shaken. historian undertook rigorous reconstructions of the This was caused by the disappearance of the Roman history of families in micro – regions. Empire, the barbarization of the West and to a lesser
[44] S. Anuzsiya Historiography in Different Themes
The Family narrative. In other words it is to construct women as In 1972 Annales published a special double issue a historical subject. Indeed the history of women is on ‘Family and Society’; in the same year in Britain and not the same as the history of men. There are different in the US there appeared two important works on the turning points for each sex. history of the family. The precursor of family history is the historian Philippe Aries who wrote Centuries of In short women’s history has a dual goal; to Childhood in 1960. In this book he suggested that pre restore women to history and to restore our history to – industrial society did not make any critical women. That means that women’s history has two distinction between adults and children. Our society’s tasks: perception is quite different; the distinction between l to challenge conventional history writing children and adults is constantly made in our obsession with the education of children.06 l to emphasize that a representative history can only be written if the experience and status of After Aries a number of controversies have one half of humankind is an integral part of emerged; the main point of contention is between the story. Women’s history must not be historians who see a fundamental change in the written as a separate chapter but, as Helene modern period to ‘affective individualism’ involving Cixous says, women must ‘insinuate 07 the primacy of love over more prosaic considerations themselves into the text’. in marriage, and those who stress continuity. Historians still disagree over the structure, In Sri Lanka the task of restoration has only just characteristics and significance of the family in past begun. The historical archive has little to offer and this times. The evidence available is often fragmentary and makes reconstruction difficult. For example feminist uncertain. historians have had to tease information out of census data to interpret demographic changes. They have also 3. Women’s History had to examine other scant sources – women’s letters, diaries, autobiographies, and testimonies – in order to first locate them in history. Only then can they Women’s history has emerged as a significant reinterpret and challenge the historical record. Writing field in the last two decades. In Sri Lanka many a women’s history only for women as is most often the courses incorporate issues dealing with women case in Sri Lanka has its drawbacks. How many men although at the undergraduate level women’s history is whether students or academics read the work of Sri yet to emerge as a distinct area of study. What is quite Lankan feminists whose focus is exclusively on clear until the late twentieth century is the absence of women? A valuable women’s history must throw light women as authors and subjects of historical accounts. not only on women’s experience but on social and The reason is simple: the traditional time – frame of political practices and in so doing permit historians to history has always been derived from political history. raise critical questions regarding the rewriting of Women have been excluded from making war, wealth, history.08 laws, governments, arts and science. Men functioning in their capacity as historians, considered exactly those activities constitutive of civilization. Hence the 4. Oral History domination of diplomatic history, economic history, Most professional historians are generally constitutional history and political history in school skeptical about the value of oral sources in and university curricula. In Sri Lankan history for reconstructing the past. Oral history if one were to instance, has there been any written history by women offer a definition – is history written with evidence before the mid twentieth century? gathered from a living person, rather than from a written document. The question is especially The aim of women’s history is to make women a important for societies without written records such as focus of inquiry, a subject of the story, an agent of the many African communities. Traditional history has
[45] Proceedings of the Third International Symposium, SEUSL: 6-7 July 2013, Oluvil, Sri Lanka
tended to deny a history to non – literate societies and trapped in the small scale? Oral history is best used non – literate communities. Since the beginning of the with multiple, converging independent sources. It can Rankean approach to history Africa has been seen as provide the detail, the humanity, the emotion and also the historic continent par excellence. It was firmly a welcome skepticism about the entire historiographic believed that Africa, the Dark Continent had no undertaking. history before it was ‘discovered’ by the west. This view was shared by thinkers from the right and the left and A good example is the research undertaken by not only about Africa. Karl Marx himself wrote that the anthropologist Gananath Obeysekere on the tales Indian villages simply ‘stewed in the sun, surrounding Sigiriya. After listening to folktales unproductively reproducing themselves’.09 recounted by villagers who lived in the area he was able to reconstruct a quite different account of the demise What must be conceded is that there are of King Kassapa from that described in the limitations to the reconstruction through oral sources Mahavamsa.10 There is a lot more that could be done. alone but that oral sources can contribute to correcting Historians in Sri Lanka have not exploited the fund of such perspectives. What are the oral sources available information that exists in the memories of its people. for the historian? For some areas of historical study oral testimony 1. Oral Tradition: that is oral testimony is invaluable since there is little other source material transmitted verbally from one generation to the next, available. But as much as possible it must be checked or more. against other kinds of source.
Among these one can distinguish four categories. 5. Mentalities Histoire des mentalities are a French term. It can There is poetry including songs and lists. be translated into English as cultural history, although this itself has acquired a different meaning in the late There are proverbs that provide much 1980s and 1990s. George Duby for instance says that information on popular culture. These two categories a study of feudalism must go beyond institutions, are rote learnt but while the content of songs is modes of production, social systems and military generally fixed or frozen the content of proverbs can organization and reach out to an understanding of a vary. There are often many versions of one proverb. feudal conception of service, to a feudal mentality. In the same way the capitalist society that began to Finally there are traditions not learned by rote: emerge in Europe in the sixteenth century was not only epics and narratives. By epic it is meant for example the result of a new mode of production, of a monetary the Homeric epic or the Mahabarata that is the heroic economy or the creation of a bourgeoisie, it was also poetry composed orally, according to rules. Of course the result of new attitudes to wards work and money, the poems were written down subsequently. a mentality that since Max Weber one links to the Protestant ethic. So a history of mentality aims at 1. Personal Reminiscence: This is oral satisfying the curiosity of historians who are eager to evidence specific to the life experiences of the go further. informant, for instance private family stories. Jokes too are of value for the social historian. Under totalitarian Robert Darnton who specializes in pre – or dictatorial regimes jokes reveal the flaws, faultlines revolutionary France explains that a history of and absurdities of seemingly unopposed power. mentalities treats one’s own civilization the same way that anthropologists study alien cultures. It is in short, Oral history by reminiscence is often powerful he says, history in the ethnographic grain. It is a kind for social history. But even if it is helpful and of cultural history that is not concerned with high illustrative is it formative of explanation? Is it not culture or with the way thought evolved from
[46] S. Anuzsiya Historiography in Different Themes philosopher to philosopher – historians of ideas focus Another pitfall resides in the relation between on this area – but the way ordinary people made sense mentalities and social structures. Is there for each of the world.11 society at each particular period a dominant mentality or many mentalities? Lucien Febre was very critical of The methodology of the historian studying the notion of a Renaissance man, a pure abstraction in mentalities is very similar to that of the social his view. anthropologist and sociologist. The difference between the inquiry of the anthropologist and that of the ‘The Great Cat Massacre’, an essay by the historian of mentalities, however, is that a historian American historian Robert Darnton is a good example researching, for instance, religious mentalities in of what a historian of mentalities can read about the eighteenth century India or Sri Lanka cannot base his mentalities in eighteenth century France in a / her understanding on interviews. He / She has to use seemingly bizarre episode where cats were massacred archives as a substitute for fieldwork. Darnton suggests by workers in a printing shop in Paris. Darnton uses that if we want to understand the way of thinking in the written account of Contat, one of the workers, as the past centuries we must set out with the idea of the main source of his study. Contat begins his capturing otherness. For, in the past, people did not account by saying how amusing the killing of cats was. think the way we do today. The historian’s task is to Today’s reader however, especially a reader from a unravel an alien system of meaning. He / She is most Buddhist background, would not find it funny at all, likely to find something if he / she explores a would not get the joke. This inability to understand document where it is most opaque and unclear. The the joke indicates the distance that separates us from sources available are many; from rituals, city plans, to the workers of pre-industrial Europe. What Darnton folktales etc. Anything can be read for meaning, ie. the tries to do in this essay is to understand the joke. By meaning inscribed by contemporaries in whatever doing that, it may be possible to comprehend a basic survives of their vision of the world. ingredient of artisanal culture under the Old Regime. The text of Contact reveals many things about early modern labour relations. The first explanation is that There are of course methodological the cat massacre served as an oblique attack on the shortcomings. Among them are the problem of proof master and his wife. Hatred for the bourgeois was and the problem of representative ness. common among pre-industrial workers. Indeed when one looks at the printing industry at the time there was Folktales for instance can be taken as a source for dissatisfaction on the part of the workers. But why the historian, who however can never form more than cats? Cats, it appeared, played an important part in an approximate idea of how tales were told in the past. some rituals especially during carnival and lent. This is the case of folktales of the world including Sri During carnival the common people suspended the Lanka. We do not know exactly when and where they normal rules of behaviour and turned the social order were told or what their texts were. But they are often upside down. In some ceremonies a cat was passed all that is left of oral traditions and the richest source around by youth who tore its fur to make it howl. at the historian’s disposal if he wants to make contact Another occasion was the celebration of the summer with the mental world of peasants in the past. Another solstice on 24 June: crowds made bonfires, danced problem is the selection of a source. In what way is for around them and threw objects into the flames. instance the oral evidence of a particular worker Among these were cats tied up in bags, cats suspended recorded by a court in early nineteenth century Sri from ropes, or cats burned at the stake. Cats also Lanka representative of the people’s worldview? At the represent something mysterious and occult in many outset historians working on mentalities must not societies. The torture of animals, especially of cats, was pretend to present a typical peasant, bourgeois or a popular amusement in early modern Europe. nationalist. But they can make connections between Folktales, superstitions, proverbs and popular medicine text and context in order to reach out to the symbolic provide some information for the historian. Cats world of the past. suggested witchcraft. In popular tales cats could
[47] Proceedings of the Third International Symposium, SEUSL: 6-7 July 2013, Oluvil, Sri Lanka transform themselves into witches. They had occult The next step is to look at the content or powers. French folklore attaches special importance to catalogue of public libraries at a given time. This has the cat as a sexual metaphor. Women were identified led in some cases to new discoveries. For instance it with cats. In short cats bore enormous symbolic was always widely believed that the writings of weight in the folklore of France. So when one rereads Rousseau were very influential in pre – revolutionary Contat’s account these themes appear quite clearly. France. But the analysis of five hundred eighteenth Sorcery appears in the qualification ‘bedeviled cats’. century library catalogues showed only one copy of The description of the fete resembles the atmosphere Rousseau’s Social Contract. Instead libraries were full of the carnival. Contat then describes the trial that was of authors that are today completely forgotten. Other enacted by the workers where the master and mistress studies have used data from private libraries and the were declared guilty. This episode recaptures not only book as a criterion to draw socio – cultural hierarchies labour relations under the Old Regime but also helps of a city or province. understand what constituted a joke in eighteenth century France.12 Another interesting area of research has looked at the way people read. When they had only a few Another area where historians of mentalities have books – in Europe it was the Bible, an almanach, a done valuable work is in studies of the book and devotional work or two – in was read over an over reading.13 Reading is an activity that in all literate again usually aloud and in groups. Later the nature of cultures is shared with ancestors, yet can never be a reading changed with the emergence of mass shared experience. Reading too has a history. In a readership. But there was no common trend. In Europe where the population was 100,000,000 at least nineteenth century Europe workers still enjoyed 20,000,000 books had been printed by 1,500.14 But someone reading to them while they worked. This how can the historian recover the history of the book? seems a common trait in many cultures as the Quantitative methods has brought new perspectives. popularity of the radio and later the television set There have been studies by social historians of book shows. In many societies reading was a more private circulation based on the measurement of networks and experience for the minority of educated persons who volumes of exchange where the book is treated as a could afford to buy books. Many joined reading clubs. commodity. Another project by historians of collective mentalities has been to understand the writing and In Sri Lanka there is room for research on a reading practices of an entire society. The book is then history of the book and reading habits. What role did a cultural sign. the Sangha play in pre – colonial times? What were the books available before the printing press In Europe a thematic analysis of titles of books revolutionized reading? What information can we published shows the replacement of theology as the glean from records of the content of private libraries, main subject of books in the eighteenth century, by libraries of kings, or of religious institutions? books dealing with the arts and sciences. For the historian of mentalities this can be interpreted as a Yet another pioneering area of the history of move towards a secularization of society. In most cases mentalities is the theme of collective attitudes towards the world of reading was a limited one although one and representations of death. Sources ranging from can look for popular reading material in order to archeology of tombs to manuscripts and parish understand the culture of the socially dominated. registers are used. Michel Vovelle has studied western Other studies have tried to gather information on the attitudes towards death from the Middle Ages to the reading public. This has been done by charting a map present day. He shows for instance that from the mid of bookshops and libraries in the country under – eighteenth century a decisive change in the review. In eighteenth century France for instance there relationship between man and the dead was manifested was a concentration in towns with a parliament, a through an exile of the dead, the shifting of cemeteries university, or college. from the churchyard to the outskirts of the city. The
[48] S. Anuzsiya Historiography in Different Themes study of the rituals, gestures of death and forms of Philippe Aries, Centuries of Childhood, A Social History body disposal is a fascinating if not morbid area of of Family Life, (New York, 1962). research for the social historian. Cited in Ritu Menon & Kamala Bhasin, Borders and Boundaries, Women in India’s Partition, (New Conclusion Delhi, 1998), p. 10. This article tried to introduce very briefly some Burke, Peter, ed., New Perspectives on Historical of the themes researched by new historians. In so Writing, (Pennsylvania, 1991). doing it was compelled to leave many valuable writings unmentioned. The main idea was, however, to show See Gwyn Prins, ‘Oral History’, in ed. P. Burke, pp. 114 that in new history what has changed is not the – 139. fundamental understanding of history nor the method of research – empirical research is at the heart of new G. Obeysekere, ‘Stories from Sigiriya Villagers: history – but the subject matter, the emphasis, and the Supplement to the Mahavamsa’, paper presented incorporations of new modes of analysis that improve on 20 October 2000, at the Sri Lanka Historical and fine – tune traditional methods. Association Lecture Series, Colombo.
Robert Darnton, The Great Cat Massacre and other Bibliography Episodes in French Cultural History, (New York, 1985). M. Juneja & H. Mukhia, Seminar on ‘New History’, Economic and Political Weekly, 4 June 1988, pp. The Great Cat Massacre, op. ct. 1155 – 1159.
The most famous work on this topic is Lucien Febre Fernand Braudel, The Mediterranean and the and Henri Jean Martin, The Coming of the Book, Mediterranean World in the Age of Philip II, 2 The impact of Printing 1450 – 1800, (London, Vols., (London, 1972). 1976). K.N. Chaudhuri, Asia before Europe, Economy and Anderson, Benedict, Imagined Communities, Civilization of the Indian Ocean from the Rise of Reflections on the Origin and Spread of Islam to 1750, (Cambridge, 1990), p. 97. Nationalism, revised version, (London, New York, 1991), p. 37. J. Le Goff, ‘Merchant’s Times and Church’s Time in the Middle Ages’, in eds Aymard and Muktia, pp. 193 – 213.
Frederick Cooper, ‘Colonizing Time: Work Rhythms and Labour Conflict in Colonial Mombasa’ in Nicholas B. Dirks (ed) Colonialism and Culture, (University of Michigan, 1992).
[49] S.M. Ayoob (1) Technological Advancement and its Impact on the Traditional Way of Life in the Rural Farming Society: South Eastern Region of Sri Lanka
(1) Department of Social Sciences, South Eastern University of Sri Lanka, Oluvil, Sri Lanka. (email:[email protected])
Abstract: All through time, technological and some views directed towards the traditional farmers, scientific advancements have always had an impact on farm labors and cultivators with limited amounted society and its member’s way of life. This study gives arable lands for crops and plants have come to face an attention to explain the impacts of technological hardship to the extent of mostly living conditions of advancements which are used in farming on the rural the poorest families in this planet. These are treated as farming society. As a constructive impact, the underprivileged against those who enjoy a benefit of technological advancement enables the poor farming modernization in agricultural industries. society to get an education and transform their way of life. And the farming manufacturers also have some Objective benefits from this technological advancement, for instant: easiness, low cost and the short period of The main objective of the study is to identify the timing for doing their works. Unemployment, loss of positive / beneficial changes in the rural agricultural social customs traditionally celebrated in the society attained through the mechanization of harvesting season and poor people’s collecting spilled agriculture and also to verify the negative /adverse paddy in the paddy are also identified as the harmful consequences suffered by the mechanization on the impacts of these technological advancements. rural society.
Keywords: Technological advancement, farming society and traditional way of life Research Design and Methods In this study various methods are used for data Introduction collection – from primary as well as secondary sources. Secondary data was collected from Divisional So called machine age has revolutionized the life Secretariat, NGOs records, official records, books, of mankind with its wonderful achievement in the publications, journal articles, reports, and other fields of science and technology as its application in relevant documents. Primary data was collected agriculture, husbandry, agro based cottage industries through questionnaires survey from 100 selected previously practiced by the traditional method have household based on purposive sampling methods, 8 become notable. Though the fact that with the novel key informant interviews and 3Focus Group modern technique production of material and goods Discussion (FGDs). Data analysis was done both are tremendous beyond questioned. Is so there are manually and through computer software.
[50] S.M. Ayoob Technological Advancement and its Impact on the Traditional Way of Life in the Rural Farming Society: South Eastern Region of Sri Lanka Scope of the study A. South Eastern region: a brief Introduction The Amparai is one of the 25 administrative districts of Sri Lanka. The district was carved out of the southern part of Batticaloa in 1958. The Ampara district is 4431.4sq kilometers in extent and has population of 605553 (2003), Sinhala, Tamil and Muslim are the three major communities living in the district and the ethnic ratio is 41.59% Muslim, 39.33 Sinhala, 18.76% Tamils and 0.32 others. The district consists of 20 Divisional Secretariat areas, 505 Grama Niladhari Divisions and 828 villages. The district is mainly an agricultural but there is potential for industrial development (Divisional Secretariat, Kalmunai 2008: 20).
The South eastern region (Study area) is found in the Ampara district and it has 13 Divisional Secretariats. The study location is covered by Periyaneelavanai on the North, Panama on the south, Ampara town on the west and Bay of Bengal on the Figure 1: east. This is a multi-ethnic, multi-religious, and multi- Ampara District and the location of the study area cultural district. Sinhalese, Muslim and Tamil are the three major communities living here. It is rich in natural resources like water and fertile land. Because B. Historical background of technological of this, this district is known as “Store of Paddy in advancement in the agricultural East” (Jameel, S. H. M., 1997). In addition, sea is on industry in the study area east with huge paddy lands on its west. Most of the Muslims of South Eastern region had been living people in this region are labors on the paddy lands and under feudal system until 1950. But, after 1950s the some men are engaged in commercial enterprises. following major components were the causes for the Some of them work in government and non mobility in their life style, especially from the point of governmental organizations and in small industries. economy and social structure or status.
Following figure clearly shows the location of 1. Land reformation Ampara district forming the study area. 2. Introduction of machineries in agriculture
3. Intensive implementation of education in mother tongue (victor,1997)
Land reformation in 1950s (land distribution and resettlement) has commonly brought about a great change and mobility on the class system of Eastern Muslims. This sort of believes has caused increasing the number of agricultural laborers and farmers in middle-class family. Then they became independent
[51] Proceedings of the Third International Symposium, SEUSL: 6-7 July 2013, Oluvil, Sri Lanka agricultural land owners, and they were able to Finding and Analysis maintain their cultivation by themselves. In that way, the land reformation has created independent capitalist The south eastern region is normally surrounded relationship among South Eastern Muslims instead of by many villages where agriculture is the main feudal agricultural system. occupation for the survival of the rural communities. In that way people of this region had been following The growth of capitalism has facilitated the use of the traditional practices in agricultural activities since many types of machineries for whole agricultural ancient period to 1950s. After 1950s, most of the activities including paddy cultivation in this society. machineries were used for their cultivation and harvest For instant, during 1950, Tractor, machine for activities. This great mechanization in the agricultural collecting paddy from dash and pumps for spreading industries has caused many consequent impacts on the chemicals and poisons…etc. rural communities in this area of research.
The use of these machineries has created many A. Positive impacts of technological changes in different angle of the social set up of the advancement on agricultural industry Muslim community. Many agricultural laborers were Mechanization in the south eastern region has deprived of their job in agricultural cultivation and brought about many positive impacts on the harvest due to the usage of machineries. In this agricultural community. The participant of FGDs situation, agricultural labors also were compelled to expresses their opinions that migrate (regional migration and seasonal migration) from their aggregate segment area to other region “The mechanization has helped them to carry out where agriculture was the main source of employment their work intensively in their cultivation. for income, especially in Anuradhapura and Normally, for a harvest they need five to seven Polonnaruwa (the place where agricultural labors are days and nearly twenty agricultural labors to get felt necessary). the out-put from their paddy fields. But, the farmers have pointed out that only five hours is This situation was followed by the society until enough for the above mentioned work with the 1980 to 2000. But, after 2004, many different types of use of machineries. So, all machineries are machineries were introduced in this south eastern helping a great deal to the farmers to complete region where paddy cultivation is the back-born of the their work quickly and can reduce their economy for the survival of the people. workload.”
After Tsunami, particularly, the harvest machine After 2004, a group of people was functioning for (the size of the machine is very bigger than other the cultivation activities such as plough, sowing, machines they used earlier) is also called as “Tsunami harvesting, threshing and weeding in the rural areas. machine” which showed an easy way for their This working group was being called as “Thatty cultivation and harvest. At the same time these system” (a group of agricultural laborers). Each work machineries have consequently posed many challenges in terms of harvesting, cultivation, watering, spreading and caused negative impacts on the farmers in the area poison, weeding etc…, had been distributed among the of research. different types of working groups (Thatty groups) and they were able to make all the arrangement for whole Therefore, this paper aims to analyze the positive cultivation activities in their villages. This system had and negative impacts of mechanization of agricultural been in practice not only in this research area but also industries in the rural farming society of south eastern in many part of eastern region in Sri Lanka. Sri Lanka. Now many types of machineries are in use for each purpose in the agricultural industry.
[52] S.M. Ayoob Technological Advancement and its Impact on the Traditional Way of Life in the Rural Farming Society: South Eastern Region of Sri Lanka
Consequently, this Thatty system work was in resource. But, now these works need only nature of long period of time, having expenditure as 50,000.00 rupees by using machineries” well as hard works. Therefore, an approximately 95% percentage of farmers are used machineries for their B. Negative impacts of technological agricultural activities to mitigate the above mentioned advancement on agricultural industry disadvantages. Mechanization was introduced to the agricultural community in order to accelerate the rate of cultivation At present, lack of agricultural labor has become and harvest activities easily to avoid difficulties that very immense crisis for farmers comparing with what were to be faced in the rural agricultural segment. But, they had earlier. The improvement of tertiary and inexpertly these machineries lead to an appropriate higher education of the new generation is giving the negative impact on rural farmers. So, this study tries to employment opportunity to work under government emphasis the negative impact of mechanization also on and private sectors. Many students from the middle- rural agricultural industry and community in the class families have got university entrance in these south eastern Sri Lanka. village communities. The south eastern university is an important evident. One of the key informants, who is a lecturer in sociology, said that On the other hand, foreign employments for young men and women as well as educated people “One third of populations in this research area from agricultural families were kept away from the are living with many difficulties such as poor agricultural activities. But nowadays, elderly and economical condition and they are excluded from experienced people are working as agricultural labors the traditional agricultural activities due to the and no one is ready to work in the paddy field from arrival of new machineries. These machineries younger generation. This generation is converted in to need no more agricultural laborers for the other employment sectors instead of agricultural cultivation and harvest activities. Therefore the activities. uses of these machineries directly have directly come to affect on the employment conditions of Therefore, this generational gap is filled with the the poor farmers. This situation is being machineries in the agricultural activities in the south happened particularly in Akkaraipattu, eastern region of Ampara district. Addalaichenai, and Nintavur divisional secretariat areas.” One of the key informants, who is a officer in Agricultural Productivity Centre, said that Most of the farmers were depending on agriculture for their daily survival. They did not have “The arrival of new machineries in the educational capability to join any state or the private agricultural activities has reduced the huge sector for higher or low professional (employment) expenditure of the farmers. Harvest is being opportunities. As a result of this they were able to work completely made with the help of new on the paddy fields to get some income for their family machineries, although they use Tractor for only life earlier. But, now they have lost these agricultural plough the cultivation land. In the past, many employment opportunities in their own areas due to works were done with the help of human the intensive use of machineries. resource and it took too long period to complete their works. But, the new works in agricultural According to the observations, key informant activities are being done intensively by using interviews and Focus Group Discussion (FGD), the newly arrived machineries. For instant, it costs researcher could observe that many people in these 100,000.00 rupees to complete the full work of areas particularly the poor farmers are unemployed. As one acre paddy land by using the human a result, they are unable to earn from the agricultural
[53] Proceedings of the Third International Symposium, SEUSL: 6-7 July 2013, Oluvil, Sri Lanka industries although they have good experience in the These sort of happiest activities are ignored. agricultural activities as well as in this area fully Under this circumstance the new generation also does covered with vast extend of cultivation lands and not know about these joy-able cultural events. The continuous paddy cultivation. mechanization process is gradually changed the cultural events and joyful entertainment in every At the same time many agricultural labors have village in this region.” migrated to foreign (Middle-east) countries to get employment in order to satisfy with the basic Another important thing is collecting spilled ears necessities of life and to build up their livelihood better. at the paddy field. Many poor men normally collect the But some times, this foreign employment also can spilled ears during the harvest season to get an create some other social and cultural problems or additional income. But, after mechanization, this issues (delinquency, child labors…etc.) on family; it is traditional spilled earss collection system is also given because of the trend in mechanization in agricultural up by the people. So, the uses of new machineries have fields in the rural community. directly affected the economical activities of the poor people in the rural agricultural industry. The participants of FGDs indicates that Another important issue that due to the “Traditional activities are distracted in the mechanization, only rich person like machine owners agricultural segment. The religious believes and and land owners was able to get benefit more than practices, values, customs, folk song, group work, others. participation of relatives and neighbors and women involvement have disappeared in the C. Questionnaire survey for the research village community. During the early period, The following table 1 illustrate that the farmers were celebrating both cultivation and percentage of positive and negative impacts of harvesting as festival days. During the harvesting mechanization of agriculture industry. season many events have taken place in every village such as, Table 1:
l Gathering all family members and neighbors for harvesting.
l Preparing meals at home (domestic preparation is higher prioritized in villages) for working farmers and others who were working with farmers on the paddy fields. But nowadays, they use to order meals in hotels for cultivating people.
l Farmers go to paddy fields and they celebrate every moment with the family members.
l During the time of harvest, village people are (Source: Survey data, 2012) working together and singing folk songs while harvesting. According to this questionnaire survey, it can be l Men and women work together without any realized that the easy accessibility (93%) and the low gender differences at the paddy fields while cost of harvesting (80%) were identified by the farmers they weed the grass and harvest. as their enormous benefits or the advantages as a result
[54] S.M. Ayoob Technological Advancement and its Impact on the Traditional Way of Life in the Rural Farming Society: South Eastern Region of Sri Lanka of the launch of the machinery activities in the employment, livelihood, and daily economical survival agricultural sector. But, on the other hand, the 90% (collecting spilled ears) and it lost their culture and the percent of the informants suggested that the new traditional events and the celebration within their machineries have created the unemployment problems social contexts. So this mechanization process made among the agricultural labors and the survival of the both positive and the negative impacts on the families in the agricultural segment of the research area agricultural industry of the rural agricultural are made difficult. community in the south eastern region of Sri Lanka. Even it has negative impacts it is inevitable process. So Through the data analysis, the 98% percent of the the society should transform to accept the changes due people have agreed on the harvesting system of to the mechanization. celebrating it as festival by farmers in the past, but, it has been changed as material work based on payment. The agricultural community also has lost their References traditional practices, followed in the activities of the Anas, M.S.M, Ameerdeen, V and Vaseel, A.J.L., (2008) cultivation and harvesting. And the weakening of the Muslims and Communal Riots in Sri Lanka, Sri Tatty system is also a barrier in practice their all Lanka: Islamic Book House. traditional events in the agricultural activities. Divisional Secretariat, Kalmunai (2008) Resource Conclusion and Recommendation Profile, Kalmunai: Planning Division - Muslim Divisional Secretariat. Most of the people in the south eastern region work in paddy lands. This region is rich in natural George, Frerks and Bart Klem (2004) Dealing with resources like water and fertile land. It is known as Diversity: Sri Lankan Discourses on Peace and “Store of Paddy in East” as mentioned earlier. In this Conflict, Netherland: The Netherlands institute of region farmers were doing their cultivations with a International Relations ‘lingendael’. help of human resource with full participation. They have decided their cultivation and harvest based on Jameel, S. H. M (1997). Muslims of Ampara District. their traditional experience practices and the guidance Colombo: Ministry of religion and cultural of experienced people in the rural segment of the affairs. coastal area. Statistical Information, 2008 - Administrative and Local After 1950, many types of machineries were Government, Eastern Provincial Council. introduced to the agricultural industry in this research area. In such a way there the people have closely Thavarajah, V., (2007) Disaster Management (Tamil), associated with new machineries to make cultivation Batticaloa: RPDO- Sri Lanka. and harvest quick, easy and successful. Because these machineries have helped to make the agricultural Victor (1997) Muslim Nation and Its Future (Tamil), activities in order to accelerate the work quickly. Akkaraipattu: Third Man Publication. Anyhow, according to the data analysis made, it could be identified that these machineries have consequently made some positive impact on the rural agricultural List of interviewees: industry of the farmers of the agricultural community. I.L.Badurtheen – CDO, Agricultural Productivity Centre, Addalaichenai So, through the data analysis, it can be concluded that the mechanization of agricultural industry has U.L. Siyath –In charger, Agricultural Productivity directly affected the farmers in terms of their Centre, Addalaichenai
[55] Proceedings of the Third International Symposium, SEUSL: 6-7 July 2013, Oluvil, Sri Lanka
S.M. Jaufer former Vaddavithanai, Vellakal Thoddam
A. L. Ashraff - Agricultural Officer, Oluvil- Palamunai
Ibralebbe, A., Farmer, 130, Main street, Nintavur
Athambawa, N., Farmer, 141, Ameer Merza lane, Nintavur
Abdul Majeed, MT., Farmer, 118, 3rd cross street, Nintavur
U.L. Niyas, former D.S. Addalaichenai
[56] R. Ramesh(1), M.M. Ijhas(2) and R. Dickwella(3) Accountability, Transparency and Corruption in Decentralized Governance: A case of Local Government in Sri Lanka
(1), (2), (3) Department of Political Science, University of Peradeniya, Peradeniya, Sri Lanka. (email:[email protected])
Abstract: The study examines issues related to decentralization, but there is no guarantee that leaders accountability, transparency and corruption in the will actually act on these preferences unless they feel decentralized governance focusing local government some sort of accountability to citizens. Local elections authorities in Sri Lanka. The study was conducted are the most common and powerful form of based on secondary data. It was found that political accountability (Christine, 2003, Slater, 1994). and administrative factors both at local and national Transparency refers to openness, access to government level influence for increased corruption, poor information and public participation in the decision transparency and accountability in the working of local making process of the government. In theory these two government authorities, which has resulted in poor phenomena should be inversely related, such that more participation of local citizens in decision making transparency in local governance should mean less process and high degree of distrust on the local scope for corruption, in that dishonest behavior would government authorities. As a result of these issues, become more easily detectable, punished and positive outcomes of decentralization and good discouraged in future. In Sri Lanka local governance governance have not been achieved through local institutions have become less open to public scrutiny government authorities. and therefore, corruption at all levels has greatly increased. It is to be hoped that the local mechanisms Keywords: Transparency, Accountability, of accountability discussed above will in tandem with Corruption, Local government authorities, greater probity at the national level improve the degree decentralized governance of honesty at all levels, but at best this will take time.
Introduction Another type of linkage between transparency and corruption has been noted that while greater In its democratic political aspect, decentralization transparency in local governance was not accompanied as currently conceived and increasingly practiced in by increased corruption, it did lead to popular the international development community has two perceptions of greater public malfeasance, simply principal components: participation and because citizens became more aware of what was going accountability. Participation is chiefly concerned with on. This pattern has surely repeated itself in many increasing the role of citizens in choosing their local other locales. Over time, to the extent that leaders and in telling those leaders what to do—in accountability mechanisms begin to become effective other words, providing inputs into local governance. and corruption begins to decline, the citizenry should Accountability constitutes the other side of the process; appreciate the improvement. The literature on it is the degree to which local governments have to corruption contains several useful definitions. A widely explain or justify what they have done or failed to do. cited definition of ‘corruption’ is: ‘behavior which Improved information about local needs and deviates from the formal duties of a public role because preferences is one of the theoretical advantages of of private-regarding (personal, close family, private
[57] Proceedings of the Third International Symposium, SEUSL: 6-7 July 2013, Oluvil, Sri Lanka clique) pecuniary or status -gains; or violates rules authorities functioning in Sri Lanka i.e Municipal against the exercise of certain types of private- Council, Urban Council and Pradheshiya Sabha. Due regarding behavior (Slater, 1994). to poor transparency, accountability and corruption, local government authorities are highly ineffective in In Sri Lanka, Local Government service delivery providing effective, efficient, transparent and system is being functioning over hundred years, but it accountable public service to the local citizens, which is yet to become the basis for a viable system of embedded the outcomes of the decentralized decentralized governance. Due to certain problems and governance. challenges, LG authorities could not be able to succeed in its working throughout its history. From 1948 Objectives of the Study onwards, the local government system has been reformed several times, with a lot of reforms and The study intended to examine the factors that counter-reforms in the devolution of power to lower influence on less transparency, accountability and levels. However, such reforms were not successful, corruption in the local government institutions. Also because they were linked to the desires of national the study paved attention to elucidate the politicians to gain more influence at the local level consequences of the corruption of effective, which prevented the actual outcomes of transparent and accountable public service delivery in decentralization. the local government authorities.
Local government system is in the existence prior Material and Method to the independence. But it underwent several reforms and changes since the independence. In 1981, the This study was conducted based on secondary Tennakoon commission recommended the data. Particularly, desk study method was employed for establishment of District Development Councils and as this study and collected large amount of data from a result Town Councils and Village Councils were published and unpublished reports, journals, books abolished and legislation was enacted for the transfer of and dissertations. Collected data were analysed by their functions to the Development Councils. using descriptive analysis method. Consequently a high number of elected representatives of the Town and Village Councils, which represented Results and Discussions 85% of the population, lost their political mandates. Another undesirable effect was that there was a double Less accountability and transparency of the local structure created on district level, where the District government institutions in Sri Lanka lead to Administration and the District Development widespread poverty and socioeconomic inequalities, Administration under the DDC were both in charge of ambivalence towards the legitimacy of government and development planning at district level (GoSL 1999 & its organizations and systematic maladministration, Gunawardena, 2010). provides fertile grounds for corruption, which … has a deleterious, often devastating effect on administrative However, District Development Councils were performance and economic and political development, failed in undertaking development works at the local for example corroding public confidence, perverting level as expected and it became a weakened institution institutions processes and even goals, favouring the in addressing livelihoods needs of local people, issues privileged and powerful few, and stimulating illegal related to democracy, participatory planning, decision capital export or use of non-rational criteria in public making, corruption, development etc (Gunawardena, decisions. 2010). The DDCs were discontinues in 1987 and in its place a new entity designated as Pradeshiya Sabha was Corruption exists everywhere at the local level. introduced in addition to Municipal and Urban But corruption is especially troubling in effective Council. Since 1987 there are three local government service delivery. It seems that there are at least two
[58] R. Ramesh, M.M. Ijhas and R. Dickwella Accountability, Transparency and Corruption in Decentralized Governance: A case of Local Government in Sri Lanka elements critical to effectively combating corruption; – efforts to enhance transparency and accountability and First, nations must have good, clear laws and to eliminate corruption, those are not effective due to regulations that can be easily and reliably enforced. administrative and political culture of Sri Lanka. Apart This, in turn, requires courts that are adequately to that national politicians use local government as a funded and independent of political pressure, as well tool to attain local political interests through local as honest, well trained and adequately compensated politicians and public servants. These highly prevent regulators, judges, prosecutors and law enforcement transparency and accountability in the LGAs and officers; second is to eliminate unnecessary controls on induce corruption and mal practices in its working. the economy and reduce state involvement in the economy. Reducing both the scope and the The study revealed that there is a weakened administrative discretion of government reduce the mechanism to enhance transparency and potential for corruption. The study found that these accountability in LGAs. Particularly, transparency is strategies were not employed in the local governance achieved when citizens or taxpayers have access to in Sri Lanka to achieve transparency and information and decision-making forums, so that the accountability. general public knows what is happening and is able to judge whether it is appropriate or not. Vehicles or “Corruption is very much a social and political instruments for enhancing transparency should issue. An accountable, responsive and honest include legislation that requires public sector decision government is central to a government’s legitimacy makers to consult with and report to the public and, ultimately, to political and social stability. In order annually on planned activities; enforcement of to succeed in the local development, nations must be regulations by officers; and purchasing of inputs able to attract private capital to foster growth. There are through contractual arrangements with internal staff many dimensions to an environment conducive to or the private sector. This legislation could include the attracting private capital. Among these dimensions annual publication of local public sector performance good governance is highly important to effectively measures, thus providing local citizens within combating corruption. Corruption discourages small formation for making efficiency and effectiveness business, entrepreneurs, and consumers who simply comparisons. All this effort is intended to mitigate the cannot afford the cost of bribery. It discourages foreign risk of corruption by making information statutorily investment. And it damages the respect for law and available and by ensuring that all public policy public and financial institutions, undermines the decisions are made in an open and transparent credibility and effectiveness of both elected and manner. appointed government officials, and creates an environment conducive to crime in the private sector, The study found that, lack of supervision and including organized crime. Through this study it could monitoring by the Provincial Council as one of the be identified that local politicians are also influence. reasons for lack of transparency and accountability in financial management in the local government Local government (LG) system should be authorities (LGAs). As the supervision is only based on transparent and accountable in its functions and certain criteria, many irregularities and short-comings activities, which is a pre-request for the effective and are not discovered. Staff recruitment for local efficient service delivery of local government government institutions take place based on personal (Christine, 2003). In Sri Lanka, LG service delivery or political favoritism. This system of patronage allows system is being functioning over hundred years, but it unqualified and thugs to hold honorable positions in is yet to become the basis for a viable system of the LGAs. Political patronage also seems to be a decentralized governance. Namely, due to poor common feature when it comes to the resource transparency, accountability and corruption, LG allocation. Lack of transparency and accountability in authorities could not be able to succeed in its working resource allocation, resource allocation based on throughout its history. Although there were some political patronage instead of need orientated criteria,
[59] Proceedings of the Third International Symposium, SEUSL: 6-7 July 2013, Oluvil, Sri Lanka channel funds and resources to their vote bases during auditing task also do not have ample experience. There election, negligence of other people and communities are political and party affiliations in the internal from government funds and development programs, auditing, which has resulted increased corruptions and raise funds through political patronage were major briberies in service delivery and working. criticisms exist against LGAs. Some local government representatives proudly mentioned in our interviews Accountability comes in two dimensions: that of that they have good access to political patronage from government workers to elected officials; and that of the Colombo, even using the expression “political latter to the citizens who elect them. The first type can patronage” with a positive connotation. prove difficult to achieve, for civil servants, particularly professionals in such fields as health, education, Furthermore, lack of transparency and agriculture --the very sectors that are most often accountability during election period, candidates decentralized-- often have considerable incentive to spend bulk amount of own money for the election and evade control by locally elected officials. Given all these recover it through government fund after winning the reasons both good and bad for opposition, it is scarcely position, lack of opportunity for economically inactive surprising that decentralization initiatives so often run people to contest in election, compensate supporters into heavy bureaucratic resistance, and designers find by giving jobs, contracts, salaries, non-transparent themselves pressured to keep significant linkages procedures and cheating during elections are not between the field and the central ministries, especially transparent for the people. One major issue seems to concerning such issues as postings, promotions, and be the incorrect dissemination of voter cards and the salaries. Needless to say, such ties tend to undercut the attempt to minimize the numbers of voters of specific capacity of elected officials to supervise government communities, non-transparent in coalition – servants supposedly working for them. bargaining, non –reflection of people will and votes in positions distribution were also important issues The second type of accountability is that of criticized by the public with regard to transparency. elected officials to the citizenry. Elections (provided they are free and fair) provide the most obvious The study found that there is oblivious distrust in accountability, but this is a rather blunt tool, exercised relation to accountability in the service delivery of only at widespread intervals and offering only the LGAs. In the provision of local public sector services, broadest citizen control over government. Voters can accountability is achieved when the customer or retain or reject their governors, a decision that can taxpayer is able to identify who is responsible for what certainly have salutary effects on governance, but these and is able to link the governing unit responsible for acts are summary judgments, generally not reactions the service directly to its funding. Where there is only to particular acts or omissions. And when local one governing unit, taxpayers know who is responsible elections do revolve around a given issue, such as for what and who to contact if they wish to have an schools, they necessarily leave everything else out of impact on decision making. Where there are a number the picture. Citizens need more discriminating of local governing units responsible for a diverse range instruments to enforce accountability in LGAs. of services, customers or taxpayers may become Fortunately, a number of these are available, but in confused and not know who is responsible for what practice these are far below from the satisfaction. and how to have an impact on decision makers. Indeed, Political parties can be a powerful tool The study found that there is an ineffective for accountability when they are established and mechanism of internal auditing in LGAs. Task of vigorous at the local level, as in many Latin American Internal Auditing is currently carried out by an countries. They have a built-in incentive to uncover internal auditor or Management Assistants or Program and publicize wrongdoing by the party in power and Assistants and there is no independent auditing system to present continuously an alternative set of public to undertake this task and those who undertake this policies to the voters. But, in practice in Sri Lanka
[60] R. Ramesh, M.M. Ijhas and R. Dickwella Accountability, Transparency and Corruption in Decentralized Governance: A case of Local Government in Sri Lanka politicians plays a significant role in promoting less weak or absent. Civil society and the media, for accountability. Therefore, actual role of political parties example, might together be able to make up for a feeble have not been taking place. In general Civil society party system at the local level. The study proofs that and its precursor social capital enable citizens to there are no specific mechanisms to enhance articulate their reaction to local government and to transparency and accountability in LGAs, therefore lobby officials to be responsive. These representations which embedded with a number of flaws in its generally come through NGOs (though spontaneous working. protests can also be considered civil society), which, like political parties, often have parent organizations at the provincial or national level. Owing to numerous Conclusion splits and weaknesses in Sri Lankan civil society has In Sri Lanka, the democratic local governance failed to play effective role in lobbing and advocating initiatives should promise for developing effective to promote accountability and transparency in the systems of public accountability that will ensure that LGAs. government servants are responsible to elected officials, and that the latter are in turn responsible to If citizens are to hold their government the public that elected them in the first place. In the accountable, they must be able to find out what it is process these systems of accountability should increase doing. At the immediate neighborhood level, word of the pressure for more transparent local governance, in mouth is perhaps sufficient to transmit such which corruption will be easier to bring to light and information, but at any higher level some form of thus to curtail. On the other hand, elected people media becomes essential. In some countries, print representatives should be responsible and accountable media can perform this function, but in Sri Lanka to public. These both will greatly support to eliminate generally their coverage is minimal outside larger corruption and promote accountability and population centers. Public meetings can be an effective transparency in the LGAs. mechanism for encouraging citizens to express their views and obliging public officials to answer them. In It could be concluded that, a number of political, some settings, such meetings may be little more than economic and social factors have been negatively briefing sessions, but in others they can be effective in affected transparency, accountability and corruption getting public officials to defend their actions. on the working of LGAs, which has created distrust among service seekers and voters. Likewise, no Formal redress procedures should be included as considerable change has occurred to enhance the an accountability mechanism in some decentralization transparency and accountability through the new initiatives. Bolivia probably has the most elaborate strategies like Citizen Charter, e-Governance etc. These instrument along these lines with its municipal are not practiced to ensure good governance in the Vigilance Committees that are based on traditional working of LGAs. Owing to lack of public local social structures and are charged with monitoring participation, public have lost opportunity in involving elected councils, encouraged to file actionable in decision making of LGAs, therefore, public lost complaints with higher levels if needed. Such confidence in LGA’s service delivery. The findings of mechanisms should be adopted in Sri Lanka in order the study would help to ensure and promote to ensure accountability and transparency in the LGAs. transparency and accountability in the LGAs and also A recent USAID assessment of democratic local useful to create awareness on the importance of governance in six countries found that each country Transparency and accountability in the service delivery employed a different mix of these mechanisms, while of LGAs. It is worth to mention here that on the no country had employed them all. No one instrument occasion of the adoption of the UN Convention against proved effective in all six settings, but various Corruption in October 2003, Secretary General, Kofi combinations offered considerable promise. Some may Annan stated: “Corruption is an insidious plague that be able to substitute at least in part for others when has a wide range of corrosive effects on societies. It
[61] Proceedings of the Third International Symposium, SEUSL: 6-7 July 2013, Oluvil, Sri Lanka undermines democracy and the rule of law, Hettige, S.T. (2001), “Empowering Local Communities transparency, accountability, leads to violations of through Devolution of Power in Sri Lanka. The human rights, distorts markets, erodes the quality of Unfinished agenda”, In Governance Journal, Vol. life and allows organized crime, terrorism and other 1, No. 01-2001, Sri Lanka Institute of Local threats to human security to. Therefore, national and Governance, Colombo international laws should be implemented in an effective manner to eliminate corruption and thereby Slater, R. (1997), “Approaches to Strengthening Local promote accountability and transparency in the local Government: Lessons from Sri Lanka”, Pp. 251- government authorities. 265, Public Administration and Development. Vol. 17 (2), Available at: / [accessed 17 February 2011] References
Gunawardena, A. (2010), Local Government under Wanasinghe, S. (1999), “Effective Local Governance”, Devolution. 2010. In Amarasinghe, Y. R. et al. The Foundation for a Functioning Democracy in eds. Twenty Two Years of Devolution: an Sri Lanka, Institute for Policy Studies, Colombo Evaluation of the Working of Provincial Council in Sri Lanka. Rajagiriya: Institute for Leitan, Tressie, 1979, Local Government and Constitutional Study. Decentralized Administration in Sri Lanka, Lake House Printers and Publishers Limited, Colombo Hettige, S.T, 2003, Local Government in the Central Province: Ambagamuwa Pradeshiya Sabha, 2003. Slater, Richard, 1994, “Accountability and Local In Hettige, S.T. et al.eds. Local Government and Government in the UK and Sri Lanka: A Conflict Management in Sri Lanka, Development Comparative Perspective, in Public Studies Institute of the University of Colombo. Accountability and the Role of the Citizen in Government, (Eds) Nanayakara, Gunapala, Bigdon, Christine & Gunasegara, Nandani, 2003, Postgraduate Institute of Management, Sri “Empirical Study on Local Governance in Three Jayawardanapura University of Sri Lanka Regions of Sri Lanka: Framework Analysis and Methodology”, In Hettige, S.T. et al.eds, Local Abheywardana, H.A.P, (1996) “Decentralization and Government and Conflict Management in Sri Local Self Governance in Sri Lanka: The Field Lanka, Development Studies Institute of the experience, in Decentralized Governance in University of Colombo, Colombo. Asian Courtiers (eds), Abdul Aziz and David D. Arnold, Sage publication, New Delhi. Gunawardena, A. (2010), “Local Government under Devolution”, 2010. In Amarasinghe, Y. R. et al. eds, Twenty Two Years of Devolution: an Evaluation of the Working of Provincial Council in Sri Lanka, Institute for Constitutional Study, Rajagiriya
[62] M. Riswan(1) and M.B.M. Sufyan(2) The Response of Police in Preventing Domestic Violence in the Sammanthurai Police Area, Sri Lanka
(1), (2) Department of Social Sciences, South Eastern University of Sri Lanka, Oluvil, Sri Lanka.
Abstract: The domestic violence is more crucial issue Awareness, perception, definition and in many societies nationally and globally. Women and documentation of domestic violence differ from widely children were highly victimized and more vulnerable from country to country and society to society. The by this domestic violence. Therefore, this study social acceptability of domestic violence also differs by examines the key types of domestic violence country. While in most developed countries domestic experiencing in the research area, and to realize the violence is considered unacceptable by most people, in response of police in preventing domestic violence in many region of the world the views are different. the Sammanthurai police area in Ampara district, Sri According to a UNICEF survey, the percentage of Lanka. Data for this research have gathered from women aged 15-49 who think that a husband is primary and secondary sources. Even though the justified in hitting or beating his wife under certain response of police has perpetually operated as a key circumstances is, for example: 90% in Jordan, 85.6% measure in controlling domestic violence in the study in Guinea, 85.4% in Zambia, 85% in Sierra Leone, area, the domestic violence is occurring continuously 81.2% in Laos, and 81% in Ethiopia due to many social, cultural, economical and political (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Domestic_violence) aspects. The domestic violence in many places in Sri Keywords: abuse, domestic violence, sexual Lanka, particularly in Sammanthurai police area, is harassment, legislation. normally happening without considering any legality, law or legislation. The total numbers of domestic violence cases were reported in Sammanthurai police Introduction area as 744 from 2010 to 2012 consequently (women Today’s world, there are number of social issues and child bureau, Sammanthurai Police, 2012). So, the prevailing in most of the societies. Among all social domestic violence is on the rise in Sri Lanka although issues, the domestic violence is discoursing by many only a few cases are reported since most victims are scholars, academics and researchers. The term reluctant to come forward with their tales due to social ‘domestic violence’ is known as domestic abuse, and cultural reasons (Ishara Mudugamuwa, Daily spousal abuse, battering and intimate partner violence. News, 2011.11.24). Therefore, this study basically Most people consider domestic violence as a family focuses on what kinds of domestic violence prevailing problem. in the Sammanthurai police division, and how police play its vital role to prevent people, especially children But, the domestic violence can take many forms, and women from this trauma of domestic violence in including physical aggression or assault (hitting, the area of research. kicking, biting, shoving, restraining, slapping, throwing objects, battery), or threats, there of; sexual abuse, emotional abuse, intimidation, stalking and economic deprivation (Shipway Lynn, 2004).
[63] Proceedings of the Third International Symposium, SEUSL: 6-7 July 2013, Oluvil, Sri Lanka
Objectives The domestic violence recorded in various types in the Sammanthurai police division. According to the The main objective of this study is to identify the above data, the rape and sexual abuse are also types of domestic violence experiencing by the people identified as major crimes of domestic violence in the Sammanthurai Police area and to emphasis the happening in the study area. The below chart illustrates response and the role played by the polices in the different types of domestic violence generally controlling domestic violence in the study area. happening in the Sammanthurai police division.
Methodology Chart 1: Types of Domestic Violence in This paper deals with several data by using Sammanthurai Police area qualitative and quantitative methodologies. Data have gathered from primary as well as secondary data collection schemes. As the secondary sources, data have gathered from the record of Sammanthurai police station. Primary data were collected mainly through structured interview with key informants including Police, lawyers and other judicial people in the research area. And data have also been analyzed manually as well as by using computer software MS Excel. (Source: Secondary data analysis, 2012)
Finding and Discussion The above chart highlights the fact that the This research basically focuses on various types physical violence was reported as 45%, while rape or of domestic violence experienced by the people in sexual abuse cases were reported as 21% respectively. Sammanthurai police area. There are twelve divisions And the economical or financial related violence or villages coming under Sammanthurai Police area experiencing in the ratio of 15%, and emotional such as Mavadipalli, Maligaikadu, Karaitivu, violence recorded as 14% in the study area, while the Addapallam, Nintavur, Veeramunai, Sammanthurai, other types of violence recorded in 5%. So, it is not a Sorikkalmunai, Malwatta, Walaththapitty, Nainakaadu, healthy condition for the people in the study area, even Chennal gramam, Malayadi gramam and Veeracholai. though the legal arrangements have been implemented Based on the secondary data, it can be identified the by the police and other judicial authority. major types of domestic violence in the study area. The The all types of domestic violence are invisible, following table shows the data of domestic violence. because all victims do not ready to come forward in order to open-up their problems, wound or any other Table 1: injury and affects of domestic violence. Therefore, the Domestic Violence Record in police can not take legal action against the criminals of Sammanthura Police Area (2009 ‐ 2010) domestic violence without any evidence in terms of complain or entry. But, if any people reported their Domestic Violence 2009 2010 Rape and sexual Abuse 09 10 violence to the police in the research area, the Kidnappings 06 02 complains will be handled by the particular police Homicide 10 05 Drug and Weapon Related Crime 03 03 officer or in-charges to make solution mechanism in Assault 24 25 order to protect the victimized people from the tragedy Arson Crime 75 93 of domestic violence. In the Sammanthurai area, the Source: Women and Child Bureau, Police Station, response of police has been an important part to Sammanthurai, 2012. control domestic violence.
[64] M. Riswan and M.B.M. Sufyan The Response of Police in Preventing Domestic Violence in the Sammanthurai Police Area, Sri Lanka
At the interview with Zacky Ismail, Attorney-at- The police have played an essential role to handle Law has said that; “The purpose of domestic violence the reported cases in various spectacles. The following is to protect the people from domestic violence which chart describes the response of police to mitigate the created not inside the house eg; between husband and domestic violence in Sammanthurai police division. wife, but it created by others in various level. The role of police is very important to handle this issue in Chart 3: proper way and legal arrangement. But most of the Response of Police in Preventing Domestic situation, police directed the reported domestic Violence violence cases to the court as criminal matter. Because polices do not have enough awareness on the purpose of domestic violence. In some circumstances, the women and children should be inquired in their women desk or in the children desk available in the police station with the participation of counselor, but this counselor system is not efficiently following in all the times in the police station, especially in the developing countries like Sri Lanka. So, to reduce the domestic violence, the counselor system has to be implemented and the proper awareness program on (Source: Secondary data analysis, 2012) domestic violence should be conducted for the polices”
The response of police is not an easy task to solve The Sammanthurai police have operated their the domestic violence issues. They have more obligation to prevent victims of domestic violence by responsible to identify the types of domestic violence using aforementioned four strategies. Police tries to and to know the real arrangement of domestic violence solve the problems between victims and the violence- law and legislation. A few percentages of victims are maker. Meantime, the mediation mechanism have reporting to the police about their injury, wounds, and used by the police for solving problems between both physical and sexual attainment of domestic violence. parties. If the case is relevant to the child abuse, the So, these reported cases should be handled by the matter will be handled by the child probationary police in proper legal and legislature structure. This officer coming under Sammanthurai police. But, the kind of obligation carried out by the police in the unsolved or serious domestic violence or major crimes Sammanthurai police area as it shows in the table 1 can be produced to the court, and the court will be the below. responsible for inquiring the issue and providing judgment to the victims. Table 1: Response of Police in Solving Domestic Police have the power and authority to protect Violence the people from domestic violence. Even though the legal actions or legislature systems are available in the Detail of domestic violence cases 2010 20112012 Sammanthurai police area, the domestic violence from 2010-2012 Reported domestic violence cases 295 204 245 continuously prevailing among villagers due to the Cases solved 118 94 102 cultural, political, economical and legal factors. Cases withdraw 106 75 65 Cases produced to the court 20 23 38 Pending cases 47 32 39 Source: Women and Child Bureau, Police Station, Sammanthurai, 2012.
[65] Proceedings of the Third International Symposium, SEUSL: 6-7 July 2013, Oluvil, Sri Lanka
Factors that contribute to legitimate violence Conclusion Culture Domestic violence and abuse is not limited to Gender specific socialization obvious physical violence. Domestic violence can also Cultural definition of appropriate sex roles means endangerment, criminal coercion, kidnapping, Expectation of roles within relationships unlawful imprisonment, trespassing, harassment and Belief in the inherent superiority of males stalking. In Sri Lanka the most prevalent types of Values that gives men proprietary right over violence against women are domestic violence, rape, women and girls sexual violence, forced prostitution, incest and Notion of the family as the private sphere and trafficking. In many cases these violations are hidden, under male control this is especially true of domestic violence and incest. Customs of marriage such as dowry Domestic violence is the most highly reported type of Acceptability of violence as a means to resolve violence according to the police bureau for the conflict prevention of abuse of the women and children. In the Sammanthurai police area, many cases were reported Political in various types such as rape and sexual abuse, Domestic violence not taken seriously kidnapping, homicide, drug and weapon related Notion of family being private and beyond the crimes, assault and arson crime, and other physical and control of the state sexual related domestic violence. Risk of challenges to status religious laws Limited participation and representation of The domestic violence is not the case in many women in organized political systems developing countries. But in Sri Lanka, especially in the Sammanthurai police area, the legal actions were Economical taken for many reported cases relevant to the domestic Women’s economic dependence on men/men’s violence. And few reported cases are pending due to hostility to women’s economic independence the legislature purposes for the final solution. Even Limited access to employment in formal and though the police have been responding to the informal sectors domestic violence in the Sammanthurai police Limited access to cash and credit division, the trend of domestic violence is progressively Limited access to education and training for continuing and most of the cases purely hiding by the women victims due to many social, cultural, economical as well as political factors. So, it is necessary to raise Legal awareness of the public about the domestic violence Discrimination against women, resulting in lower prevention Act and encourage women to speak for legal status of women in written law and/or themselves against all forms of violence against women procedures connected to investigation eg: laws and children in the domestic level. And the awareness regarding divorce, child custody, maintenance programs on the purpose of domestic violence Act and inheritance. should be conducted to the police and others who Insensitive treatment of women and girls by related with law and legislature in order to diminish police and judiciary in law enforcement the domestic violence from the society successfully. Legal definition of rap, domestic violence and sexual abuse Lower levels of legal literacy among women
[66] M. Riswan and M.B.M. Sufyan The Response of Police in Preventing Domestic Violence in the Sammanthurai Police Area, Sri Lanka
References
Shipway Lynn (2004), Domestic Violence: A Handbook for Health Professional, New Yourk, Routledge.
Wallace Harvey, (2004), Family Violence: Legal Medical, and Social Perspective, Allyn & Bacon.
Women and Child Bureau, Police Station, Sammanthurai, 2012.
Daily News, 2011.11.24, Ishara Mudugamuwa, “Domestic violence on the rise” – few cases reported many victims are silent, available at http://www.dailynews.lk/2011/11/24/news51.asp - 21.03.2013, accessed on 10.02.2013 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Domestic_violence, accessed on 10.02.2013.
Interview
Majeed, M.A.M., Inspector of Police, Miscellaneous Complain Branch, Police Station, Sammanthurai.
Ranga Nayagi, T., WPC, Women & Children Bureau, Police Station, Sammanthurai.
Zacky Ismail, Attorney-at-Law
[67] Anushya Sathiaseelan(1) Mother Tongue Medium of Instruction at Junior Secondary Education in Jaffna – Advantages and Limitations
(1) Department of Education, University of Jaffna, Jaffna, Sri Lanka
Abstract: Only through the mother tongue a will be able to build up on it in later years even in student is able to acquire properly the learning skills another language. It is also generally accepted on like listening, understanding, absorbing, and pedagogical grounds that the mother tongue is best communicating. Consideration of educational suited as the medium of instruction in Education. It is principles and psychology also stress the use of MT the natural language of thought for the child and medium instruction in education. Now a days the highly suited for concept formation, while any importance of MT instruction has been understood, language may be the language of added even though some confusions are there among the comprehension. Only the language with which one people in deciding the MOI at school level. In this lives and grows is best suited to achieve originality in respect this study proposes to identify the opinion of thought and expression. the students and teachers at junior secondary education in Jaffna town schools regarding the A meeting of United Nation’s experts has shown advantages and limitation of MT medium instruction that the mother tongue is the best medium for teaching and it utilizes 155 students and 53 teachers as samples a child. The emphasis on mother tongue education is adopting normative survey methodology. not merely for educational growth and achievements, but also for national reconstruction and development. Keywords: Mother Tongue, Medium of instruction This is evident from the report on mother tongue Junior Secondary Education, Advantages and education by UNESCO in 1997 which considered Limitations “Mother tongue as the key to success in education, as the best first entry into education, the best instrument of maintaining the culture of individual groups, and Introduction the participation in national reconstruction and All the educationists and philosophers agree and development. It is also a powerful instrument in the there are no two opinions about the fact that a child fight against illiteracy and ignorance, discrimination learns the most and in the easiest way in his own and poverty. This is the best way, in fact the only way, mother tongue. Most educators agree that the school to make education available in the most natural way years in a child’s life are the most important. During for all”. this period, child’s attitude and aptitude are developed. Hence, during that time the physical as well as Learning the mother tongue and learning emotional needs of the child require effective care. The through the mother tongue are the process of learning mother tongue becomes the ideal medium during this to mean – it means learning a multifunctional and period, because it is as natural to him as the mother’s multistate semiotic system. It means developing the milk, and children are able to explore their own natural ability to play a variety of roles in the socio – cultural environment better in their own native tongue. In complex. The lesson in the mother tongue is not addition, if the foundation for the future development merely one occasion for the inculcation of knowledge; of the child is laid in his own mother tongue, the child it is part of the child’s intimation into the life of man.
[68] Anushya Sathiaseelan Mother Tongue Medium of Instruction at Junior Secondary Education in Jaffna – Advantages and Limitations
Training in the use of the mother tongue – the tongue l Learning is effective in proportion to the in which a child thinks and dreams, becomes the first learner’s competency on the language in essential of schooling and the first instrument of which the sources of learning are available. human culture. It is therefore of great importance for l Learning conducted through a particular our pupils to get a firm foundation in their mother language can be effective only to the extent to tongue, for at the same time we are giving them a firm which that language is a competent footing in their intellectual life. All the virtues that are instrument for the communication of the necessary for a good citizen, clear thinking, clear contents of learning. expression, sincerity thoughts, and feeling and action fullness of emotional and creative life can be properly cultivated and developed only if sufficient attention is The implications of these principles of learning paid to the foundation of emotional and intellectual life are clear. The centre of all consideration is the student, by month tongue. and the basic issue is what language is best understood by the learners If it is mother tongue, then the medium If children learn their mother tongue, it is easy. of instruction should be the mother tongue of the But when they learn in a foreign language. it takes student or if it is English or any other foreign language, more time and, therefore, lesser time is left for their the medium of instruction should be English or other play and other activities. This naturally hampers the foreign language. personality of the children. Gerardo Wipio Deceit, a Peruvian educator states that “those who teach in The three principles of learning enjoin that language other than that of the child in the schools are mother tongue of the student should be the medium violating principles of good pedagogy and are guilty of of instruction so that maximum effective learning can cultural imposition. This type of education has been take place. But it is true that in the situation as it is the cause of native children dropping out of school and today in Sri Lanka, English language has advantages experiencing psychological trauma, resulting in their over the mother tongue because it has more sources of failure to learn to read and write”. Therefore teaching learning. But more significant is the fact that learning through the mother tongue and teaching of the mother through the mother tongue of the student is more tongue are important because the growth of our people likely to have maximum effectiveness. depends on it. The above ideas reveal that the necessity for If a medium of instruction is a tool, a vehicle of instruction in the mother tongue is being realized growth in knowledge, abilities, skills, interests and today. Most of the educationists, linguists, sociologists attitudes – albeit a tool of learning, the question of the and physiologists were inspired and convinced by the suitability of a medium of instruction should be universally accepted principle “the mother tongue of a decided not on the basis of cultural, political or child is the most appropriate medium for a child to economic consideration, but on the consideration of learn effectively”. The scientific research emphasized its effectiveness as a tool of learning. the significance of mother tongue as the medium of instruction. A volume of literature on experiments and research by psychologists, linguists and neurologists on It is accepted by everyone that language is the the relation between language and learning process has vehicle through which man conveys his thoughts and shown the right decision regarding the aspects to be ideas to others. But it does not mean that language is considered in choosing the suitable medium of not needed unless and until we express our thoughts instruction. They are as follows. to others. Language is always integrated with thoughts. Majority of the people think in their mother tongue. l Learning takes place with maximum What is acquired through the mother tongue can be effectiveness when it is inducted through the expressed only in the mother tongue. When it is language most understood by the learner. [69] Proceedings of the Third International Symposium, SEUSL: 6-7 July 2013, Oluvil, Sri Lanka expressed in a language other than their own, many Review of Literature difficulties occur. Many find it difficult to express their thoughts in a foreign language perfectly and with Bambose (1984 – 1991) did a six year primary satisfaction. project in Nigeria. In this project an experimental group used Yoruba as medium of instruction for the In this regard, the language a student learns from duration of the primary school where as a control childhood is the appropriate language to express his group used Yoruba as MOI for the first three years and thoughts and feelings. Learning experiences such as English for the last three years. listening, hearing, absorbing and expressing are effectively, quickly, fully and critically possible only The result revealed that the experimental group through such a language. performed significantly better than the control group in both content subjects and in English. It is true that proficiency in foreign language is necessary, but it does not mean that proficiency in a Lemmer’s (1991) study indicated that if the L1 second language alone will lead to acquirement of will be maintained and promoted as MOI, there will be knowledge. The proficiency in foreign language, is increase in self-confidence and emotional security can necessary to enhance the skill of learning acquired be expected which will have clear educational benefit through instruction in mother tongue, but it is not to and the use of English as MOI may lead to a poor self- be hailed as a medium of instruction. image, a lack of self-confidence and emotional insecurity. Such views have led to the conclusion that “a child’s mother tongue is the natural medium of his Bred Bell (1993) found that it is vitally important entire education and all studies should centre around that learners fully develop their L1, because in so doing the mother tongue”. If we ignore this principle of they also develop their cognitive academic abilities, education we cannot achieve real stable progress in their ‘thinking skills’ and their academic intelligence. education which in turn will not pave the way for To achieve full L1 and cognitive academic human resource development. Based on this the development, the home language needs to be used as objectives of this study are as follows. the medium of instruction at least for the first few years of primary school at a minimum level. Without Objectives of the study this, learners who enter L2 education are mentally under – developed, which disadvantages not only their l To identify the opinion of the students and language acquisition, but also their overall academic teachers with regard to the advantages and success and in particular, their Maths and Science limitations of mother tongue medium of achievement. instruction at junior secondary level. China the Working Group on Medium of l To identify the above mentioned target Instruction (1999) Conducted an opinion survey on people’s opinion regarding mother tongue the medium of instruction policy to gauge views from medium of instruction on the key dimensions secondary school principals, teachers, students and of Effective Learning, Motivated Learning, parents. The findings revealed that mother tongue Originality and Job Market Value teaching enabled classroom teaching to be more l To point out comments and valuable versatile made it easier for teacher – student suggestions regarding this in the light of the relationship and made classroom discussion more above study. alive.
Amadou Tamba Documbia’s (2000) Research article looked at the teaching of the Bambara language
[70] Anushya Sathiaseelan Mother Tongue Medium of Instruction at Junior Secondary Education in Jaffna – Advantages and Limitations in comparison with that of French in schools that into the Educational System: The Attitudes of teachers practice the convergent pedagogy. It is based on three in Bamako. The main conclusion of this study is that field trips two segou in 1998 – 1999 with classroom teachers are more positive than one would think, and observation in the six grades of four primary schools. that the main reason for the positive attitude is It states that whereas French is taught in a systematic sufficient information. Other variables like age, way, with weight on grammar, Bambara is taught experience, level of instruction and geographical and indirectly, through different exercises like social origin, play a lesser role. The educational memorization of words, reading and writing according authority should therefore initiate campaigns to inform to the global method and dictation, Rules to explain the teachers and the rest of the population of the mistakes are hardly ever given, and the teachers them usefulness of the national languages as means of self-make mistakes, especially in word segmentation. instruction. The conclusion is that though the active pedagogical Cummins (2001) explored the effectiveness of the method seems to work well, the mother tongue use of the first language in classrooms. The use of first instruction lags behind that of the second languages, languages means that learners will be able to engage thus jeopardizing the mother tongue proficiency that effectively in the negotiation of identity as well as the is supposed to ease the acquisition of the second negotiation of symmetric classroom relationship and it language. was found vital to educational success.
Baker (2000) conducted a study on “The importance of bilingual Children’s Mother Tongue”. Methodology of Research The present study proposes to identify the The research finding was summarized below: opinion of the students and teachers regarding the Bilingualism has positive effects on children’s linguistic advantages and limitations of mother tongue medium and educational development. Bilingual children may of instruction at junior secondary level. For this developed more flexibility in their thinking as a result purpose the researcher used normative survey method. of processing information through two different languages. The level of development of children’s A questionnaire is developed by the researcher mother tongue is a strong indicator of their second herself with the help of the source of data. language development. Children who come to school Construction of tool, sources of data are grouped as with the solid foundation in their mother tongue follows: develop stronger literacy abilities in the school l languages. Children’s knowledge and skills transfer Research work of individuals across languages from the mother tongue they have l Books and Journals related to the topic learned in the home to the school languages. Mother The questions are common for the both type of tongue promotion in the school helps develop not only respondents. Questions are pertaining to the following the mother tongue but also children’s abilities in the information regarding the respondent’s opinion as the majority school languages. Bilingual children perform advantages and limitation in the use of mother tongue better in school when the school effectively teaches the instruction under the following four dimensions mother tongue and, where appropriate develops literacy in that language. By contrast, when children l Effective Learning are encouraged to reject their mother tongue and l Motivated Learning consequently, its development stagnates, their personal l Originality and conceptual foundation for learning is under l Job Market Value mined. Here the questions are structured and close Mamdou Lamine Haidara (2000) made a study typed. The questions aim to get response on two point related to “The Introduction of National Languages scale (Yes/No) by giving a score of 1 for ‘yes’ and 0
[71] Proceedings of the Third International Symposium, SEUSL: 6-7 July 2013, Oluvil, Sri Lanka
(zero)for ‘No’. Based on this score of each respondent 3.Education through 3) alien language for each item were calculated in general and converted Originality 75.43 75.47 affects personality in to percentage .The researcher has chosen 155 development students and 53 teachers from various Junior 4.Robbing and shunting of all Secondary Schools in Jaffna Town area. Descriptive originality and 75.43 75.47 analysis was adopted by the researcher. growth through foreign language education
1.Parents favoring Results and Discussion of English medium of instruction 76.75 71.70 Opinion of the students and teachers regarding because of higher the advantages and limitations of mother tongue market value 2.Students medium of instruction at junior secondary level preference of 3)Job English because of 76.75 71.70 Market advancement in Response Response Value (Students (Teachers professional career Component Statement 3.English being a 155)Yes 53)Yes 80.65 86.79 100% 100% second language 1.Maxmium 4. Necessity of effective learning English competence 91.61 100 77.42 86.79 through MT for private sector medium instruction employment 2.MT is suitable for 90.32 100 concept formation 3.Learn quickly, The perception of the students of different understand fully and 79.35 100 schools in Jaffna is almost favourable to mother tongue correctly through MT medium instruction for Effective Learning. Their 1) 4.Easy learning and positive response is above 80% towards mother tongue Effective grasping well 79.35 100 Learning through MT instruction for the first 6 items which refer to the 5.MT being a advantages of mother tongue instruction. Their competent 75.48 100 instrument for response is 91.61% in favour of “Maximum effective education learning though the MT medium instruction” and 6.Learning through MT consumes less 82.58 100 90.32% is in favour of “Mother tongue is suitable for time concept formation”. Their overall response is on an 7. Lack of standard 81.94 75.47 average 75% in favour of MT instruction in Education books in the MT 8. Inadequate 70.32 75.47 indicate that the students of Jaffna town accept the number of translation books advantages of MT for effective learning. But at the from English to MT mean time they are not in favor for the availability of 1.Motivation of books in Tamil. For the item “The lack of sufficient learning is easy 75.48 75.48 through MT standard books in Tamil” 81.44% of the students as medium at Schools well as “translation of books from English to mother 2) 2.Integration of Motivated knowledge in all tongue. 70.32% of the students accept the unavailability 75.48 75.48 Learning fields is easy of books in mother tongue for further reading. through MT 3.MT fulfils the purpose of 80.65 92.45 The perception of the teachers for effective education for live 4.English medium learning is also in favour of MT instruction. Their education divides 76.13 79.25 response is 100% positive for effective learning, proper the pupil 1.Development of concept formation, quick and easy learning and less creative thoughts 77.42 92.45 time consumption. The teachers of junior secondary through MT medium education level have shown their top priority 100% for the above 2.Improvement of said advantages in MT instruction. They have more self confidence 77.42 86.79 through MT confidence than the students in the utility of MT medium instruction education. But like the students, 75.47%, of the
[72] Anushya Sathiaseelan Mother Tongue Medium of Instruction at Junior Secondary Education in Jaffna – Advantages and Limitations teachers also agree with the limitations of “lack of foreign language education”. Considering the data it standard books” and “translation of books in MT from could be observed that the teachers have given their English”. highest priority 92.45% to the advantage of development of creative thoughts through MT Regarding to Motivated Learning the views medium. expressed by the students of Junior Secondary Schools are also positive towards the advantages of mother For the dimension of Job Market Value the tongue instruction. “Motivation of learning through “Parents prefer English medium because of Higher MT instruction” and “Integration of knowledge in all market value” and “Pupils preference of English fields through MT”, their responses of above 75% for because of advancement in professional career” the each items indicate that they have shown their positive students response is 76.75%, teachers response is views towards the advantages of MT instruction. For 71.70%, for each statement shows their positive views the items of “The purpose of education for life is towards English. But at the mean time majority of the fulfilled only through the MT” the students’ have students (80.65%) and teachers (86.79%) have shown shown 80.45% of willingness towards this statement, their support for the statement “English should be which emphasis that majority of them accept the taught as a second language in a proper manner”. Here advantages of MT medium instruction. majority of the both sides strongly feel that role of English as a second language is enough. But at the Here the response of the teachers for “Motivation same time the students and teachers of junior of learning through MT”, “Integration of knowledge secondary level show their preference of the advantage through MT” is 75% positive for each statement. With of English for the statement “Necessity of English respect to the statement “The purpose of education for competence for private sector employment”. This life is fulfilled only through MT” 92.45% of the shows there are some contradiction among them to teachers show their overwhelming positive attitude accept the advantage of English. towards the advantages of MT medium instruction. All these indicate that the junior secondary teachers of Respondent’s comments and Suggesting on Jaffna town schools accept the advantages of MT making MT medium instruction with quality medium of instruction in Education. l Adopt different type of learning teaching methods to increase more comprehensive The view of schools students regarding the abilities among the students 80.65%(S) advantages of MT education for the component of 92.45%(T) Originality is also favourable towards MT medium. Their response is above 77% positive for the advantages l Provide enough opportunities for the of “Development of creative thoughts through the MT students to develop creative thinking and in education”. They also agree that “Education through better expression 90.32% , 86.79% alien language affects personality development of the l Allow better teacher – students interaction to child”. In the case of “Robbing and Shutting of all improve language skills 79.35% , 75.47% originality and growth through foreign language education at schools level”, the students positive l Provide enough curricular and co - response is 75.48% and it shows their negative attitude curricular activities to enhance and enrich towards English medium education. student’s language competence
l Develop different type of activities to improve With respect to originality the response of the soft skills among the students. 77.42%, teachers is 86% positive towards the advantages of 75.47% mother tongue. Their response 75% agrees with the statement “Education through alien language affects l Enrich Tamil by writing and publishing personality development of the child” and “Robbing necessary books, glossary and other resources and shunting of all originality and growth through to get the latest knowledge .81.94%, 86.79%
[73] Proceedings of the Third International Symposium, SEUSL: 6-7 July 2013, Oluvil, Sri Lanka
Major Findings of the Study more suited. But there are considerable degree of disagreement as far as job market value component is l The perception of the junior secondary concerned. Here the opinion of the junior secondary students of Jaffna town Schools on an average teachers also agree that mother tongue medium is well of 80% accept the advantage of MT medium suited for all the purposes mentioned above. A special instruction for effective learning. mention can be made about the responses of Jaffna students and teachers that they seem to accept the l 90.32% of the students accept the advantage advantages of English only for job market value. of MT medium of instruction for suitable concept formation. From the result of this study it could be l 100% of the teachers of Jaffna schools agree concluded that all the above mentioned issues can be with the advantages of MT for proper concept improved through MT medium instruction. It should formation, quickly, easy learning and less also be mentioned that for job market value and time consumption. advancement of career English competency is needed. But it does not mean that this can be achieved only l 81.94% of the students and 75.47% of the through English. It is already mentioned that teachers agree with the unavailability of standard books in Tamil. proficiency in English is necessary to enhance the skills of learning acquired through MT instruction. But it l Regarding motivation and integration of does not mean that proficiency in English alone will knowledge through MT medium instruction lead to acquisition of knowledge. Therefore the MT the students and teachers accept the medium of instruction can pave the way for the advantages of MT medium. attainments of all the above mentioned advantages of l The views expressed by the students and English education. teachers regarding the originality component also agree with the advantages of MT medium instruction. References Fafunwa. A. Babs,( Sep/Nov 1969 )“The Importance of l More than 77% of the students and 92% of the teachers agree that the MT medium of the Mother-Tongue as Medium of Instruction” instruction strongly help creative thinking. Nigeria Magazine, No 102,.
l Students and teachers of the junior secondary Harry Abeygunawardne, (6th November ,1999) “Some educational level accept the disadvantages of Thoughts on Language”, Weekend Express, English as it disturbs their originality. Colombo. l For the dimension of job market value both of them agree with the advantages of English. Jayaweera Swarna, (1969) “Recent Trends in Educational Expansion in Ceylon”, International l Majority of the students (80.65%) and Review of Education,. teachers (86.79%) show their willingness towards English being an effective second Mukherjee K.C, (1971/72) The World Year Book of language. Education.
To be brief ,the findings of the study show that Obote Milton, (April, 1967) “Languages and National majority of the students at junior secondary Identification”, East Africa Journal. educational level are of the views that there are many advantages occur in mother tongue instruction in Shivendra. K. Verma, (1995) “Role of Mother Tongue education. Improving effective learning, motivated and Other Tongues in Education in Multilingual learning and originality mother tongue education is Country”, Higher Education in India – In search
[74] Anushya Sathiaseelan Mother Tongue Medium of Instruction at Junior Secondary Education in Jaffna – Advantages and Limitations
of Quality, Associated Indian Universities, AIU House New Delhi,.
Thambiah. S. J, (1967) “The Polities of Language in India and Ceylon”, Asian Studies,.
The Hindu, (03/01/1970) “Tamil Imposition and Demand for Freedom of Choice of the Medium” – “Scheme of the Government Jobs for Tamil Medium Graduates”
(03/05/05 ) “Where English hinders their aspirations” www.geocities.com/tamil tribune. www.und.ac.za/und/ling/archieve/ bell – 01 – html – Mother Tongue maintenance in Maths and Science Achievement. www.fafunwa foundation. tripod. com/fafunwa foundation/id7/html – Language Education in Africa. www.unesco.org/education/world 2002 - UNESCO Education – International Mother Language Day
[75] A.L. Mohamed Riyal(1) The character of public reason in Rawls’s theory of justice
(1) Faculty of Arts and Culture, South Eastern University of Sri Lanka, Oluvil, Sri Lanka.
Abstract: The objective of this paper is to analyze the moral judgments because of its subjectivity linked to character of public reason in theory justice in the emotions, arguing for the objectivity of these works of John Rawls Political Liberalism, The idea of judgments and the ability of people to be more or less public reason revisited and Justice as Fairness: A reasonable. restatement, with the interpretation to identifying a pragmatic justification in the theory of justice as We can point out three methods of justification fairness. in the theory of justice as fairness: (i) the balance reflective (reflective equilibrium), (ii) the original Keywords: public reason; political conception of position under the veil of ignorance and (iii) idea of justice; theory of justice as fairness. public reason. The reflective equilibrium is an intuitive and inductive method, because it justifies the principles of justice from the moral judgments of Statement of the Problem converging public culture of a democratic society such 1 The problem is that we intend to investigate the as religious tolerance and rejection of slavery. It is character that takes on the quality of public reason in clearly the appeal on the grounds of intuitionistic the theory of justice developed by Rawls. The basic identification of that freedom and equality are good, issue is to identify how Rawls understands the which favors the classification of Rawls' theory of possibility of a foundation of the principles of justice justice as a comprehensive doctrine. The method of the for the basic structure of society, providing original position is theoretical and deductive, the opportunities for a minimum common basis for the principles are justified because they are derived from a stability and legitimacy, defending a cognitivist formal model of correctness, which is the veil of position based on public values (moral and political) ignorance, which imposes formal deduction, and of freedom and equality, assuming an ideal of institutions are just as if these principles and being fair 2 democratic citizenship and the duty of civility on the distribution if it conforms to the institutions. In turn, issues essential elements of justice and constitutional the idea of public reason states that the constitutional essentials, from a pragmatic justification in a public issues and the essential elements of basic justice are context. One of the main problems addressed by Rawls affirmed from the political values that can be endorsed is about the moral justification, i.e. to establish a by all citizens in the form of an overlapping consensus foundation of moral principles and judgments, between comprehensive doctrines, which shows a refusing both the fundamentalist position as the closeness with pragmatism skeptical position or emotivism. Rawls required countering the numerousness moral interpretation, The basic question to be answered is about what which identified the impossibility of justification of is the status justification the idea of public reason. Also
1 RAWLS, J. 1971. A Theory of Justice. Cambridge, Harvard University Press,pp,20-21 2 Ibid,pp136-142
[76] A.L. Mohamed Riyal The character of public reason in Rawls’s theory of justice there is a certain line of continuity between the three political justice, and conducted open to view on that methods in relation to a cognitivist position refusing basis.”3 antirealism. Intuitionism's reflective equilibrium brings At first feature of public reason and its specific to us as close to moral realism when it happens an object is the relation of citizens who are equal, forming identifying cooperation as that which is good. a collective body, exercising political power of some Otherwise, the theoretical and deductive original over others. The limits imposed on public reason to position reveals a constructivist perspective, in which circumscribe the political questions " constitutional the principles are justified from a construction method essential and question of basic justice,"4 this means that maintains proximity with a kind of moral that political values should resolve the fundamental idealism, although Rawls's political constructivism questions such as, for example, “who has the right to cannot be equated Kantian moral constructivism by vote, or what religions are be tolerated, or who is to be abstracting the concept of truth. In short, the idea of assured fair equality of opportunity or to hold public reason seems to be located in a horizon of property.”5 These are significant issues clearly specify pragmatic reasons, as it seeks to achieve an overlapping the proper object of public reason. Another key feature consensus between different comprehensive doctrines. of public reason is that its limits do not apply to However, it seems that this pragmatism includes an discussions and individual reflections on the political intuitionistic character of moral realism by asserting issues, which characterize the culture background of a the intrinsic value of moral and political duties, which group, applying specifically for citizens, “when they approximates a position of refusal to anti- realism. engage in political advocacy in the public forum.”6 It is imperative to observe a proper distinction of the application form to the ideal of public reason for The Idea of Public Reason citizens and state authorities: the ideal of public reason The idea of public reason can be found in applies in official forums which are the legislative, Hobbes, Rousseau, and Kant, it was John Rawls who executive and judiciary. It is applied to the legislature brought this idea into play in contemporary political and the executive while they are on the public address philosophy. Rawls's conception of public reason is space. In the sphere of the judiciary, especially the represents one of the most influential accounts of Supreme Court applies in particular the idea of public contemporary liberal philosophy responds to the reason, because "[...] the justice have to explain and question of religious and other so-called justify their decisions as based on their understanding comprehensive doctrines in political philosophy.The of the constitution and relevant statutes and 7 public reason is the relation of citizens as they share precedents," characterizing the judiciary as an the status of citizenship and its object is the public exemplary case of public reason, due to it being good in a public conception of justice that has a public restricted to issues and the fundamental constitutional basis of justification. Rawls reinterprets the concept of questions of basic justice, taking into account the limits public reason as used by Kant in Reply to the question: imposed by the democratic constitution and the Public reason then, its three guidelines, namely: “as the general welfare. reason of citizens as such, it is the reason of the public; its object is the good of the public and matters of A key issue at stake is to know that citizens would fundamental justice; and its nature and content is not use the limits of public reason to decide on key public, being given by the society’s conception of policy issues, not using a comprehensive conception of
3 RAWLS, J. 1996. Political liberalism. New York, Columbia University Press,p,213 4 Ibid, p,214 5 Ibid 6 Ibid.p ,215 7 Ibid.p ,216
[77] Proceedings of the Third International Symposium, SEUSL: 6-7 July 2013, Oluvil, Sri Lanka truth, using only “to a public conception of justice.”8 are, those of associations of all kinds: churches and This apparent paradox is resolved with the use of a universities, scientific societies and professional liberal principle of legitimacy that has two groups.”12 The reasons are social, non-public, part of fundamental characteristics, namely, first, “it is a the cultural horizon background of a society, including relationship of persons within the basic structure of the “many reasons of civil society, and belong to what society into which they are born and in which they I have called the “background culture” in contrast with normally lead a complete life. Second, in a democracy the public political culture.”13 The reasons for non- political power, which is always coercive power, is the public use criteria and methods differ depending on power of the public, that is, of free and equal citizens the way to interpret the nature of the problem and as a collective body.”9 Rawls concerns as a permanent purpose of each association and the conditions which feature of public culture of a democratic society the seek to achieve their ends. Rawls notes that in a diversity of religious, philosophical and moral democratic society citizens regarded as free and equal, doctrines and not a historical contingency. As a result, whether comprehensive religious, philosophical or citizens should exercise their political power based on moral views, and this is the dominion of political principles and ideas of public justice, and this competence, specified by constitutional rights and characterizes the liberal principle of legitimacy. liberties.14 However, government’s authority cannot be Disappears, thus the paradox of the use of public accepted in this way (free) as a function of individuals reason for citizens to deliberate on key policy issues, are always inserted in a political community, and is depending on the design policy is supported by an therefore necessary to consider the scope of public overlapping consensus of comprehensive doctrines and reason for the validation of government power. reasonable. This means that “citizens affirm the ideal of public reason, not as a result of political compromise, The Content of Public Reason as in a modus vivendi, but from within their own reasonable doctrines.”10 This apparent paradox of To understand the content of public reason it is public reason is terminated due to be perfectly significant to recall that it is developed within political reasonable to dispense with the truth as a whole for a liberalism, which as the name implies is a conception demonstration in the political sphere, as seen in cases of justice which is in a sense liberal, and in a sense where the rules of evidence limit the testimony that political. It is liberal in the sense that it specifies can be introduced, aimed at the defendant a trial fair, certain rights, limits and opportunities. It also assigns “not only is hearsay evidence excluded but also these rights and opportunities a special priority, evidence gained by improper searches and seizures.”11 especially regarding the general good. Importantly, it It is imperative is to think about the scope of public assures the measures that allow citizens to realistically reason as the space of key issues aimed at the common take advantage of these rights, and the conditions good within the political community. which encourage them to be bound by the limits. It is political in the sense that it applies only to the basic Aiming to clarify the suitable form of public structure of society, and in the sense that it is reason, Rawls sets out distinctions between this and freestanding; that is, it is independent from any single the reason for non-public. A first explanation comprehensive doctrine.Finally, it is elaborated in highlights that “there are many nonpublic reasons and terms of fundamental, implicit ideas of a public, but only one reason .among the non-public reasons political, democratic society.
8 Ibid. 9 Ibid. 10 Ibid.p, 218 11 Ibid. 12 Ibid.p, 220 13 Ibid. 14 Ibid.p221 [78] A.L. Mohamed Riyal The character of public reason in Rawls’s theory of justice
The content of public reason is expressed by general beliefs and forms of reasoning found in "political conception of justice" of a liberal character, common sense and the methods and conclusions of and that means three things: first, it specifies certain science when these are not controversial.”17 This basic rights, liberties and opportunities( of the kind interpretation emphasizes that, as a liberal conception familiar from constitutional democratic regimes); of justice as fairness, “specify the guidelines of public second, it assigns a special priority to these rights, reason as well as its principle of legitimacy, have the liberties and opportunities especial with respect to same basis as the substantive principles of justice, this claims of the general good and perfectionist values, meaning in justice as fairness that the parties in the and third, it affirms measures assuring all citizens original position, in adopting the principles of justice adequate all –purpose means to make effective use of for basic structure, must also adopt guidelines and their basic liberties and opportunities.”15 The two criteria of public reason for the applying those principles of justice (the principle of equal liberty and norms.”18 It is important to realize that accepting the the principles of equal opportunity and difference) idea of public reason, and also the principle of appear as the content of public reason and that legitimacy does not mean accepting a particular liberal explains the meaning of a political conception of conception of justice in all its aspects and principles of justice that: (i) that it is framed apply solely to the basic content and, “The point of the ideal of public reason is structure of society (ii) presents an independent view that in citizens are to conduct theirs fundamental of any comprehensive doctrine and (iii) is drafted in discussions within the framework of what each regards terms of fundamental political ideas. It is important to as a political conception of justice based on values that clarify the guidelines of inquiry for applying the the others can reasonably be expected to endorse and principles of justice. So a liberal political conception each is in good faith, prepared to defend that must include: (a) substantive principles of justice for conception so understood.”19 the basic structure, (b) guidelines for inquiry: principles of reasoning and rules of evidence in the For reviews concerning the scope of a political light of which citizens are to decide whether conception of justice is necessary to establish the substantive principles properly apply and to identify elements that are essential constitutional principles that laws and policies that best satisfy them."16 Following specify, the overall structure of the government and the this argument, it appears that the liberal political values political process and equal rights that must comply are also of two types, of which the first type (the values with legislative majorities are to respect. These of political justice) belongs to the same class as the constitutional elements of the first kind, that specify principles of justice for the basic structure and the the overall structure of the government and the second type (values of public reason) belongs to the political process, may be specified in several ways, for same category of guidelines for public inquiry that example, “Witness the difference between a make this kind of independent and public inquiry. presidential or cabinet government”. But once settled it is vital that the structure of government be changed The basic structure of society and its public only as experience shows it to be required by political policies are to be justifiable to all citizens, according to justice or the general good,”20 but never on the basis the principle of political legitimacy requires. When of individual interests for the attainment of more performing the justifications, as required by the power. The constitutional elements of the second kind principle of political legitimacy, “to presently accepted concern basic rights and fundamental liberties can
15 Ibid.p223 16 Ibid, p,224 17 Ibid, 18 Ibid, p,225 19 Ibid, p,226 20 Ibid, p,228
[79] Proceedings of the Third International Symposium, SEUSL: 6-7 July 2013, Oluvil, Sri Lanka only be specified in but one way, namely, a module Outline, initially, two issues, namely: (i) that subject to relatively few changes in order to establish public reason is suitable to be the court’s reason in the the guarantee of liberty of conscience, and freedom of exercise of highest judicial, but not the interpreter of association etc... From this analysis establishes a the higher law and (ii) that the Supreme Court is the further distinction between the principles of justice branch most characteristic of the government that that specify the rights and liberties and the principles serves as the exemplar of public reason. These governing the fundamental questions of distributive questions are set from the identification of five justice, social and economic inequalities and principles of constitutionalism: (i) the distinction foundations of social self-respect. Both principles between constituent power of the people to establish a express political values, but their differences are new regime and the common power of government coordinated in different roles of the basic structure of officials exercised daily, (ii) the distinction between society, that in the first express, we have the common law and the law more High in the higher law specification and guarantee basic rights and liberties, (constitutional law) restricts and guides this ordinary establishing fair procedures, and the second express, power, (iii) the constitution is the highest example of “it sets up the creation of background institutions of the law, (iv) through a democratic constitution, citizens social and economic justice appropriate to citizens as provide essential constitutional elements, such as rights free and equal”21 (Rawls, PL p. 228). Presents four and fundamental freedoms, freedom of expression and reasons to distinguish between the elements essential association, freedom of movement, choice of constitutional freedoms specified by the principles that occupation and the protections of the rule of law, (v) regulate social and economic inequalities, namely: (a) the supreme power of a constitutional government “The two kinds of principles Specify different roles for must belong to the three branches in a specific the basic structure , (b ) It is more urgent to settle the relationship with one another with each responsible to essential dealing with the basic freedoms (c) it is fair the people.25 easier to tell whether those essentials are realized (d) it much easier to gain agreement about what the basic It is identified a duality in constitutional rights and liberties should be, not in every detail of democracy, it is possible to distinguish the constituent course, but about the main outlines.”22 A political power of the ordinary, and the supreme court must be conception of justice encompasses the essential in tune with the idea of constitutional democracy in constitutional elements and issues of basic justice and order to defend the law at its most high. The Supreme be limited to the question of “freedom of movement Court is then presented as the exemplary institution of and free choice of occupation, and a social minimum public reason, being a function of judges to express the covering citizens basic needs count as constitutional best interpretations of the constitution, cannot use essentials while the principle of fair opportunity and personal criteria for judging, as religious doctrines, the difference principle do not.”23 philosophical or moral, appealing only to the political values that are part of the political conception of For Rawls, the Supreme Court is considered an justice. An essential role of the court as an institution exemplary case of public reason, as “the public exemplar of public reason is to give strength and reason is the reason of its supreme court.”24 vitality to public reason in a forum that is also public, interpreting the constitution effectively in a reasonable method.
21 Ibid, 22 Ibid, p,230 23 Ibid, 24 Ibid, p,231 25 Ibid, pp,231-32
[80] A.L. Mohamed Riyal The character of public reason in Rawls’s theory of justice
What is at stake is to find a political concept problems: “One is extending justice to cover our duties based on values of justice and public reason to reach a to future generations (under which fall the problem of reasonable time and may join in an agreement on key just savings).Another is the problem of extending it to political issues, namely issues involving basic the conception and principle that apply to constitutional essentials and matters of basic justice. A international law and political relations between first difficulty of this scheme notes “that public reason peoples- the traditional jus gentium. A third problem often allows more than one reasonable answer to any of extension is that of setting out the principles of particular question, this is because there are many normal health care; and finally, we may ask whether political values and many ways they can be justice can be extended to our relations to animals and characterized.”26 The answer to this problem lies the the order of nature.”30 The position is defended that specific horizon of public reason in a purely political, justice as fairness can account for the first three issues considering that public reason does not establish the from a vision of a social contract that is recognized the requirement of all accept the same principles, “but status of full citizens of a society. From this rather to conduct our fundamental discussions in contractarian view, it is thought towards the future, terms of what we regard as a political conception.”27 compared to other generations in the outward “A second difficulty concerns what is means by voting direction, in relation to other companies, and the our sincere opinion.28 Therefore, it is essential to internal sense in covering those requiring normal identify three conditions for the respect of public health care. The fourth issue, on an environmental reason and the principle of legitimacy, namely: (a) it is ethic should be resolved from non-political values in assigned great weight to the ideal that he prescribes, which each one decides from their comprehensive (ii) it is believed that the reason the public is doctrines and try to convince others of our position, adequately complete (iii) it is believed that the vision not being able to apply the limits of public reason in of citizens expressed a specific combination and a these cases. reasonable balance with the political values. The key question is whether the citizens, to use only political From this analysis, it is important to the question values to decide on key issues, not using of when a key question is settled by public reason. The comprehensive doctrines, they are being sincere. Rawls resolution of an issue for public reason to reach the believes that the beliefs in comprehensive doctrines are reasonable (reasonable), i.e., an overlapping consensus consistent with the three conditions presented. From of comprehensive doctrines that identify a specific this perspective, only the unreasonable comprehensive political. Aiming to continue the argument about the doctrines come into disagreement with the public limits of public reason, Rawls introduces a unique reason, not sustaining a reasonable balance of political vision in research and inclusive. In the exclusive view, values. “A third difficulty is to specify when a question the reasons offered in terms of comprehensive is successfully resolved by public reason.”29 doctrines should never be introduced into public reason in relation to key policy issues. “This exclusive Rawls's approach emphasizes a complete political view, there is another view allowing citizens, in certain conception of justice, in which its political values situations, to present what they regard as the basis of admit a balance that provides a reasonable response to political values rooted in their comprehensive doctrine, all key issues (or almost all). To achieve greater clarity provided they do this in ways that strengthen the ideal of positioning, there are mentioned four extension of public reason itself.”31
26 Ibid, p,240 (pl p. 240). 27 Ibid, p,241 28 Ibid, 29 Ibid, p,244 30 Ibid, pp,244-45 31 Ibid, p,247
[81] Proceedings of the Third International Symposium, SEUSL: 6-7 July 2013, Oluvil, Sri Lanka
The ideal of public reason must be understood The content of public reason is offered by the according to the inclusive vision, because it allows a political conception of justice and constitutes the wider range of political reasons (exclusive and substantive principles of justice for the basic structure inclusive), depending on the specific case, therefore, of society and the guidelines of inquiry and the more flexible. Rawls offers two examples on the issue: concepts of virtue that can make public reason. The (i) a more or less well-ordered, with a strong limits of public reason are in “the ideal of democratic overlapping consensus of reasonable doctrines and citizens trying to conduct their political affairs on respect to the ideal of public reason. Thus, the public terms supported by public values that we might reason that well-ordered society is in agreement with reasonably expect others to endorse. The ideal also the exclusive view, because only rely on political values, expresses a willingness to listen to what others have to respecting the ideal of public reason, (ii) a more or less say and being ready to accept reasonable well-ordered, with a conflict about the principle of fair accommodations or alterations in one’s own view.”34 equality of opportunity with regard to education for all, This interpretation of public reason represents a big this conflict regarding the government support for breakthrough because it highlights the role of the duty public schools only, or also support for church schools. of civility as an ideal of democracy and considers the May be crucial that the various groups are obliged to content of public reason only the political values and explain his reasons, addressing how to own guidelines of a political conception of justice, not being comprehensive doctrine confirms the political values related to a design comprehensive moral, however, this in a public forum.32 These examples presented view is close to a substantive moral theory, for it emphasize the need for mutual support between the appeals to moral-political values as civility, political conception and its ideal of public reason to reasonableness (mutual respect and civic friendship) achieve stability in “a well-ordered society publicly and and citizenship. effectively regulated by a recognized political conception fashions a climate within which its citizens The scope of public reason to start thinking about acquire a sense of justice inclining them to meet their what is the theoretical scope of the category of public duties of civility.” 33 reason in the theory of justice of Rawls, we take as a starting point the analysis carried out by Habermas in The ideal of public reason is understood as a Reconciliation through the public use of reason: Remarks complement to a constitutional democracy on John Rawls' political liberalism. Habermas's characterized culturally by a plurality of reasonable investigation concerns the relationship between the comprehensive doctrines. The types of policy issues private and the public autonomy in Rawls, who applied to public reason are issues relating to understands of public reason.35 When reviewing the constitutional essential elements and questions of basic procedural form of practical reason, in the form of justice. The object of public reason applies to citizens public use of reason, those principles are valid which as is involved in public issues. More specifically, it can be free object recognition in terms of applies to public authorities and governmental intersubjective discourse. Habermas wants to analyze organizations in official forums. In particular, the the model in its proceduralist Rawlsian political fallout public reason applies to the judiciary, both in their in the form of the democratic constitutional decisions as in his exemplary constitutional government. The discussion is limited to the requirement of public reason. confrontation between the freedoms of modern,
32 See, Ibid, p,248 33 Ibid, p,252 34 Ibid, p,253 35 HABERMAS, J. 1995. Reconciliation through the public use of reason: Remarks on John Rawls’ political liberalism. The Journal of Philosophy, 92(3): p,126
[82] A.L. Mohamed Riyal The character of public reason in Rawls’s theory of justice
liberal, and the freedoms of former Republicans. rules of a constitution in the light of the principles of Liberals emphasize the individual liberties such as justice already on hand, (iii) the shares are converted freedom of belief and conscience, protection of life, into legislators, enacting laws as the constitution allow personal liberty and property, while Republicans and as the principles of justice require and permit, (iv) emphasize the freedoms objective, as the right of the parties have assumed the role of judges interpreting political participation and communication that enable the constitution and laws as members of the Judiciary. self-determination of citizens. first, the following four-step process does not describe an actual political or purely theoretical one, and For Habermas, “Rawls certainly proceeds from secondly, the misunderstanding may arise because of the idea of political autonomy and models it at the level the abstract idea of the original position as mechanism of the original position”36 Thus, the legal protection of of representation and imagining the parties for their privacy is a priority, while political freedoms have an election and keeping the principles of perpetuity, “it is instrumental role in the preservation of other part of justice as fairness and constitutes part of a freedoms. Habermas accuses Rawls of creating a framework of thought that citizen in civil society who border in advance of autonomy in relation to public accept justice as fairness are to use in applying its autonomy, contradicting the intuition that the concepts and principles.” 38 republican popular sovereignty and human rights derive from the same root and contradicting also the For Habermas, the public use of reason does not historical experience, especially the fact that the have the sense of an actual exercise of political various boundaries between private and public autonomy, but that serves only the permanence of autonomy have always presented problems of political stability. Rawls claims that in the PL, normative point of view. For Habermas, Rawls should autonomy is understood as political rather than moral treat the political perspective of legal regulation, but autonomy. “The latter is a much wider idea and does so only in passing, to enable the dialectical belongs to comprehensive doctrines of the kind relationship between positive law and individual associated with Kant and Mill. Political autonomy is liberties.37 specified in terms of various political institutions and practices.”39 We can restart the process of initial Rawls responds to Habermas the objection, radical democratic core of the original position in the analyzing the relationship between the liberties of real life of society, for the following four -stages modern versus the will of the people in political sequence that citizens continually discuss questions of liberalism in the Replay text to Habermas. In political principles and social policy. Habermas' interpretation, the modern liberal rights overlap a priori determination of the democratic Habermas considers that the basic liberal rights process. Habermas argues that political liberalism and democratic self-legislation limiting thus the starts from the idea of political autonomy and models political sphere only fulfills an instrumental role. The at the original position. Rawls clarifies the answer is that political liberties have an intrinsic moral misunderstanding arguing from the idea of the four value-political, because the basic liberal rights such as stage sequence: (i) original position, where the parties liberty of conscience, freedom of speech and thought, choose principles of justice, (ii) the parties, seeing are not in a pre-political domain; non-public values are ourselves as delegates, seek to bring the principles and not viewed, as they might be in some comprehensive
36 Ibid, p.128. 37 Ibid, pp,126-29 38 Rawls, op cit, above note5, p.397 39 Ibid, p.400
[83] Proceedings of the Third International Symposium, SEUSL: 6-7 July 2013, Oluvil, Sri Lanka doctrine (such as rational intuitionism or natural law). The public reason specified in a deeper level the “We assume the idea of a dualistic constitutional moral and political values which are integral to the democracy found in John Locke in distinguishes the relationship of a democratic constitutional government people's constituent power to form, ratify and amend with its citizens, based on the criterion of reciprocity, a constitution from the ordinary power of legislators characterized by “five different aspects: (i) the and executives in everyday politics.”40 The sequence of fundamental political question to which it applies;(ii) four steps believes that the liberties of modern are the persons to whom it applies( government officials constitutional subject to the will of the people and candidates for public office); (iii) its content as .Habermas pointed out that the Rawlsians, proposal given by a family of reasonable political conceptions of the liberties of the moderns are a kind of natural law justice;(iv) the application of these conception in (as in Kant, on his interpretation) and, therefore, they discussions of coercive norms to be enacted in the are external substantive ideas that impose restrictions form of legitimate law for a democratic people; and (v) on public will of the people. Justice as fairness in the citizen’s checking that the principles derived from their interpretation Rawlsians is a political conception of conceptions of justice satisfy the criterion of justice and, even taking a moral conception; it is not reciprocity.”42 an instance of a doctrine of moral law. From this political conception of justice, freedom of the moderns The ideal of public reason is satisfied when do not impose restrictions on the constituent will of members of the executive, legislators, judges, the people as objects to Habermas, in the light of candidates (or even when citizens think of themselves justice as fairness is situated on a public basis of as legislators) act on the idea of public reason, that is, justification that seeks the overlapping consensus explain to other citizens their reasons to support between reasonable comprehensive doctrines, from the fundamental political positions because of the political public reason. conception of justice more reasonable, fulfilling “their duty of civility to one another and to other citizens.”43 As shown at The idea of public reason revisited For Rawls, this duty of civility is not only a legal duty, the idea of public reason is a constituent of a but it is intrinsically a moral duty, as well as other conception of constitutional democratic society well- duties politics. The idea of public reason is rooted in a ordered, because the form and content of this ratio are conception of democratic citizenship that is part of a integral to the very idea of democracy, which is constitutional democracy, which entails consideration characterized by the idea reasonable pluralism, which of citizens as free and equal that relate specifically to allows an overlapping consensus (overlapping the basic structure of society from “the criterion of consensus) on the various comprehensive doctrines. reciprocity requires that when those terms are Citizens should consider what kinds of reasons can proposed as the most reasonable terms are proposed create opportunities where common understandings as the most reasonable terms of fair cooperation.”44 are key policy questions at issue. Therefore,” I proposed Hence, the idea of political legitimacy, based on that in public reason comprehensive doctrines of truth reciprocity, states that our exercise of political power is or right be replaced by an idea of the politically proper only when we sincerely believe that the reasons reasonable addressed to citizens as citizens.”41 we would offer for our political actions are sufficient and we think that other citizens might also reasonably accept those reasons.
40 Ibid, pp.405-6 41 RAWLS, J. 2001. The idea of public reason revisited. In: The Law of Peoples. Cambridge, Harvard University Press , p.132 42 Ibid, p.133 43 Ibid, p.135 44 Ibid, p.136
[84] A.L. Mohamed Riyal The character of public reason in Rawls’s theory of justice
The proper role of the criterion of reciprocity is citizen as free and equal persons, and of society as a to specify the nature of political relations in a fair system of cooperation.”47 So part of public reason democratic constitutional relationship of friendship as is to make use of a political conception to discuss key a civic (civic friendship), settling into a deeper level the policy issues. Thus, a political figure is only when the basic political values, such as democratic citizenship social form is itself political: when it is implemented in and the idea of legitimate law for a deliberative specific parts of the basic structure and its political and democracy, because in deliberation, citizens exchange social institutions. The examples of political values are: views and debate the reasons that have as part of public (i) political autonomy, in contrast to moral autonomy, policy. “It is at this point that public reason is crucial. (ii) duty of mutual help and compassion not religious, For it characterizes such citizens’ reasoning concerning (iii) ability and not deserving of moral worthiness, (iv) constitutional essentials and matters of basic justice.”45 interest in family and human life in order to ensure the It is for this reason that a citizen makes use of public reproduction of society as opposed to a perfectionist reason after they decide on a reasonable political view of human life and family. conception of justice from political values that can be endorsed by other free and equal citizens, meeting the The range of values to which we may appeal, criterion of reciprocity. Thus, the content of public according to Rawls, “is given by a family of political reason and developed by a family of political conceptions of justice,” not just one conception, and conceptions of justice which are characterized by therefore there are “many forms of public reason substantive principles of justice that “specify the specified by a family of reasonable political religious liberties and freedoms of artistic expression conceptions.”48 The content of public reason consists of equal citizen, as well as the substantive ideas of in liberal values of political justice such as equal fairness involving fair opportunity and ensuring political liberty, equal opportunity, social equality, and adequate all -purposes, assuming the discursive liberal values of public reason such as guidelines for conception of legitimacy (as in Habermas), as well as public inquiry (publicity, transparency), reasonableness Catholic view of common good and solidarity when and “a readiness to honor the duty of civility.”49 This they are expressed in terms of political values.”46 range of values is bounded by the criterion of reciprocity.50 People are reasonable in the sense The political values are specified by liberal specified by reciprocity when they are ready to propose political conceptions of justice and fall within the principles and standards as fair terms of cooperation category of politics, and “these political conceptions and abide by them willingly, given the assurance that have three features: First, their principles apply to basic others will likewise do so. political and social institutions (the basic structure of society); Second, they can be presented independently These are shows that, the role of public reason is from comprehensive doctrines of any kind (although to enable a strong commitment from everyone they may, of course, be supported by a reasonable involved with the ideals and moral and political values overlapping consensus of such doctrines); and Finally, of a democratic society, using as a starting point the they can be worked out from fundamental ideas seen criterion of reciprocity, which requires duty of civility, as implicit in the public political culture of a which implies the defense of the virtue of civic constitutional regime, such as the conceptions of friendship and a the ideal of democratic citizenship
45 Ibid, p.139 46 Ibid, p.141-42. 47 Ibid, p.143 48Ibid, pp.140-41 49 Rawls, op cit, above note5, p.224 50 Rawls, op cit, above note42, p.14
[85] Proceedings of the Third International Symposium, SEUSL: 6-7 July 2013, Oluvil, Sri Lanka that is based on the legitimate law, which means reciprocity in a context of legal legitimacy, Rawls is defending the Principles of toleration and liberty of setting an object reference to the multiplicity of conscience . The public reason set forth the common conflicting moral judgments. It is clear that this thread, specifying the type of grounds on which objectivity is weaker than nurtured by the criteria of citizens base their political arguments to make political truth and correctness. However, identified the justifications to one another on constitutional difficulty of an absolute basis, it would take for granted essentials and basic elements of justice, specifying the a stronger reason, the public reason Rawlsian provides conditions of political argument. The ideas of truth and guidance for determining the cognitive moral correction based on comprehensive doctrines are judgments, being stronger than any reasoning and replaced by the idea of the politically reasonable weaker than a proper foundation . The objective addressed to citizens as citizens, which means to affirm criterion of reciprocity is built based on a common the value of public legitimacy, noting that these public right of all citizens who take a strong public conceptions of justice are “themselves intrinsically commitment to political ideals and values, enabling the moral ideas,”51 The public reason is the way to reason construction of justice principles that establish the and deliberate publicly appealing to the shared values defense of equal liberty, fair equality of opportunities that are politically, “which specify the basic rights, and difference. liberties and opportunities of citizens in basic society’s structure”52 Letter the statement of Rawls about the intrinsic value of the duty of civility and democratic ideal of citizenship, which means considering such duties as Concluding Remarks absolutes, as having an end in them, and not just as instrumental duties, such duties would its value given The public reason does not work with the ideas by an extrinsic purpose. Rawls would not be endorsing of truth or correctness that would be inferred from a pragmatic argument based on a Universalist comprehensive doctrines, but rather, uses the idea of intuitionism moderated, which would affirm the reality the politically reasonable that says moral values and of moral duties, regardless of the diversity of political political norms from the criterion of reciprocity, consciousness in a plural society, without, however, namely, the duty of civility , which implies the defense resort to a metaphysical reason that would allow the of civic virtue of friendship and an ideal of democratic knowledge of good and affirmation of the truth of citizenship, which is based on the legitimacy of the law, moral judgments? It seems that the method of public which means defending the principles of tolerance and reason provides a pragmatic justification as possible for freedom of conscience, ensuring the rights, freedoms the overlapping consensus between reasonable and opportunities of the basic citizens in the basic comprehensive doctrines, setting in public policy structure of society. based on reciprocity and also nurture a stronger justification in claiming substantial amounts to moral What does this mean? Rawls would be taking a plurality. Thus, the criterion of objectivity is achieved non-cognitivist position and anti-realism not to appeal for the justification of moral principles and judgments to the idea of truth or correctness of moral judgments in a society characterized by moral diversity, implying and political? We do not think this is the circumstance a rejection of non-realism, antirealism and because, with the statement of the criterion of skepticism.
51 Ibid, p.174 52 Ibid, p.180
[86] A.L. Mohamed Riyal The character of public reason in Rawls’s theory of justice
References
FREEMAN,S. 2003. Introduction. In: S. FREEMAN (ed.), The Cambridge companion to Rawls. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press.
FREEMAN,S. 2007. Rawls. London, Routledge, . (Routledge Philosophers).
HABERMAS, J. 1995. Reconciliation through the public use of reason: Remarks on John Rawls’ political liberalism. The Journal of Philosophy, 92(3)
LARMORE, C. 2003. Public Reason. In: S. FREEMAN (ed.), The Cambridge companion to Rawls. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press.
RAWLS, J. 1971. A Theory of Justice. Cambridge, Harvard University Press. RAWLS, J. 1999b. The idea of public reason revisited. In: S. FREEMAN (ed.), Collected Papers. Cambridge, Harvard University Press.
RAWLS, J. 2001. Justice as fairness: a restatement. Cambridge, Harvard University Press.
RAWLS, J. 1996. Political liberalism. New York, Columbia University Press,
RAWLS, J. 2001. The idea of public reason revisited. In: The Law of Peoples. Cambridge, Harvard University Press.
SCANLON, T.M. 2003. Rawls on Justification. In: S. FREEMAN (ed.), The Cambridge companion to Rawls. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press.
[87] K.Kanesarajah(1) kJghtidahy; Vw;gLk; jhf;fq;fs; - XH cstpay; Ma;T
(1) Faculty of Arts, South Eastern University of Sri Lanka, Oluvil, Sri Lanka.
Ma;Tr; RUf;fk: ,d;iwa r%fk; vjpHNehf;fp mwpKfk; epw;Fk; ghhpa rthy;fSs; kJ ghtidAk; nka;apaypd; xU gphpNt cstpay; MFk;. xd;whFk;. kJghtid jdpkdpjidAk; fpNuf;f fhyj;jpypUe;J njhlq;fpa cstpayhdJ FLk;gj;jpidAk; r%fj;jpidAk; kpfg;nghpa ,d;W KOikahd xU Jiwahf mstpy; ghjpf;Fk; XH jPagof;fkhFk;. Mq;fpy tsh;r;rpaile;Js;sJ. cstpay; vd;gJ kdpj nkhopapy; Alcohol vd miof;fg;gLk; kdjpd; nraw;ghLfs; kw;Wk; kJghdkhdJ Alokithal vDk; muhgpa (Mental functions) elj;ijfis Ma;T nra;tjhFk;. nrhy;ypypUe;J ngwg;gl;lJ. Nkw;FyfpNyNa (Behaviors) cstpaiyf; Fwpf;Fk; kJghtid Muk;gkhfpaJ vdf; $wg;gbDk; (Study of Human Behaviour). vd;w Mq;fpyr; nrhy; kpfg;Guhjd fhyj;jpypUe;Nj fPioj;Njr “Psychology” Psyche (Md;kh)> (Ma;T) vDk; ,U fpNuf;fr; ehLfspYk; kJghtid ,Ue;jJ vd;gij Logos nrhw;fspypUe;J gpwe;jJ. ,jd;gb tuyhw;whjhuq;fs; ntspg;gLj;jp epw;fpd;wd.
Muk;gj;jpy; cstpaiy Md;kh Fwpj;j kJghtid jdpahs; rk;ge;jkhd “ Ma;T vd;wdh;. vdpDk; etPd fhyj;jpy; gpur;rpidahf Muk;gpj;J ehsiltpy; ” Psyche vd;gJ Nguhw;wy;kpf;f khw;wq;fSf;F cl;gLk; r%fg;gpur;rpidahf khw;wkile;jJ. R%fkhd xd;nwd;Wk; vd;gJ xOq;FgLj;jg;gl;l tho;tpw;Fk; ,ay;ghd Nghf;fpw;Fk; kJghtid Logos Ma;ntd;Wk; nghUs; nfhs;sg;gl;L> cstpay; rthyhf mikfpd;wJ. vdNt kJghtidahy; Nguhw;wy;kpf;f khw;wq;fSf;F cl;gLfpd;w Xh; kdpjdJ MSikapy; Vw;gLfpd;w jhf;fq;fis xOq;FgLj;jg;gl;l fw;ifnewp vdg;gl;lJ. Muha;e;J ntspg;gLj;JtNj ,t;tha;tpd; Kf;fpa ,f;fw;if newpf;Fs; nry;fpd;w NghJ kdpjDf;F Nehf;fkhFk;. Vw;gLfpdw gy;NtW tifahd jhf;fq;fs; FtpTg; ghHitahf Nehf;f Ntz;bAs;sJ. ,e;j ,t;tha;Tf;fhd juTfs; fstha;T %yKk;> ghHitf;Fs; kJghtid rkfhyj;jpw;F E}y;fs;> rQ;rpiffs;> ,izaj;jsq;fs; %yKk; nghUj;jg;ghlhd Ma;thf mikfpwJ. ngwg;gLfpd;wd. ,it KiwNa ,t;tha;tpd; Kjdpiyj;juTfshfTk; ,uz;lhk; Ma;Tg; gpur;rpid epiyj;juTfshfTk; cs;sd. ,j;juTfs; %yk; kJ ghtidahy; vt;thwhd jhf;fq;fs; ngwg;gl;l midj;J tplaq;fisAk; “ Vw;gLfpwd vd;gij Muha;tNj ,t; Ma;tpd; gFg;gha;Tf;F cl;gLj;Jtjd; %yk; kJghtid ” ikag; gpur;rpidahf mikfpwJ. vd;gJ r%fj;jpd; fl;likg;ig rPHFiyf;Fk; XH nraw;ghL vd;gJk; ,t;toik jdpkdpjd MSik mtd; rhHe;J epw;Fk; r%fj;jpdJk; fUJNfhs; tsHr;rpf;F ghhpa mstpy; jilahf ,Uf;fpd;wJ Njhw;wg;ghLfis my;yJ mwpjy;fis vd;gJk; fz;lwpag;gl;l Kf;fpa mk;rq;fshFk;. jh;f;f hPjpahf mwptpay; mbg;gilapy; NkYk; gphpj;jhdpa tpQ;Qhdpfs; kJ mUe;Jtij tpsf;Ftjw;Fhpa Kd;Ndw;ghlhf fUJNfhs; fl;Lg;gLj;Jk; khj;jpiuia fz;L gpbj;js;sdh;. mikfpwJ. me;j tifapy; ,t; Ma;tpy;> F kJg; gof;fkhdJ rhjhuz jpwTr; nrhw;fs; : kJghtid> (Key words) elj;ijapNy khw;wj;ij Vw;gLj;JfpwJ. MSik> cstpay;> r%fg;gpur;rpid> F kJg; gof;fkhdJ xUtuJ jPagof;fk;. MSikapNy jhf;fj;ij Vw;gLj;JfpwJ.
[88] K.Kanesarajah kJghtidahy; Vw;gLk; jhf;fq;fs; - XH cstpay; Ma;T
vd;gJ Muhag;gLfpwJ. Ma;T KiwapaYk; jfty; Nrfhpg;G KiwAk; Ma;tpd; Kf;fpaj;Jtk; ,t;tha;thdJ Nfhl;ghl;L hPjpahd Ma;thf etPdj;Jtj;jpd; tsh;r;rpf;Fl;gl;l ,f;fhy mikfpwJ. ,J KOikahf ,uz;lhk; kdpjdJ ,Ug;gpw;Fk;> cly;> cs eyj;jpw;Fk; epiyj;juTfis gad;gLj;jpNa rpwg;ghd MSikNa mtrpakhFk;. Vnddpy; Nkw;nfhs;sg;glTs;sJ. me;j tifapy; Ehy;fs;> ,ae;jpukakhd ,t;Tyfpy; MSik Kd;ida Ma;Tfs;> ,izajsq;fs;> tsh;r;rpapDhlhd Kaw;rpapDlhfNt kdpjd; gj;jphpiffs;> fl;Liufs; kw;Wk; rQ;rpiffs; Kd;Ndw;wkila KbAk;. Mdhy; jw;fhy cyfpy; vd;gdtw;wpd; thapyhf juTfs; kdpjdJ ,Ug;G vd;gJ Iaj;jpw;FhpajhFk;. Nrfhpf;fg;glTs;sd. Ma;Tf;F jpul;ba juTfs; Vnddpy; kdpj ,Ug;gpw;F mtrpakhdtw;iw gz;G hPjpahf tpsf;fg;glTs;sd. kdpjd; nra;fpd;whdh? vd;gJ gpur;rpidf;FhpajhFk;. MNuhf;fpakhd tplaq;fis kdpjd; Njbr; nry;tJkpy;iy. Ma;tpd; ikak;: MNuhf;fpakhdtw;iw nra;tJkpy;iy. jkf;Fk;> gpwUf;Fk; ghjpg;Gf;fis Vw;gLj;Jk; 1.1 kJghtid XH mwpKfk;: nray;fisNa ehbr; nry;fpd;whd;. ,t;thwhf Mq;fpy nkhopapy; Alcohol vd kdpjd; ehbr; nry;tdtw;wpy; xd;whf miof;fg;gLk; kJghdkhdJ Alokithal vDk; fhzg;gLtNj kJghdk; MFk;. ,g; muhgpa nrhy;ypypUe;J ngwg;gl;lJ. kpfg;Guhjd ghtidahdJ jdpeghpd; cly;> cs> r%f fhyj;jpypUe;Nj Nkiyj;Njr> fPioj;Njr kw;Wk; nghUshjhu hPjpapy; jhf;fq;fis ehLfspYk; kJghtid toikapypUe;jJ Vw;gLj;JtJld; me;eghpd; rpwg;ghd vd;gij tuyhw;whjhuq;fs; ntspg;gLj;jp MSikfisAk; ,y;yhky; nra;J tpLfpwJ. epw;fpd;wd. me;j tifapy; kJghdk; ghtpj;jyhdJ vt;thW jdp eghpd; MSikapy; jhf;fj;ij njhopy; hPjpahd tUkhdj;jijg; ngWk; Vw;gLj;JfpwJ vd;gjid cs nka;apay; hPjpapy; tz;zk; kJghdj;jpy; $basT ,urhadg; Ma;T nra;tjd; mbg;gilapy; ,t;tha;T nghUl;fis Nrh;j;J fha;r;rp tbj;jy; Kiw Kf;fpak; ngWfpwJ. %yk; kJghdk; (Distillation) jahhpf;fg;gLk;. ,f; fha;r;rp tbf;Fk; Kiwapd;NghJ ,e;j ,urhadg; Ma;tpd; Nehf;fk; nghUl;fs; MtpahFk; tiu njhlh;r;rpahf ntg;gNkw;wp KOikahd kJghdk; ngwg;gLk;. kJghtidahy; MSikapy; vt;thwhd itid my;yJ gpaiu vLf;Fk; NghJ mjpy; jhf;fq;fs; Vw;gLfpd;wJ vd;gij fz;lwptNj Nrh;f;fg;gl;l nghUl;fs; midj;Jk; MtpahFk; ,t;tha;tpd; gpujhd Nehf;fkhFk;. ,jw;fika tiuapy; 180 ghif tiuf;Fk; nfhjpf;ftplg;gLk;. ,g;gpujhd Nehf;fkhdJ gpd;tUk; Jiz ,jd;NghJ KOikahf ngwg;gl;l Mtpapid Nehf;fq;fspDhlhf milag;gLfpwJ. xLf;fp kJghdk; ngwg;gLk;. ,t;thW F nka;apaypy; cstpaypd; xLf;fkile;J ngwg;gLk; kJghdj;jpy; 40% - Kf;fpaj;Jtj;jpid tpsq;fpf; nfhs;sy;. 60% tiuapyhd msT kJghdk; fhzg;gLk;. ,jidNa fha;r;rp tbj;j kJghdk; vdf; $Wth;. F MSik gw;wpAk;> MSikapy; cjhuzkhf tp];fp> [d;> uk;>kw;Wk;... (nuf;];.gp jhf;fj;ij nrYj;Jk; fhuzpfisAk; .vk;:2002>:gf;.267-268.) fz;lwpjy;. gpuhe;jpapy; 43 Kjy; 51 kJTk;> F kJghdk; njhlh;ghfTk;> kJghdj;jpw;F % % tp];fpapy; 40 Kjy; 47 kJTk; ,Uf;fpwJ. mbikahtjd; Clhf MSikapy; % % ,uz;Lf;Fk; mjpf NtWghL ,y;iy. gPah; vt;thwhd jhf;fq;fs; Vw;gLfpwJ vd;Dk; kJ tifapy; kpff; Fiwe;j mstpy; vd;gijAk; milahsq;fhzy;. 2.5% Kjy; 3.5% tiuNa kJ ,Uf;fpd;wJ. F kJghtidf;F mbikahtjdhy; fpuhkq;fspy; fpilf;Fk; fs;Sf;Fk; gPaUf;Fk; Vw;gLk; Neha;fis ,dq;fhZtNjhL mjpf NtWghL ,y;iy. mjpypUe;J tpLgLtjw;F cjTjy;.
[89] Proceedings of the Third International Symposium, SEUSL: 6-7 July 2013, Oluvil, Sri Lanka
kJghtid jdpahs; rk;ge;jkhd csNeha; kUj;JtUk;> csNeha; gpur;rpidahf Muk;gpj;J ehsiltpy; rpfpr;irahsUkhfpa “rpf;kd;l; gpuha;l;bd;” r%fj;jpw;Fhpa gpur;rpidahf ghpzhkk; fUj;Jg;gb> Foe;ij ghy; mUe;Jk; gUtj;jpy; ngw;WtpLfpwJ. RKfkhd tho;tpw;Fk;> ,ay;ghd Vw;gLk; gytpjkhd Vf;f czh;TfSk;> Nghf;fpw;Fk; rthyhf mike;Js;s> kJghdkhdJ Vkhw;wq;fSNk gpw;fhyj;jpy; me;egiu fl;lhag; nghUshf jpUkz tpohf;fspYk;> gpwg;G> Fbg;gof;fk; Nghd;w gof;fq;fSf;F ,l;Lr; ,wg;G nfhz;lhl;lq;fspYk; fhzg;gLfpwJ. nry;tjhf $wg;gLfpwJ. Foe;ijg; gUtj;jpy; ,t;thwhd Ntisfspy; Fwpg;ghf fs;> tp];fp> ngw;Nwhh;fspd; fz;bg;Gk;> rl;ljpl;lq;fSk; itd;> rhuhak;> gpuz;b> gpah; vd;gd Kf;fpa Foe;ijapd; kdjpy; ngw;NwhUf;F vjpuhd ,lk; ngWfpd;wd. ,tw;iw Fbg;gjdhy; Nfhgj;ijAk;> ntWg;igAk; Vw;gLj;JfpwJ. r%fj;jpy; Fbg;gof;fj;ij r%f eilKiwahf Mdhy; mtw;iw ngw;Nwhhplk; mth;fs; fUjpf; nfhs;Sk; epiyg;ghL Vw;gl;LtpLk;. ntspf;fhl;Ltjpy;iy. fhuzk; mt;tpjkhd Gjpath;fSk; ,t;thwhd re;jh;g;gq;fspy; vt;thW Nfhgj;jpd; tpisthy; ngw;NwhUf;F jPq;F Vw;gl;L Fbf;fyhk; vd;gij fw;Wf; nfhs;thh;fs;. taJ mjdhy; mth;fis ,of;f NehpLk; vd;w gak; NtWghL> ghy; NtWghL> r%f epiy> gpd;gw;Wk; mth;fs; kdjpy; cz;lhtNj MFk;. rkak;> gpuNjrk; Mfpait kJghtidia (Ranganathan,T.T:2001:p.31) gpd;G mth;fs; Jhz;LtjhfTk; jLg;gjhfTk; cs;sJ. rpy tsh;e;J nghpath;fshdJk; Fbg;gof;fk; rkaq;fs; kJghdj;ij mwNt ntWj;jhYk;> rpy mth;fsJ Mirfis epiwNtw;wTk;> gop rkaq;fs; mjid Vw;fNt nra;fpd;wd. czh;it jPh;j;Jf; nfhs;sTk; cjTfpwJ. ,it khj;jpuky;yhJ ghuk;ghpaq;fSk;> #o;epiyfSk;> Fbg;gof;fk; vd;gJ xUtuJ elj;ijapy; r%f fyhrhuq;fSk;> ez;gh; Fohkpd; Vw;gLk; khWghNl MFk;. kJ mUe;Jgth;fs; tw;GWj;jy;fSk; Fbg;gof;fj;jpw;F Jhz;LNfhyhf mjDhlhf jkJ cly; eyj;ijAk;> tpsq;FfpwJ. cseyj;ijAk; nfLj;Jf; nfhs;fpd;wdh;. kJghdk; ghtpg;gth;fspy; gy tifapdh; fhzg;gLfpd;wdh;. rpyh; kJit msNthL 1.2 MSik gw;wpa fUj;jhf;fk; Fbf;fpd;wdh;. rpyh; epfo;r;rpfspy; kl;LNk cstpay; cs;sk; gw;wpa tpQ;Qhdk; vd Fbf;fpd;wdh;. kw;Wk; rpyh; Fbg;gjw;Nf “ ” njhlHe;Jk; fUjpf; nfhs;sKbatpy;iy. ,d;W mbikahfp tpLfpd;wdh;. ,t;thW mJ xU caphpaw; r%fk; rhH ghpNrhjid mbikg;gl;lth;fs; kJ mbik vDk; epiyia “ “ ” hPjpahd tpQ;Qhdk; vd $wg;gl;Ls;sJ. milfpd;wdh;. (jah NrhkRe;juk;: 2000: g.224) ” cstpay; Ma;Tfs; tphptile;J nry;Yk; NghJ ,th;fs; fhyk;> ,lk;> #o;epiyfs; kw;Wk; nghUl;nryT vd;gtw;iw kwe;J Fbj;Jf; MSik gw;wpa fUj;jhf;fk; Kf;fpakhdjhFk;. nfhz;Nl ,Uf;fpd;wdh;. ,jd; fhuzkhfNt Vnddpy;> MSik ,aq;fpay; elj;ijapd; xU njhopypYk; md;whl tho;f;ifapYk; gpur;rpidfs; njhopw;ghlhFk;. jkpo; nkhopapy; MSik vdTk; ntF Ntfkhf Njhd;Wfpd;wd. ePz;l ehs; kJg; Mq;fpyj;jpy; Personality vdTk; miof;fg;gLk; gof;fj;jpd; fhuzkhf ,jw;F mbikahfth;fspd; ,r;nrhy; “Persona” vd;fpd;w fpNuf;f cr;re;jiy Kjy; cs;sq;fhy; tiu nrhy;ypypUe;J Njhd;wpaJ. ,J Njhw;w ghjpg;Gf;fis Vw;gLj;jp> ehsiltpy; caphpog;ig NtWghLfis> Fztpay;G khWghLfis fhl;l Vw;gLj;jf;$ba mstpw;F clypd; cWg;Gf;fis gad;gLj;jg;gLk; Kf%b (Mask) vdg; rPuopf;fpd;wJ. cstpay; hPjpapYk; gy;NtW nghUs;gLk;. (Max Muller:2004,p.32) MSik Neha;fisAk; Vw;gLj;JfpwJ. Fwpg;ghf
[90] K.Kanesarajah kJghtidahy; Vw;gLk; jhf;fq;fs; - XH cstpay; Ma;T fw;wy; mwpiff; nfhs;if (Learning Cognitive MSik vd;gjid jdp xU ghj;jpuj;jpd; Theory), kdpjha ,Ug;gpay; nfhs;if (Humanity mbg;gilapy; $w KbahJ. Vnddpy; xU Existentialist Theory) Nghd;w rkfhy fjhghj;jpuk; vd;gJ ngsjpfj;jpd; nfhs;iffisAk; Nehf;Fjy; nghUj;jkhdjhFk;. mbg;gilahdJ. ,J jdpj;Jtkhd xOf;fg; (Jess Feisty and Gregory J:1986, p.3) ngWkhdj;ij ntspg;gLj;Jfpd;wJ. MSik cstpay; rhh;e;jjhf ,Uf;Fk;NghJ mjpf MSik njhlh;ghf Nkw;nfhz;l gy;NtW thh;j;ijfisf; nfhz;L Fwpg;gplyhk;. Mdhy; mtjhdk; kw;Wk; ghpNrhjidfs; vd;gtw;wpd; xUtuJ fjhghj;jpuj;ijf; nfhz;L $Wk;NghJ thapyhf MSikapd; fl;likg;Gf;fs; xU tifapy; jhd; $wKbAk;. gpd;tUkhW $wg;gLfpd;wJ. MSik ,aw;ifahd rpe;jidfspypUe;J MSik vd;gJ rPuhdJk;> jdpj;JtkhdJk; NtWgl;ljhFk;. Vnddpy; ,aw;iff;F vjpuhf MFk;. nghJthf vkf;Fs;Ns xU rPuhd jd;ik czh;r;rp g+h;tkhf ,Ue;jhy; mJ NtWgl;l fhzg;gLk;. ,ul;ilah;fshf gpwe;j gps;isfspy; jd;ikfis Njhw;wtpf;Fk;. vdNt jhd; rpyiu vk;khy; milahsk; fhz KbAk;. Mdhy; ,aw;ifapd; epiyf;F mg;ghw;gl;ljhf MSik rpyiu vk;khy; milahsq; fhzKbahJ. fhzg;gLk;. czh;r;rp g+h;tkhd jd;ik> mOj;jk; mNefkhf ,t;tpUtUk; xNu tifahd vd;gdtw;wpd;NghJ mJ khw;wkilAk;. (md;udp jd;ikfis nfhz;bUg;gpDk; rpy khWgl;l la\; kw;Wk; rpthde;j Kh;j;jp:2002:g.99.) jd;ikfisAk; nfhz;L fhzg;gLth;. ,t;thwhd gz;Gfis xU rkurj; jd;ikf;F nfhz;L tUk; “Fb Fbiaf; nfLf;Fk;> Fbg;gthpd; cly; tifapy; rpy tpl;Lf; nfhLg;Gf;fisAk; mth;fs; eyj;ijAk; nfLf;Fk;” vDk; nghd; nkhopf;Nfw;g Nkw;nfhs;Sth;. kJghdkhdJ mtiur; rhh;e;j r%fj;ij khj;jpuk; nfLg;gjy;y. khwhf kJghtidf;F MSik xU kdpjdJ xt;nthU mbikg;gl;lth;fsJ cly; csk; ghjpf;fg;gl;L tplaj;ijAk; cs;slf;fpajhf fhzg;gLk;. ehsiltpy; caphpog;ig Vw;gLj;Jk; jd;ik xUtUila vy;yh tifahd elj;ij tha;e;jjhFk;. KiwfisAk; cs;slf;fpajhf mJ fhzg;gLk;. cjhuzkhf ey;y tplaq;fis Nehf;fp MSik tsHr;rpapy; gy fhuzpfs; gq;F nraw;gLk; jd;ik> xd;iwg; gw;wp mwpAk; Mw;wy;> nfhs;fpd;wd. VjhtJ xd;Wf;fhd ehl;lk; vd;gd Nghd;wit 1. clypaw; fhuzpfs;: euk;Gj; njhFjpapd; Ra epidT cs;s epiyapYk; mlq;Fk;> Ra njhopw;ghL> FUjp Xl;lk; Mfpad epidT mw;w epiyapYk; mlq;Fk;. MSik tsHr;rpiag; ghjpf;fpd;wd. (Mangal.S.K:2002: p.225.) 2. clyikg;G: xUtdJ cly; MSikahdJ #oYf;F Vw;wthW tsHr;rpf;fikaNt mtdJ khwpf;nfhz;L nry;Yk; jd;ikia elj;ijf;Nfhyk; mikAk; nfhz;bUf;fpwJ fhzg;gLk;. ,J njhlh;r;rpahf eilngw;Wf; nfhz;bUg;gjhFk;. ,jid epWj;j 3. csj;jpwd;fs;: ,itAk; xUth; r%f KbahJ. ,t;thW jdf;F Vw;g #oiy khw;wpf; epakq;fSf;Nfw;g nghUj;jg;ghL nfhs;s Kbahky; Nghdhy; #oYf;F Vw;wthW ngWtijg; ghjpf;fpd;wd. jd;id khw;wpf; nfhs;s Ntz;ba epiy Vw;gLk;. 4. kdntOr;rpfs;: ,it MSikAld; ghpzhk tsh;r;rp vd;gJ jdpg;gl;l MSik njhlh;Gilad. Rug;gpfspd; khw;wkile;J ,aw;iff;F Vw;g jd;id khw;wpf; njhopw;ghl;Lf;Fk; kdntOr;rpr; nfhs;s Kw;gLtjhFk;. (Mangal.S.K: p.47) rkepiyf;Fk; neUq;fpa njhlHGfSz;L. xt;nthUtuJ MSikAk; #oYf;Fk;> guk;giuf;Fk; Vw;wthW cUthf;fg;gl;Ls;sJ. 5. #ow; fhuzpfs;: Foe;ijfspd; MSik ,t;tpuz;Lk; xUth; rpW tajpypUe;Nj mtuJ r%f #ow;fhuzpfypdhy; gof;ftof;fq;fis cUthf;fpf; nfhs;s jhf;fkilfpwJ. mOif> nghWik> fhuzkhf cs;sJ. rpdk;> guk;giurhh; cs;she;j ,ay;Gfspy; #oy; nfhz;l
[91] Proceedings of the Third International Symposium, SEUSL: 6-7 July 2013, Oluvil, Sri Lanka
jhf;fq;fspdpd;Wk; cUthditNa. kJghdk; ghtpg;gjhy; Ez;zq;fpfis mopf;Fk; rf;jp clypypUe;J 6. tPl;L tho;f;if Kiw: xUtd; gpwUld; mopf;fg;gLtjhy; Ez;zq;fpj; njhw;W nfhz;l njhlHGfspd; tpisthfNt Vw;gl;L> mjd;%yk; Neha;fs; Vw;gLk;. mtdJ MSikfSk; elj;ijf; cjhuzkhf ,uj;jj;jpy; cs;s Nfhyq;fSk; cUthfpd;wd. ngw;NwhH ntz;FUjpr; rpW Jzpf;iffs; gpwiug; gw;wpf; nfhz;l mopf;fg;gLk;NghJ Ez;zq;fpj; njhw;W kdg;ghq;FKf;fpakhdJ. Vw;gly;. (ngdbf;ghyd;:1996:g.63) 5. Rthrj; njhFjp rk;ge;jkhd Neha;fs;: 1.3 kJghtid MSikapy; Vw;gLj;Jk; fhr Neha;> epa+Nkhdpah fha;r;ry; (rspr;Ruk;) jhf;fq;fs;: 6. euk;Gj; njhFjp rk;ge;jkhd Neha;fs; : clypYk;> csj;jpYk; Vw;gLk; jhf;fq;fs; Rw;way; euk;Gfspd; tpiwg;G MSikapy; ghhpa nry;thf;fpid epiy>Qhgf kwjp>%is cl;Gw FUjpg; Vw;gLj;Jfpd;wd. ngUf;F>fz;ghh;itr; rpf;fy;> %isapy; fyq;fs; ,wj;jy;> %isapy; 1.3.1 cly; hPjpahd ghjpg;Gf;fs; : Qhgfq;fis Nrkpj;J itf;Fk; cly; hPjpahd ghjpg;Gf;fs; vDk;NghJ ,lq;fs; ghjpf;fg;gly;> czh;r;rpfs; Kf;fpakhf
3. Gw;WNeha;fs; :
[92] K.Kanesarajah kJghtidahy; Vw;gLk; jhf;fq;fs; - XH cstpay; Ma;T
1.3.3 Vida ghjpg;Gf;fs; : FLk;gj;jpy; ngUk;ghYk; rhh;e;jpUg;gjhy; mit kpFe;jpUg;gpd; rz;il rr;ruTfs;> fztd; - kidtpf;F g+uz Xa;Tk;> KlePf;Ftpay; kUj;JtKk; ,ilapy; iffyg;G> tha;j;jh;f;fk;> gps;isfspd; mspf;fg;gl Ntz;Lk; fy;tp ghjpg;G> fld;> nghUshjhu gpur;rpid> jw;nfhiy> jw;nfhiy Kaw;rp. cwtpdh;> Fbahy; Vw;gLk; Nghypf; fz;Nzhl;lk; mayth;fshy; xJf;fp itf;fg;gly;> tpgj;Jf;fs; (etePjfp\;zd;. V:1993:g.23) (Alcoholic Hallucinosis) 25 rjtpfpjj;jpdh; ,j;jifa epiyf;F 1.4 kJghdk; ghtpg;gth;fSf;F Vw;gLk; cs;shfpd;wdh;. ngUk;ghYk; ,J 15 tUl kdNeha;fs; Fbg;gof;fj;jpw;F gpd;Ng Njhd;WfpwJ. ,e; NehAw;NwhUf;F gak;> gjl;lk;> gugug;G> kJghdk; ghtpg;gjdhy; gy kdNeha;fs; Jhf;fkpd;ik> Nghypf;fz;Nzhl;lk; Kjypad xUthplj;jpNy Vw;gLk;. ,t; tifapy; gpujhdkhf Njhd;Wk;. Nghypf; fz;Nzhl;lk; gy thuq;fspy; gpd;tUk; %d;W kd Neha;fs; mike;J ,Ue;J rpy khjq;fs; tiu ePbf;fyhk;. rpyUf;F fhzg;gLfpd;wd. mitahtd ; rpfpr;ir mspf;fhtpbd; ,J epue;jukhfNt 1. Nfhh;rfht; kdNeha; (Korsokff Psychosis) ePbg;gJk; cz;L. ,j;jifa Nehahspfs; jq;fSf;Nfh> kw;wth;fSf;Nfh Mgj;ij 2. Fbahy; Vw;gLk; Nghypf; fz;Nzhl;lk; cz;lhf;ff; $bath;fshf ,Ug;gjhy; ,th;fis (Alcoholic Hallucinosis) kdeyf; fhg;gfj;jpy; mDkjpj;J rpfpr;iraspg;gJ 3. mlf;f Kbahj kJghd ntwp mtrpakhdJ.
Nfhh;rfht; kdNeha; (Korsokff Psychosis) mlf;f Kbahj kJghd ntwp Rkhh; 25 Mz;L fhyk; Fbg;gof;fk; ghuk;ghpaj;jpdhy; Vw;gLk; kw;nwhU kdNeha; cilath;fSf;F ,t; kdNeha; Vw;gLk;. mlf;f Kbahj Fbntwp MFk;. ,J Fbg;gof;fj;jpdhy; ,th;fs; rhptu czT bg;nrhNkdpah vdg;gLfpwJ. ,th;fspy; mUe;Jtjpy;iy. ,jdhy; ,th;fsJ [Puz ngUk;ghyhNdhh; Fw;wk; Ghpgth;fs; Mth;. kz;lyKk; rhptu ,aq;Ftjpy;iy. Fwpg;ghf Foe;ijg; gUtj;jpypUe;Nj Fw;wk; Ghpa ijakpd;> epahrpd; Kjypa tpl;lkpd;fs; clypy; gof;fg;gl;lth;fs; (Habitual Criminals) Mth;. Fiwfpd;wd. ,JNt ,f; Fwpg;gpl;l Neha;fs; jq;fsJ Fw;w czh;Tfis kiwf;f kw;nwhU Njhd;w fhuzkhfpd;wJ. %is euk;gZf;fs; Fw;wj;ij jpUk;gj; jpUk;g nra;th;. ,th;fis rpwpJ rpwpjhf rpijtiltjhy; kdf; Fog;gk; jpUj;JtJ vspjd;W. vdpDk; njhlh;e;J rpwpJ rpwpjhf Vw;glyhk;. mj;Jld; ,th;fSf;F cstrpaepiyapy; csg;gFg;gha;T elj;jpdhy; epidthw;wYk;> fhyk;> ,lq;fis mwpAk; jpwDk; ,th;fsJ csf; NfhshW ntspg;gLk;. rpyUf;F FiwAk;. ,it jtpu ,e; Nehapdhy; gpuhh;j;jid Nghd;w vspa kNdh kUj;Jt ghjpf;fg;gl;lth;fSf;F euk;Gfs; gytPdkile;J Kiwfs; nghpa kd khw;wj;ij vjph;ghuhj fhy;fspy; jsh;r;rpAk;> typAk; Vw;gLk;. tifapy; Vw;gLj;JtJz;L. (kzpNkfiyg;gpuRu Mrphpah; FO:1992:.g.39) ,th;fis cldbahf Fbg;gof;fj;ij epWj;jr; nra;tjd; %ykhf jw;fhypfkhf Vw;gLk; 1.5. kJghtidahy; Vw;gLk; gpwo;T cly;> cs khWjy;fis Kiwahd kUj;Jt elj;ijfs; rpfpr;irahy; Fzg;gLj;j Ntz;Lk;. Nfhh;rfht; Neha; tUtjw;F Kf;fpa fhuzkhs ijakpd; kJ ghdk; ghtpg;gjdhy; gy;NtW gpwo;Tfs; tpl;lkpid Nghjpa msT Crp> khj;jpiufs;> xUthplj;jpNy Vw;gLfpd;wJ. kUe;Jfs; %yk; nfhLf;f Ntz;Lk;. NkYk; 1. %h;r;ir epiy (Alcohol-Induced gpfhk;g;nsf;]; tpl;lkpd;fs; nrwpe;j czTfshd Persisting Dementia) ghy;> goq;fs;> Kl;il> khkprk; Kjypatw;iw 2. kdk; rhh;e;j ghjpg;Gf;fs; Njitahd msT Nehahspf;F nfhLf;f (Alcohol- Induced Mood Disorder ) ( AIMD) Ntz;Lk;. mj;Jld; “rp” tpl;lkpd; khj;jpiufisAk; jpdKk; nfhLf;f Ntz;Lk;. 3. gak; rhh;e;j ghjpg;Gf;fs; (Alcohol- euk;G rk;ge;jg;gl;l Neha;fSk; ,e; NehNahL Induced Anxiety Disorder) (AIAD)
[93] Proceedings of the Third International Symposium, SEUSL: 6-7 July 2013, Oluvil, Sri Lanka
4. fdT rhh;e;j ghjpg;Gf;fs; (Alcohol- gad;gl;l E}y;fs; Induced Psychotic Disorder)
5. cwf;f epiy ghjpg;Gf;fs;(Alcohol- md;udp la]; kw;Wk;rpthde;j%Hj;jp> cstpay; Induced Sleep Disorder) (AISD) XH mwpKfk;> mk;ghs; ntspaPl;lfk;> aho;g;ghzk;> 2002. 6. ghypay; ntWg;G epiy(Alcohol-Induced Sexual Dysfunction) (NrhkRe;juk;: etePjfpU];zd;> v];> kJTk; kdpj ,dKk;> 2006.g.182) fz;zjhrd; gjpg;gfk;> nrd;id> 1993.
KbTiu jahNrhkRe;juk; kw;Wk; rptNahfd;.fh.> jkpo; rKjhaj;jpy; cseyk;> gz;ghLfspD}lhd kpf mz;ikf; fhyj;jpa kUj;Jt csr%f epWtd ntspaPL> aho;g;ghzk;> Muha;r;rpahsh;fs;> xUth; jpdKk; 75 fpuhk; 2000. my;yJ mjw;F Nkyhf kJ kpifahf mUe;jpdhy; me;j fhuzj;jpdhNyNa khuilg;G ngdbf; ghyd;> fy;tp cstpay; mbg;gilfs;> Neha;> ,uj;jf; nfhjpg;G> gpw ,ja Neha;fs; nfhOk;G> 1996. Njhd;Wk; vd cWjpglf; $Wfpd;wdh;. ,j;jF Muha;r;rpahsh;fs; ehk; Kd;dh; Fwpg;gpl;lJ kzpNkfiyg; gpuRu Mrphpa FO> kdNeha; Nghd;W kpjkhd msT kJ mUe;Jk; gof;fk; kUj;Jt Kiwfs;> kzpNkfiyg; gjpg;gfk;> khuilg;G Neha; tuhky; jLf;Fk; vd;W $Wtjw;F ,e;jpah> 1992. ve;j tpj MjhuKNk ,y;iy vd;W cWjpglf; nuf;];.gp.vk;.> khuilg;G Neha; tuhky; jLg;gj $Wfpd;wdh;. vg;gb? eHkjh gjpg;gfk;> ,e;jpah> 2002.
kJ mUe;Jgth;fSf;F grp mjpfhpj;J> Howard,J,and Clinebell,J, Understanding and czT mjpfk; cl;nfhs;s Ntz;ba epiy Counseling the through Religious and Vw;gl;L> mJTk; nfhOg;Gr; rj;J kpifahf Psychology , New York, 1980. cs;s czT rhg;gpl Ntz;ba tha;g;G cUthfp> mjd; fhuzkhf ,uj;jj;jpy; cs;s nfhy];Nuhy; Rankanathan,T.J, Alcoholism and Dependency , India, mjpfhpf;fyhk;. clw; gUkd; $lyhk;. kJ 2001. mUe;Jk; NtisapNy rpful; mjpfkhf Gifg;gjhy; ,jaj; jirapd; ,uj;j ehsq;fs; Jess Feisty and Gregory.J., Theory of Personality, India, ghjpf;fg;glyhk;. ,t;thW kJ khuilg;G Vw;gl 1986 Nehpilahd fhuzkhf ,y;yhtpbDk; ehk; ,g;NghJ Fwpg;gpl;lJ Nghd;W khuilg;G Nehia Mangal, S.K., Abnormal Psychology Sterling Vw;gLj;Jk; gpw fhuzq;fis kiwKfkhf Publication, pvt, India, 2004. cUthf;fyhk;.
itj;jpah;fSk; cstsj; Jizahsh;fSk; gy rpfpr;ir kiwfis mwpKfg;gLj;jpAs;sdh;> Fwpg;ghf 100 ehs; rpfpl;irKiw kw;Wk; jdpahs; FLk;g> FO cstsj;Jiz Kiwfs; gad;gLj;jg;gLfpwJ. NkYk; gphpj;jhdpa tpQ;Qhdpfs; kJ mUe;Jtij 61 rjtPjk; tiu fl;Lg;gLj;Jk; kUe;J xd;iw fz;Lgpbj;Js;sdh;. khj;jpih tbtpy; ,J cs;sJ ,jd; ngah; “nrypd;f;Nuh vd;gjhFk;.
[94] A.R.F.Begum(1) jkpo; Njrpak; njhlHghd gpur;rpidfs; - tpNrl Ma;T kiyafk; -
(1) Dept. of Social Sciences, Faculty of Islamic Studies and Arabic language, South Eastern University of Sri Lanka, Oluvil, Sri Lanka. (email:[email protected])
Ma;Tr;RUf;fk; (Abstract): Gy;ypd kf;fs; “,e;jpaj;jkpoHfs;” vd;W gy;NtW ngaHfs; thOfpd;w ehl;by; gd;ikj;Jt fyhrhuj;ij nfhz;L Fwpg;gplg;gLfpd;w ,k;kf;fSf;nfd;W XH gpujpgypf;Fk; gbahf midj;J ,d kf;fSf;Fk; cWjpahd ngaH $l ,y;yhj epiyapy; ,d;W rk me;j];J nfhLf;fg;gLkhf ,Ue;jhy; tho;e;J tUfpd;wdH. 1948 Mk; Mz;L gpu[h rpWghd;ik kf;fs; ghjpf;fg;gl khl;lhHfs; chpik rl;lj;jpd; %yk; 1962y; khwhf ,yq;if Nghd;w ngUk;ghd;ik [dehafk; ehl;Lg;gpui[fshf cWjpg;gLj;jg;gl;ldH. Mjpy; epyTfpd;w ehLfspy; rpWghd;ikapdhpd; ,Ug;G 829>619 tpz;zg;gjhhpfspy; 134>187 egHfSf;F njhlHghd mr;rk; ,Ug;gJ epahakhdNj. Me;j khj;jpuNk ,yq;if gpui[fshf jFjp mbg;gilapy; ,yq;if tho; tl fpof;F jkpo; ngw;wdH.,j;jifa #o;epiyapy; kpy;ypad; kf;fs; Kg;gjhd;L fhykhf jq;fSila fzf;fhd kf;fs; murw;w kf;fshf (Stateless chpikfSf;fhf Nghuhbaik ahtUk; mwpe;j people) murpay;> nghUshjhu kw;Wk; Vida cz;ik. Mt;tifapy; ,d;iwa ,yq;if chpikfisAk; ,oe;jdH. (fzgjpgps;is>g.55) murpayhdJ ,dj;Jt murpayhf cUg;ngw;Wf;nfhz;bUf;Fk; epiyapy; ,t;tha;thdJ kiyaf kf;fspd; Njrpak; kiyafj;jpd; Njrpak; vd;gJ ,J tiu kWf;fbf;fg;gl;likf;fhd fhuzq;fis Vw;Wf;nfhs;sg;glhjpUg;gJ kiyaf kf;fspd; Muha;tJld; mtHfSila r%f me;j];jpy; epiya;ghl;bw;W mit mr;RWj;jyhfNt ,Uf;Fk; epyTfpd;w epiyaw;w jd;ikf;fhd fhuzq;fs; vd;gjpy; Iak; ,y;iy. Njrpa ,dq;fspy; tl vd;d vd;fpd;w tplaq;fSf;F Kf;fpaj;Jtk; fpof;F jkpo; kf;fspdJk;> K];ypk; kf;fspdJk; toq;fp mtw;wpid Muha;tjhf ,t;tha;T jdpj;Jtk; nfhs;ifastpy; mikfpd;wJ. ,t;tha;thdJ Kjyhk; mq;fPfhpf;fg;gl;Ls;sJ. (Nyhwd;];>m>2006>g.28) epiyj;juTfs; kw;Wk; ,uz;lhk; epiyj;juTfs; Mdhy; kiyaf jkpo; kf;fisg;nghWj;j vd;gtw;iw nfhz;l tpguz hPjpahd gFg;gha;T tiuapy; ,J gw;wpa vt;tpjkhd epiyg;ghLk; Kiw gad;gLj;jg;gl;Ls;sJ. ,y;iy vd;Nw $w Ntz;Lk;. ,r;#o;epiyapy; kiyaf jkpoHfspd; ,d milahsj;jpy; fiyr;nrhw;fs; (Key words ): [dehafk; Iag;ghLfs; fhzg;gLfpd;wd. kiyaf kf;fs; (Democracy), ,dk; (Ethnic) , ,d milahsk; jq;fSila ,d milahsj;jpid (Ethnic (Ethnic Identity), murw;w kf;fs; (stateless People), identity) ,oe;j epiyapy; tho;e;J tUfpd;wdH. mt;thwhf Nehf;Fk; NghJ ,k;kf;fis Vida rpWghd;ik kf;fisg;Nghy; ,tHfSila mwpKfk; (Introduction) Njrpak; kjpf;fg;gl;L ,Uf;Fkhdhy; ,tHfSk; ,dk; (Ethnic) ,dj;Jtk; (Ethnicity) mbg;gil trjpfSld; thOk; xU #oy; vd;gjhdJ xU kf;fs; $l;lj;jpid gy;NtW gl;l Vw;gl;bUf;Fk;. fhuzq;fspd; mbg;gilapy; njspthf gphpj;J fhl;LtijNa gue;J gl;l fUj;jhf ,Ue;J kiyafg;gpuNjrj;jpy; thOfpd;w kf;fs; tUfpd;wJ. ,dk; vd;W Fwpg;gpLk; NghJ jq;fSila r%f me;j];J Fwpg;gpl;l kf;fs; njhifapdH jq;fsJ r%f Nfs;tpf;Fwpahf;fg;gl;l epiyapNy tho;e;J tuyhW> tho;f;if Kiw> fyhrhuk;> kw;Wk; tUfpd;wdH. “kiyafj; jkpoHfs;”> “Njhl;lj; ghuk;ghpa tplaq;fis ,dq;fz;L nghJthd njhopyhsHfs;”;> “murw;w kf;fs;”> gz;Gfspd; mbg;gilapy; xUkpj;J thOk; NghJ
[95] mf;FOtpdH ,dk; vd;fpd;w me;j];jpidg; kf;fSf;F ghugl;rk; fhl;lg;gltpy;iy vd;W ngWfpd;wdH. (gpwh];>1991>g.19) rk fhy ,d vt;thW $w KbAk;. NtWghLfshf milahsk; fhzg;gl;bUg;gJ nkhop> ,dk;> kjk;> epwk; fyhrhuk; gpuhe;jpa Fwpg;ghf gpw;gl;l ,yq;if murpay; NtWghLfs; Nghd;witahFk;. Fwpg;gpl;l tuyhw;wpy; ,d murpay; nry;thf;F ntYj;Jk; gpuhe;jpaj;jpy; tuyhw;W hPjpahf jdpahf NghJ ,tHfs; xLf;fg;gLtjw;F fhuzkhf jdpj;Jtk; cs;s ,dkhf r%fkhf mike;jJ. ,j;jifa fhuzq;fspd; fzpf;fg;gLfpd;whHfs;. ,t;tifapy; kiyaf mbg;gilapy; ,yq;ifapd; Vida jkpo; kf;fs; xd;wiu E}w;whz;L fhykhf ,df;FOf;fisg;Nghd;W mtHfSf;F murpay; ngUe;Njhl;l gapHr;nra;iffs; nghUshjhu r%f tplaq;fspy; ghugl;rkhf Nkw;nfhs;tjw;nfd;W kiyaf gpuhe;jpaj;jpy; epyTtjw;F fhuzkhdJld; kiyaf kf;fis jdpj;Jtkhd nkhop tof;F> fyhrhu ,df;FOthf Nehf;FtjpYk; ghjpg;gpid mbg;gilapy; njhlHr;rpahf rpq;fs Vw;gLj;jpaJ. Nghpdj;jhYk; Vida rpWghd;ik kf;fshYk; Njrpa kl;lj;jpy; ,lk; ngWfpd;w nraw;ghLfspy; ,Ue;Jk; gphpj;J itf;fg;gl;bUe;jikapdhYk; Ma;T Kiwik Kiwapay; jkJ [Pthjhu Nghuhl;lj;jpw;F Kfk; nfhLj;J (Research Method and Methodology) tho;tjd; %yk; jdpj;Jtkhd kf;fs; $l;lk; vd;fpd;w tuyhw;W czHT Vw;gl;Ls;sik ,t;tha;tpy; r%ftpay; xg;gPl;L tpguz jtpHf;f KbahjjhFk;. ,j;jifa kiyaf Ma;T KiwikfSk;> Kjyhk; ,uz;lhk; kf;fs; ngUe; Njhl;lq;fspy; Ntiy epiyj;juTfSk; gad;gLj;jg;gl;Ls;sd. Kjyhk; nra;tjw;nfd;Nw gphpj;jhdpa epiyj;juTfshf Neub fs tp[aj;jpy; kf;fis Vfhjpgj;jpathjpfshy; njd; ,e;jpahtpy; ,Ue;J re;jpj;J mtHfis NeHfhzYf;Fw;gLj;jpaJld;> tutiof;fg;gl;ldH. ,k;kf;fs; gy Fwpg;gpl;l rpy murhq;f cj;jpNahfj;jHfisAk; jiyKiwfshf ,g;gFjpapy; tho;e;J NeH fhzYf;Fw;gLj;jg;gl;ldH(= ghj fy;Y}hp tUfpd;wdH. ,t;thW gphpj;jhdpa Vfhjpgj;jpa tphpTiuahsHfs;> fpuhk NrtfHfs;>MrphpaHfs;) fhyj;jpy; tutiof;fg;gl;l kiyaf jkpoHfis ,uz;lhk; epiyj;juTfshf gj;jphpiffs;> vt;tpjkhd murpay; nraw;ghLfs;> kw;Wk; kiyafk; njhlHghf ntspaplg;gLk; rQ;rpiffs;> Vida eltbf;iffSf;F kw;Wk; E}w;fs; vd;gtw;wpD}lhf ,izj;Jf;nfhs;sg;glhikAld; mth;fis ngw;Wf;nfhs;sg;gl;lJ. kiyafg; gFjpfspy; Ntiy nra;tjw;nfd;Nw
[96] A.R.F.Begum jkpo; Njrpak; njhlHghd gpur;rpidfs; - tpNrl Ma;T kiyafk; -
cwtpdHfs; jkpo; ehl;by; tho;e;j NghjpYk;> mgptpUj;jp> mtHfsJ gpur;rpidfs; jPHf;fg;gl Gjpa guk;giuapdH kiyafj;ij jhafkhf Ntz;Lk; vd;gjid Nehf;fhf nfhz;l murpay; nfhz;L tho;fpd;wdH. ,j;jifa #o;epiyapy; nghpJk; FiwT vd;Nw $w Ntz;Lk;.,j;jifa kiafj;jpd; Njrpak; #oypy; kiyaf gpuNjrk; xd;Wk; tpjptpyf;fy;. Nfs;tpf;Fs;shf;fg;gl;Ls;sik mtHfspd; murpay; jiyikj;Jtq;fs; ,d;W kiyafj;jpy; Jujp~;lNk. jq;fsJ Ra ,yhgq;fSf;F Kd;Dhpik toq;FtjhdJ mk;kf;fspd; Kd;Ndw;wj;jpw;F kiyaf kf;fs; jhk; xU Njrpa ,dk; kw;Wk; mtHfSila chpikfs; rYiffs; vd;fpd;w czHT Vw;gLk; #oy; Njhw;wk; ngw;Wf;nfhs;tjw;F mr;RWj;jyhf mikfpd;wJ. ngwhjtd;dk; mr;#oy; mikf;fg;gl;Ls;sJ. kiyaf kf;fSf;F jkJ Njrpak; kiyaf kf;fs; kiyafg;gFjpfspy; ehw; njhlHghd rpwe;j tpopg;GzHtpd;ik. $ypj;njhopyhsHfshfNt flik Mw;w Ntz;Lk; vd;gJ vOjg;glhj rl;lkhf ,Ue;J ,g;gpuNjrj;jpy; thOfpd;w kf;fspd; tUfpd;wJ.,q;F ,tHfs; nfhj;jbikfshf tho;f;if gpd;dzpapid Nehf;Fk; NghJ ,tHfs; thOfpd;w epiyapid fhzKbfpd;wJ. Fwpg;ghf fy;tp kl;lj;jpy; kpfTk; gpd;jq;fpatHfshf ,tHfSf;fhfj;jhd; Njapiy Njhl;lq;fs; fhzg;gLfpd;wdH. nghJthd fz;Nzhl;lj;jpy; cUthf;fg;gl;lJ Nghd;W ,d;Wk; mtHfs; Nehf;Fk; NghJ ,k;kf;fSf;F jhq;fs; vt; vt; ,j;njhopNy nja;tk; vd;W thOfpd;wdH. tpjq;fspy; chpikfSk; rYiffSk; Kiyaf kf;fSf;nfd;Nw rpy gpur;rpidfs; kWf;fg;gl;Ls;sd vd;gjid Ghpe;J nfhs;tJ r%fj;jpy; Njhw;wk; ngw;wJ Nghd;W ,tHfs; njhlHghfTk; mtw;Wf;fhd khw;W top Kiwfs; gy;NtWgl;l rpf;fyhd epiyapy; tho;e;J vd;d vd;gjidAk; mwpe;J nfhs;Sk; epiyapYk; tUfpd;wdH. NkYk; md;whl t5ho;thjhuj;jpw;F ,d;W mtHfs; ,y;iy. ehshe;j rhg;ghl;Lf;F kpfTk; f~lg;gLfpd;w r%fkhf kiyaf r%fk; f~;lg;gLfpd;w ,k;kf;fSf;F mtHfSila fhzg;gLtjdhy; mtHfSila Njrpak; Njrpak; gw;wp rpe;jpf;f Ntz;Lkhf ,Ue;jhy; njhlHghd tplaq;fis czHT G+Htkhf kf;fSf;F mtHfSila gq;Fgw;Wjypd; rpe;jpf;f Kbahj epiyapy; thOfpd;wdH. Kf;fpaj;Jtk; njhlHghd tpopg;GzHT mtHfSf;F toq;fg;gLtJ mtrpakhFk.; kiyaf kf;fspd; Njrpak; ngw;Wf;nfhs;tJ njhlHghf vOfpd;w xU rpy vjpHg;G Nghuhl;lq;fSk; Muk;gj;jpNy Klf;fg;gLfpd;wd. KbTiu (Conclusion) kiyaf kf;fs; jhq;fs; mDgtpf;Fk; kiyaf kf;fs; jq;fSila Njrpak; md;whl kdpj chpik kPwy; nraw;ghLfSf;F njhlHghf fhzg;gLfpd;w rpf;fy; epiyfis vjpuhf Kw;W KOjhf Fuy; nfhLf;fhj eptHj;jp nra;tjw;F mtHfSf;fpilapy; gl;rj;jpYk; $l xU rpy chpik Nghuhl;lq;fspy; cWjpahf XH murpay; jiyikj;Jtk; mtHfs; Ra ,yhgq;fs; fUj;jpw;nfhz;L crhj;Jiz (References) Nkw;nfhs;sg;gLfpd;w murpay; eltbf;iffs; re;jpuNrfud;> Nrh.>(2001)> ,yq;if ,e;jpaH Fwpg;ghf murpay; vd;W tUfpd;w NghJ tuyhW> Fkud; Gj;jf ,y;yk;. mit Ra tpUg;G ntWg;Gf;fSf;F Kf;fpaj;Jtk; Nyhwd;];>m.>(2006)> kiyafk; rk fhy toq;fg;gLtJ ,d;iwa [dehaf murpaypd; murpay;-murpay; jPHT> kiyafk; ntspaPl;lfk;. gpujhd gz;ghf khwp tUfpd;wJ. kf;fSila [97] Proceedings of the Third International Symposium, SEUSL: 6-7 July 2013, Oluvil, Sri Lanka Balasuriya,T.,(1978),Education of estate population of Indian origin, Centre for Society and Religion, Colombo Beckford, G. L.,(1983),persistent poverty: underdevelopment in plantation Economic of the Third world, London Brass,P.R.,(1991), Ethnicity and Nationalism; Theory and Comparison, new Delhi and new bury park, sage publication De Silva, S.B.D., (1982), The Political Economy of Under development. London Gnanamuthu,G.A.,(1977),Education and the Indian plantation Worker in Sri Lanka, Colombo 1993, Sri Lanka State of Human Rights, Law and Society Trust,Colombo 1994, Sri Lanka State of Human Rights, Law and Society Trust,Colombo Kanapathipillai,V.,The Repatriation of Indian Tamil; Plantation Workers From Sri Lanka to India, In Robin Cohen, The Cambridge Survey of World migration, Cambridge. [98] Nimali Munasinghe(1) A Study on Planning Stages of Urban Resettlement (With special Reference to Chithra lane Resettlement Project: Colombo Sri Laka.) (1) Department of Social Sciences, Sabaragamuwa University of Sri Lanka, Belihuloya, Sri Lanka. (email:[email protected]) Abstract: Sri Lanka has significance experiences of Urban, City, or Town planning is the discipline of resettlement in the process of society rebuilding. This land use planning which deals with the physical, social, study attempts to analyze the planning stages of a and economic development of metropolitan regions, urban relocation settlement current issue-taking place municipalities and neighborhoods. Other professions in Chithralane settlement in Narahenpita, to find out deal in more detail with a smaller scale of the issues relate with new settlement, evaluate the development, namely architecture, landscape successfulness and identify the impact of resettlement architecture and urban design. Regional planning deals of the encroached community. Research findings with a still larger environment, at a less detailed level concluded that this relocation process has given an (Urban Development Authority). impact with all negative, positive, and neutral effects on this dwellers and positive effect seems to dominate. Relocation is defined as a process whereby a community’s housing, assets, and public infrastructure Keywords: relocation, urban development are rebuilt in another location. An effective relocation plan is one that affected population helps develop and Introduction views positively. This study attempts to analyze the planning stages of a urban relocation settlement. The Sri Lanka has significance experiences of study was identified as a current issue-taking place in resettlement in the process of society rebuilding. The Chithralane settlement in Narahenpita. Finding out colonization scheme in the dry zoon was the first the level of successfulness of the planning stages based experience of resettlement in the context of Sri Lanka. on the conceptual framework developed by Cernea Secondly, we have experience of resettling of the and Scudder has analyzed. In addition, issues relate tsunami affected community and other natural disaster with new settlement and the overall impact of related experiences mainly flood and landslide. Next resettlement of the encroached community was taken most significant reason is development induced in to account. resettlement or relocation. Most of development projects that taken placed in Sri Lankan context have The data collection was two types, Primary and led massive resettlement process. In addition, in other Secondary Data and the total 20 were the sample size way Informal, community is a main problem to the and the sample selection was based on Simple Random society and those people tend to settle down on place Sampling Method. Data Collection occupied Primary creating the problem of slums and shanty data through primary observation, structured development. interview, and group discussion. Secondary data, UDA Sources, books and journals used to collect. [99] Proceedings of the Third International Symposium, SEUSL: 6-7 July 2013, Oluvil, Sri Lanka Objectives Urban is a place where “Spatial land use or organization characterized by dense population, General Objective – concentrated living space, social networks, and a verity q To identify the planning stages of the of economic activities and life styles”( Gregory D. and resettlement. Gerry R.1993:3). City of Colombo development plan - 1999 promoted high-density development within the Specific Objectives – garden city development and one of major objective of that is promoting high –rise development in identified q To find out the issues relate with new high potential areas such as Pettah, Union place, settlement. Kollupitiya, Maradana, Narahenpita and also Borella q To evaluate the successfulness of resettlement and between Galle road and Duplication road. project The past hundred years has seen enormous q To identify the overall impact of resettlement changes in housing standards and conditions in the of the encroached community. developed North but reality for millions of households in developing countries remains one of absolute Moving to the city plan history of Sri lanka its housing deprivation, subsistence living and marginality goes back to 1948, the Government invited Sir Patrick (paddison:2001). Abecrombie to prepare a regional plan for Colombo and its surrounding region covering an area of 220 The accelerated pace of urbanization and square miles. When he prepared the first town plan for commercialization in the cities creating new pressures the city of Colombo his major concern was housing. It of eviction and displacement. Industrial revolutions was felt that Abecrombie’s plan was not adequate to confront very different urban conditions and housing accommodate the rapid changes taking place in the system. Nevertheless, the rural-urban migration and urban areas, especially in Colombo and its the related housing pressures remain dominant forces surrounding sub urban areas. The Colombo regional in the world. structure plan prepared by UNDP in 1978 also “worldwide, the number of homeless considered housing as a key issue people can be estimated at anywhere (Herath,N.P,JayasundaraD:2007). from 100 million to 1 billion or more… The Master Plan for the Colombo Metropolitan ….the estimated of 1 billion homeless Region of 1978 consisted of two interrelated people would also include those in documents, namely the Colombo Metropolitan accommodation that is very insecure or Regional Structure Plan and the Colombo Urban Area temporary, often poor quality” (united Plan. The Colombo Master Plan Project, which nations center for human settlement pursued a balanced regional development strategy, 1996:229 cited from Paddison 2001:89). covered the Colombo District including the area now The modernist mass housing estates of the 1950 1960’s classified as Gampaha District and part of Kalutara and 1970’s had become increasingly discredited and District. associated with concentrations of poor people in high The most recent city plan was the Colombo rise flats in inner or peripheral urban locations. And Metropolitan Regional Structure Plan (CMRSP) next these solutions to the hosing problems of one prepared in 1998 by the Urban Development period had rapidly become the social & physical Authority, whose overall objective to prepare action housing problems of the next. programmes for the development of the region with a view to meeting the aspirations of the citizens and High-rise housing & poverty improving the quality of life of the people of Western Social isolation Province and the people of Sri Lanka (Urban Ghettoization Development Authority). [100] N. Munasinghe A Study on Planning Stages of Urban Resettlement Residential segregation are some of them (Paddison: 2001). In 1998, around the Chithra Lane, there were about 350 families were found to be as encroachers. With the implement of Chithra Lane Project, government took the decision to clear all those under served settlements. This paper attempts to analyze the planning stages of an urban relocation or resettlement place. Therefore, I have selected the above project since is a resettlement. There are people who lived in this are from 1950’s. According to primary data this project has commenced in 1998. Colombo is the commercial capital and most Conceptual Framework urbanized city in Sri Lanka. Due to urban migration, with people seeking better job opportunities, the low income and lower middle-income population has increased rapidly. This has resulted in unplanned and unauthorized informal settlements, mainly occupying urban areas with high commercial values. The government had implemented several housing policies to overcome this problem. Therefore, government has under taken different solutions like on site/ off site resettlement, and resettlement in high-rises through institutions like National Housing Development Authority, Urban development authority, Real Estate Exchange Limited. Resettlement is the process of moving people from underserved settlements to the well-managed apartments with basic needs. At present, resettlement in high-rise building is the widely use solution. High-rise developments particularly related to housing in the city of Colombo is somewhat a recent phenomenon (Herath,N.P, Jayasundara D:2007). However, with the implement of this project people who live in those areas has to face with social, economic and physical changes which may be positives as well as negatives. Therefore it is very significant to take resettles perspectives on those projects and find beneficial effects. Moreover, it is effective to understand the planning stages clearly in the side of resettles. According to the structural interviews conducted with resettles, the data summarized in order to achieve the objectives of this paper. The major objective was finding out the planning stages of urban resettlement place. According to the conceptual framework they are [101] Proceedings of the Third International Symposium, SEUSL: 6-7 July 2013, Oluvil, Sri Lanka still in multidimensional stress although is has passed from the apartments, but the respondents do not feel ten years after resettlement. According to my research it as a problem. Following chart shows a summary of it is shown that physiologically most of them are with level of education of the respondent’s. the problem of landlessness. Because after the resettlement they lost their land as this is a high-rise building. And feel they do not have enough chance to planting. However, on the other hand some people are not taking it as a serious problem. They are with the idea that they got a house with water and electricity. “.space is not enough, but having electricity and water is important. and there is no space to through unclean water, to play, and to plant. if children’s going to play, others blame and come to quarrel that balls are coming to their homes. ” Fig. 01‐ People who live in upstairs do not have A garden (Source‐ primary data‐2011 Fig 02‐ Salient features of the sample Successful urban planning considers character, of (Source‐ primary data 2011) “home” and “sense of place”, local identity, respect for natural, artistic and historic heritage, an understanding The unsatisfactory level of solid waste disposal of the “urban grain” or “townscape,” pedestrians and has also been observed in the area. Domestic garbage other modes of traffic, utilities and natural hazards, is dumped in a variety of places. The socio –economic such as flood zones ( Urban Development Authority). and ethnic background of squatters has a major role to However, in this settlement, still settlers do not feel as play in determining the lifestyle and socio-spatial their own home because they do not have any legal requirements of a community (Ali:2006). And the level document. For obtain deed they have to pay monthly of education is one of the determinants of the people’s rental over 60 years for some of them. According to the income and nature of occupation. This research reviled price of the house, it varies among them. that after the resettlement their monthly expenditure has raised than the previous. Moving to the economic and social characteristics very few are engaging in formal occupation. In addition, most of the sample is not very much bothers about the noise disturbances because they have lived with the sound for a long time & it has absorbed to their lives. When the time of data collection I could observe the different sounds coming [102] N. Munasinghe A Study on Planning Stages of Urban Resettlement Fig. 03‐ Distribution of total monthly expenditure Fig. 04‐Apartments with better facilities than the before and after the resettlement previous‐ (Source‐ primary data 2011) (Source‐ primary data‐2011) Every individual house has separate water system When moving to the planning stage of this urban & electricity service. Therefore, individual house resettlement, in the pre settlement period these people owners have to pay a monthly payment for the are not with proper understanding of the project going consumption. This expenditure they are seeing as to be established. negative impact of resettlement. Next, they have to pay monthly rent for the apartment and it varies form one “We did not think anything beyond the new house house to next. It is an additional charge to them. which has water, electricity, bathroom, and toilet. Therefore now it is good more than previous. Most of the previous houses were buildings Expenditure is quite high but more facilities we have…. attached one house to another. Therefore, people had strong relationships. Especially women shared their So according to my sample it is correct to say that home activities with neighboring people. As a habit they were not actively participate in decision-making there used to chat with others in evenings. All those process. It can be a reason for increase the stress level relationships are going to loss after shifting new flats. because they get know about their situation after the In the new apartment they are receive units in separate resettlement but not before that so when they do not floors so there is a doubt that they will lose the having clear picture of that people can create different relationship. 95% of people are preferred to new place views on the situation. Moreover, psychologically they because of interior facilities. The new apartment has may feel uncertainty. being built with all the basic requirements. Moving to the planning stage two, according to A unit consists of two bedrooms, kitchen, living the conceptual framework people are still coping in to area, balcony & toilet & bathroom inside the house. their new environment I can say according to my Previously most of people lived with public bathrooms sample. Because they are facing number of problems & toilets. It had many sanitary problems. There is more in orderly, the rising expenses (graph 1). As chithralane possibility to spread diseases. In addition to 95%, 5% is a resettlement project, there is no problem of new of them prefer old place because they had better house neighbors. However, loosing the neighbors who lived with those facilities in earlier place. more closely is now being changed to some of them in the sample. “People who were near by are not in previous places now. New people come to quarrel with us. So we do not going to talk”. Looking at the stage three here it can notice that these people were spend more on assets. Their homes [103] Proceedings of the Third International Symposium, SEUSL: 6-7 July 2013, Oluvil, Sri Lanka are full of furniture, which can unbearable for the successfulness of resettlement project, identify the space where they live. that indicates their economic overall impact of resettlement of the encroached development. Seeing out the community formation community. most of them are with the view that community In order to understand the planning stages of the association’s member are cunning and only for urban resettlement place I have made a new model standing collecting money from them. combining two conceptual frameworks introduced by former we had diffrent comitees. now we do not Thayer Scudder and Michael Cernea. Accordingly have. commetee people are theives. they collect money found in the research what sort of stress they face with and run.... in the stages of resettlement process and how they feel this new settlement. In addition, what are the issues Therefore, in here their collective activities are relate with the new settlement being addressed. not salient feature. Most of them are like to be in separate. On the other way after this resettlement it can Speaking generally this resettlement project is say they it leads to lose the collective behaviors among successful for the people who lived in underserved them because, now the children’s do not have enough settlements. Although there are, some situational space to play. If they play in front of the houses, the effects this resettlement has made selective form of neighbors are coming to quarrel. Children Park is only impact with all negative, positive, and neutral effects for children under 12. Therefore, the Childs above the on lives of resettleres, and positive effect seems to category do not have a place to play. Again on the dominate. other way it can be a reason for increase the stress of the children who being undergone to the resettlement process. References In addition, the idea of political representation Paddison Rohan (ed).2001.Hand book of Urban Studies. among the sample is almost negative. They are with the London: Sage Publications. view that politicians are coming to see them only the Nirmala P Herath, and Devsriyani Jayasundara.2007 times of elections. This is not only after the Colombo Living High :A city in Transition. Sri resettlement but before the situation is same. Lanka: The institute of town planners. Finally Research finding conclude that this Gregory, D. A. and Gerry, R. 1993. Doing Urban Research. resettlement has selective form of impact with all London: Sage Publications. negative, positive, and neutral effects on lives of resettleres, and positive effect seems to dominate. Sabri Ali.2006.Dimensions of urban poverty. New Delhi:Rawat publications. Conclusion Generally, growth of high-rise development of urban areas has been a positive sign towards achieving urban development. Nevertheless, it results massive relocations and resettlements of the urbanities in Sri Lanka. The research problem investigated in the study is how these urbanities do cope with the stages of resettlement process commenced by the government involvement. According to the research objectives, three major areas were discussed in the study. Finding out the issues relate with new settlement, evaluate the [104] M.M. Ihjas(1), M.A. Jabbar(2) and M.A.M. Fowsar(3) ThirdParty Intervention in Civil War Situation: Analyzing the Outcomes of NorwayLed Multilateral Intervention (20022005) in Sri Lanka (1) Dept. of Political Science, University of Peradeniya, Sri Lanka, (2), (3) Dept. of Social Sciences, South Eastern University of Sri Lanka, Oluvil, Sri Lanka. (email: [email protected]) Abstract: Over the recent past, there has been an from 2002 to 2005 (Noyahr,2006: Suryanarayan,2006: increasing importance of managing civil conflicts with Saravanamuthu,2006). Accordingly, the multilateral the involvement of international actors such as intervention had significantly influenced the duration individual states, regional and international of the conflict to the extent in which protracted multilateral organizations (Regan 2002). In Sri Lanka, cessation of hostilities and the resultant peace process there had been an unprecedented close international were put in place (Athas, 2006: Venkataramanan, 2006: involvement in the fifth peace process right from its Uyangoda, 2005a). onset in 2002 with the aim of finding political solution to the civil war between government of Sri Lanka Defining Multilateral Intervention (GoSL) and the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Ealam (LTTE). This is the backdrop against which this paper By multilateral intervention I refer to the attempts to examine the potential outcomes of intervention by a group of states (Norway, USA, EU Norway-led multilateral intervention on the course of and Japan) that played collective and individual roles the civil war in Sri Lanka. Results of the analysis under the lead of Norway’s mediation, and their suggest dichotomous findings that while supporting intervention entails the active placement of personal the theoretical argument of the subject, casts and resource on the ground in Sri Lanka. skepticism over the adequate treatment of factors that In this sense, two different but interrelated influence the outcome of intervention by the questions are addressed in this paper. First, what are theoretical literature. the potential outcomes of the Norway-led multilateral intervention inflicted upon the conflict in Sri Lanka? Keywords: Intervention Strategy, Multilateral Second, what are the factors or conditions that affected Intervention, Conflict Outcome, Fifth Peace Process of intended outcome of that intervention in Sri Lanka? Sri Lanka Thus, this paper intends to address these two questions in a more systematic manner by exploring Introduction the following assumptions. That, diplomacy-centered Past studies on the fifth peace process of Sri Multilateral Intervention was effective in decreasing Lanka demonstrate that there existed a multilateral the expected duration of the civil war in Sri Lanka, and intervention composed of Norway, USA, and EU. its level of effectiveness was conditioned to the stand Moreover, the studies also suggest a mix of far- and behavior of the domestic and regional actors of the reaching effects resulted from the intervention conflict alike. throughout the three year period of time beginning [105] Proceedings of the Third International Symposium, SEUSL: 6-7 July 2013, Oluvil, Sri Lanka Analytical Framework between the SLG and the LTTE (Samaranayeke, 2006: Suryanarayan, 2006: Moolakkattu, 2004). As for the methodology, a descriptive analytical framework based on major argumentation and However, the ceasefire agreement was not solely interpretation of empirical literature of external a result of Norway’s years-long constant diplomatic intervention and civil war duration is adopted. effort, but there were other domestic-military Accordingly, the major goal of all intervention attempts stalemate and international factors-post 9/11 is the cessation of hostilities, regardless of the factors atmosphere-that contributed to the realization of the that motivated the intervention (Regan,1996),and if CFA. (Samaranayeke 2006: Suryanarayan 2006: there was a cessation of hostilities between the Saravanamuthu 2006: Shanmugaratnam and stoke, combatants for a period of more than six months after 2004: Gunatilake, 2006: Uyangoda, 2005c).The spirit of an intervention occurred can be regarded as successful the CFA is to serve as an instrument to maintain the intervention attempt at shortening the expected status quo balance of capabilities in military and duration of a conflict(Regan, 2000).More over, all strategic terms between the combatants. In other interventions attempts are presumably targeted at some words, CFA sought to freeze the military-balance sort of conflict management (Regan 2002). between the protagonists in order to de-escalate violence which the protagonists perceive necessary, although due to different reasons, step towards Method of Data gathering negotiations (Uyangoda,2005a p337: Athas, 2006 p122).It was CFA on which smooth progress of As this is a study based on process tracing, negotiation process stood on. This is to say that mainly secondary data derived from archives and other smooth progress of negotiation process necessitated materials were used for analysis. To facilitate systematic the smooth implementation of CFA with compliance and careful treatment of variables involved, a code by and commitment of protagonists. sheet was devised for the purpose of systematic recording of the events of the intervention attempt Multiple interveners and the Fifth peace process under study. It is an unprecedented effort in the history of third party involvement in Sri Lanka’s ethnic conflict Norway’s Facilitation and Ceasefire Agreement resolution that the involvement of a group of countries (CFA) (Norway, the US,EU,Japan) with the proclaimed-aim The presence of Norway as third-party facilitator of bringing an end to decades-long civil war through in the Sri Lankan ethnic conflict resolution falls as making individual and coordinated efforts and back as 1998 (Helegesen 2003: Samaranayeke 2006: functions. Of Norway, being the principal intervener, Silva 2002). Norway had offered its services to bring primarily engaged herself in political and non-coercive the two parties together much earlier. These early diplomatic undertakings through its facilitative and efforts gathered momentum towards the end of 2001, mediatory functions (Moolakkattu, 2005). The critical when Ranil Wickremesinghe, who belonged to the role that Norway played in drafting, finalization and opposition United National Party, became Prime enforcement of the ceasefire agreement through the Minister (Uyangoda, 2005a; Poncalan, 2005).The mechanism called Sri Lanka Monitoring Mission unilateral ceasefire declared by the LTTE which (SLMM) underscored the onset of its active diplomatic followed by similar gesture by the new Government of involvement in the peace process which came into Sri Lanka(GSL) and their (both GSL and LTTE) offer force shortly after the signing of ceasefire agreement to the Norwegian emissaries that they were prepared between the GSL and LTTE in 2000 February. As an for a just and honorable settlement paved way for the individual (diplomatic) role, Norway’s functions had Norway facilitated negotiation process to begin in 2002 primarily been associated with facilitating peace February 22 with the signing of memorandum of negotiations and assisting the protagonists in devising understanding followed by ceasefire agreement modalities to implement agreements reached upon [106] M.M. Ihjas, M.A. Jabbar and M.A.M. Fowsar Third-Party Intervention in Civil War Situation: Analyzing the Outcomes of Norway-Led Multilateral Intervention (2002-2005) in Sri Lanka between the protagonists during peace talks. In this 2002 had not been confined to expression of support, sense, six rounds of such talks were held within one but had extended to trenchant criticism of and threat year (2000 March to 2003 April) with varying degree of use of force against LTTE. This became obvious by of outcome. The most imminent one of such outcomes the remark of the Deputy Secretary of State Richard was the consensus between the protagonists to jointly Armitage that the US might ‘hunt down’ the LTTE if it explore the possibilities for a federal solution to the failed to renounce violence and terrorism conflict (Silva, 2003: Waldman,New York Times, 2002). (Venkataramanan, 2006 p208). With regard to the other interveners such as the Further, an evidence demonstrating the tangible US, European Union and Japan, they all were late effect of the combined intervention is when it comers into the process at the request by and invitation influenced the decision change of the LTTE over of both Norway and the protagonists, and played participation at the Geneva talks vis-à-vis the review supplementary role of `consolidation of the peace of effective implementation of the CFA with the process`, in differing capacity to the Norwegian SLG.The LTTE was reluctant and wanted to avoid its diplomatic initiative. participation at the talks citing tense situation on the ground allegedly caused by the SL security forces, Donor Co-Chairs and the peace process although Erick Solheim, the Norway mediator, made efforts at his best to persuade them. However, the Co-Chairs of the Sri Lanka peace process is the LTTE changed its decision to participate the talks economic component of the Multilateral Intervention following a statement by a US diplomat that carried a consisting of countries such as the US, EU, Japan and message of threat to use of force against them which Norway that use development aid assistance as their cooled the tensions on the ground. As reported by incentive to protagonists to move them forward with Economic and Political Weekly (2006), the US diplomat peace process. In that sense, they (Donor Co-Chairs) was saying that “If the LTTE chooses to abandon made a pledge of $4.5billion for developmental peace, however, we want it to be clear, they will face a activities in the war-torn areas of Sri Lanka in 2003 stronger, more capable and more determined Sri after the Tokyo donor conference (Venkataramanan, Lankan military. We want the cost of a return to war 2006). Nearly one quarter of the package was pledged to be high” (2006). by Japan. However, the disbursement of this pledged aid was conditioned to the clear progress that the Not the US did pause its role only with making protagonists make in pursuing the peace process. As stunt statements but further she went on to donate for the combatants, it was an incentive to drive them USCG Cutter Courageous offshore patrol vessel to the to profess their commitment toward the peace process Sri Lankan Navy, in order to strengthen its (SL Navy) by coming up with set of proposals for interim capability to check and deter threats from LTTE’s sea administration for North and East provinces to tiger fleet which frequent exercise and presence at undertake developmental related activities with LTTE Northern sea of Sri Lanka was great challenge to the participation. As Japanese participant suggested that SLG and SLMM and the smooth existence of CFA was the promise of major external assistance — expected another example of the US to maintain balance of to be some $3 billion over three years — is what has forces between the protagonists, and thus to ensure the kept the disputing parties at the negotiating table continued compliance of them to CFA. It marked the (McDonald,2003). first significant military hardware transfer to Sri Lanka (Embassy of Sri Lanka in Washington 2004). Moreover, The US, EU and escalation of violence it (US) tried to pursue other countries to take stern action against LTTE. As an official attached to the State As a late comer to the peace process, the US Department mentioned, “We are in touch with joined the Co-Chairs at the request and persuasion of governments around the world to bring to bear both the SLG and Norway to keep the LTTE on the whatever pressure we can on the Tamil Tigers to peace process. The US approach, given the most of the abandon this (armed violence) course of action and to statements relating to the peace process since early [107] Proceedings of the Third International Symposium, SEUSL: 6-7 July 2013, Oluvil, Sri Lanka look for ways that we can support the government on situation on the ground in the first year of the peace coping with the threat”(Tamil Guardian,2003 May 3 ). process had gradually been replaced by growing frustration. On the other hand, European Union, one of the Co-Chairs, through its coercive diplomatic and The following tables depict a comparative over economic approach toward the protagonists, view of the situational difference before and after of the particularly to the LTTE, helped to ensure the fifth peace process continued effect of the CFA which in fact was in grave danger of collapse when the LTTE assassinated Sri Table 1: total casualty in Armed Conflict Lanka Foreign Affairs Minister. However, the prompt with LTTE (April 1983‐Feb2002) action taken by the EU against LTTE both for the increasing violence and its pull out from the Geneva talks with the SLG by imposing a travel ban on the LTTE to EU member countries and later by formally proscribing LTTE as a terrorist organization, and thus asking member countries to freeze all its(LTTE) properties, bank accounts, holdings and companies, and to thwart its illegal tax collection among Tamil diaspora living in the European Union. Outcomes of Multilateral Intervention strategy As a matter of fact, the strategy had yielded with both positive and negative consequences in terms of the goal and objectives of the interveners. As for the intervener, they expected a speedy progress in the Table 2: Casualties in the period of the negotiation while making sure of strengthenment of current Ceasefire ‐ Security Forces, LTTE the CFA, and thus engendering short term solutions to and civilians (Killed by the two parties) the issues. As Uyangoda (2005c) maintains, in their (interveners) agenda, there was a heavy emphasis on short-term success. In that sense, a landmark ceasefire that has lasted for years has brought a degree of normalcy to the island after two decades of civil war. Regardless of the strains in the truce and uncertainty about the future of the peace process, the ceasefire brokered by the Norwegian government has held and the talks have progressed (Ediripullige, 2002: Source; includes SLMM; Weerekoon B., (2006) Samaranayake, 2006).The maintenance of the cease-fire In respect to the consequences that seemingly not agreement, particularly after the peace talks entered a promising and somewhat frustrating the interveners stalemate, is largely due to the presence of international altogether can be observed by looking at the actors in the peace process (Uyangoda, 2005c). relationship between the protagonists themselves and In the run-up to the talks, the level of violence the interveners as well. As the ground reality would dropped markedly, presumably demonstrating that demonstrate, the CFA in deed had become almost both sides could be influenced to by the combined defunct particularly after 2005 with an increase in the strategy which while persuading the protagonists with low-intensity hostilities between the protagonists. As non-coercive mediation pushed them to do so with the Crisis Group (2006) study claims that CFA that led coercive measures such as threat of use of force and aid to the longest period of peace since the 1980s had cut. However, the optimism that characterized the already collapsed. The major failure of the 2002-2003 [108] M.M. Ihjas, M.A. Jabbar and M.A.M. Fowsar Third-Party Intervention in Civil War Situation: Analyzing the Outcomes of Norway-Led Multilateral Intervention (2002-2005) in Sri Lanka peace initiative as a process is that the parties did not the war in his much awaited annual heroes’ day speech succeed in signing even an interim political settlement in late November 2005.Further, in a situation where to consolidate the gains of the CFA and six rounds of the EU ban was being mooted as pressure aiming to talks. They failed to sign an agreement for an interim bring the LTTE to the negotiating table the LTTE administrative structure in 2003-2004. The ground ideologue was constrained to point out that the conditions on which the peace process was launched opposite may happen. Instead of promoting peace it in 2002 have changed considerably. The condition of may promote war he pointed out (Jeyeraj, 2006). strategic parity has been greatly altered. The trust between the government and the LTTE has eroded considerably (Uyangoda, 2005c). Analysis and Discussion of the Results Limits of Multilateral Intervention Strategy The above account of aspects (course of action Multilateral intervention, as a strategy, intended and outcomes) linked with Norway-led multilateral to influence the course of the conflict by changing the intervention in the peace process requires two levels of behavior of the protagonists, had its own constraints at analysis in order to examine the assumptions in a more least in the Sri Lankan context. This limit of the sound manner. First, aspects and issues engulfed the strategy is discernible from the remarks and comments strategy itself. Second, factors which potentially of the interveners and other actors involved in the influenced the outcomes of the intervention. The process. For example, as Yashushi Akashi, the Japanese aspects and issues engulfed the Multilateral strategy, special envoy for Sri Lanka peace process, desperately becomes subject to close examination over its objective observed that “ownership of making peace is with both and administration on the ground. In terms of the parties” (Asian Tribune, 2006). As Paikkiasothy sequence under which Norway-led multilateral Saravanamuthu (The Morning Leader, 2006)an intervention was exercised, it followed the sequence, as observer of the peace process, noted that Japanese the empirical model demands, where diplomacy and Special Envoy Yasushi Akashi’s remarks regarding Co- mediation (facilitation) preceded over other two types Chairs’ engagement in soul-searching draws attention of strategy of economic and military in a reasonable to the possibilities and limitations that are integral to amount of time (approximately four years the role of the international community in the conflict commencing from 1998 to 2002).If that so, as the transformation process in Sri Lanka. The soul- model suggests, the duration of the conflict should searching after all is also an admission of limited effect have reduced substantially (95% of probability of and impotence. To the effect of proving this fact, duration decrease (Regan and Aydin, 2004)). LTTE’s chief negotiator once noted that actions and This means high possibility of ending the conflict. policies of the LTTE are determined not by the choices However, based on the above description, it was not of the International community but by the utterly the case in Sri Lankan context. In contrast, as deteriorating ground situations, according to the the same model suggests, economic and diplomatic report by a Tamil daily Virekesari (2006). interventions have their greatest effect at the time they This fact became even more obvious, according were implemented, and that this influence declines at to the report by Economic and Political Weekly (2006), a decelerating rate. To put it other way round, when the LTTE remained intransigent in spite of diplomatic interventions increases the likelihood that international sanctions and pressure, and enforced a a civil war ends in the next month but as the period of “boycott” of the November 2005 presidential elections time from the point of the diplomatic effort increases, in the north and east. In doing so, they effectively the effect of the intervention decreases. For economic ensured the defeat of Wickramasinghe, on whom the interventions, although they will initially increase the international community had placed its hopes for a expected duration of a conflict, the debilitating effect resolution to the conflict. Following this, the LTTE on the duration of a conflict decreases over time. leader Vellupillai Prabhakaran threatened to resume However, military intervention has no effect on the [109] Proceedings of the Third International Symposium, SEUSL: 6-7 July 2013, Oluvil, Sri Lanka duration of the conflict, according to the model. Given References this argument in the Sri Lankan context, it is very possible to posit that Norway-facilitated peace process —————— 2005b. Transition from Civil War to Peace: had brought about significant positive changes (some Challenges of Peace building in Sri Lanka. Working of them constitute as historical compromise and Paper. November. Colombo: Social Scientist turning points).Nonetheless, most of the positive Association. effects turned to intractable and controversial issues in 2006 Economic and Political Weekly May 6, available at the very next year (2003) when there was an active .http://www.epw.org.in/showIndex.php. economic and coercive (military) interventions. 2006 Tamil Week. May 18.available at http://www.tamilweek.com/ Concluding Remarks ————-and Aydin A. 2004. Diplomacy and other Forms of The preceding analysis on the potential effects of Intervention:Combined Strategies and the Duration of Norway-led Multilateral intervention strategy tends to Civil War. Department of Political Science. suggest that on several respects and aspects (vitally in Binghamton University. Available at two ways) the strategy was relatively effective at least http://www.binghamton.edu/cdp/papers/diplomacy. in prolonging the ceasefire agreement (CFA) between pdf the combatants for more than three years with many B.Raman India.: Overseas Research Foundation. ups and downs in its actual implementation. However,the effect of the strategy is particularly Jeyeraj,D.B.S. 2006. Tigers lose advantage gained at Geneva discernible in their (combatants) functional or military talks. Tamil Week.20 May. and positional or strategic capabilities. That the onset Noyahr, Kattie. 2006. The Role of International success of CFA in restraining the protagonists’ community.Edited by Kumar Rupesinghe.Colombo: capability of direct engagement, and thus maintained Foundation for Co-existence. least level of violence paved way for the prevalence of negative peace throughout the country—at least for Regan, Patrick.M. 1996. Conditions for successful third-party over one year demonstrates the level of influence that intervention in intra-state conflicts. Journal of Conflict the Multilateral intervention strategy commanded on Resolution 40(1):336-59 the duration of the conflict. On the other hand, concessions, compromise and agreements reached Saravanamuthu, Paikkiasothy. 2006. Pitfalls and Possibilities. between the protagonists over fundamental issues of Edited by the conflict underscore the scale of effect that Uyangoda Jayadeva.2005a. Sri Lanka’s Conflict and Peace combined strategy inflicted on the course of the Processes: The International Dimension. `` Discussion conflict. paper for CPA roundtable on external dimensions of Nevertheless, given the degree of effect and Sri Lankan peace process. July 8-9. 2005. Colombo. influence that Multilateral Intervention strategy Venkataramanan K. 2006. Dilemmas of External Actors. inflicted in Sri Lankan context in contrast to the degree Edited by B.Raman s. India.: Overseas Research that the empirical model (developed by Regan and Foundation. Aydin) showed, it is obvious that there existed demonstrably a modest difference of effect between Weerakoon, Bradman. 2006. Initiating and Sustaining the these two studies in terms of the degree of effects of the Peace: Origins and Challenges (2002-2004).Edited by overall strategy. Kumar Rupesinghe.Colombo.: Foundation for Co- Existence. [110] Abdul Wadood Noor Naleefa(1) Keeping Them in the Dark: Pregnant Mothers’ Reaction and Attitude towards PreNatal Care in Sri Lanka (1) Department of Social Sciences, Faculty of Arts and Culture, South Eastern University of Sri Lanka, Oluvil, Sri Lanka. Abstract: Medical knowledge is used as a power and The role of the private sector is limited to maternal institutions claim about their quality services. provision of a component of antenatal services. The It led the researcher to think how far pregnant organization for service provision and an information mothers’ psychological attitudes prevail towards the system made significant contributions towards treatment they receive in between medical power and improvement. The commitment of the health sector to improved physical resources. In requisites of finding provide services free of charge supported by non- answers for four objectives, data was collected by using health inputs, especially female education, has enabled 48 interviews, 5 case studies and observation based on Sri Lanka to make gains in maternal health (Fernando, purposive sampling method. It was found that the Jayatilleka & Karunaratna, 2003 p.85). physical treatments received by pregnant mothers are much appreciated but psychological treatment is Background trifling. Development of specific services for mothers in Keywords: Maternal health, Reaction, Attitude, Sri Lanka can be traced back to ancient and medieval Emitional support, times. According to ancient chronicles, the first maternity home was probably established between 522 and 524 AD (Uragoda: 1987). The Portuguese Introduction introduced the western system of medical care to the Development of specific services for mothers in country in 1505. The Dutch, who ruled the country Sri Lanka can be traced back to ancient and medieval from 1658 to 1796, established a few hospitals in the times. The history of Sri Lankan health sector is not Maritime Provinces (Uragoda 1987). The present day that old. The declining trend in the maternal mortality health services of Sri Lanka aimed at provision of the rate (MMR) from the 1930s to the late 1990s resulted ‘western’ system of medicine evolved from the military from several strategies implemented within and outside and estate medical services introduced by the British, the health sector. Expansion of both field-based and during the period when they ruled Sri Lanka. institutional services through the past decades The earliest indication of a health service aimed contributed to improved geographical access and specifically at mothers and children was the provision of ‘free’ services improved economic access. establishment of a Maternity Hospital in 1897. The next These led to increased use of antenatal and natal recorded maternal and child health activity was the services provided by trained midwives and other setting up of a Public Health Department in the personnel followed by improvements in the availability Colombo Municipal Council in 1902 and the of specialized care and emergency obstetric care. establishment of a Maternal and Child Health (MCH) Integration of family planning and other inputs to the Department in 1906. In 1927, the midwifery services maternal health programme has yielded positive in the Colombo Municipality were re-organized by results. training all midwives working in the Municipality [111] Proceedings of the Third International Symposium, SEUSL: 6-7 July 2013, Oluvil, Sri Lanka (Uragoda 1987). By this time, Sri Lanka had that people ought to receive medical care for experience of the positive economic impact of a humanitarian reasons, regardless of their ability to pay. preventive programme aimed at the community. The preamble to the constitution of World Health Organization states, “The enjoyment of the highest When Sri Lanka gained independence in attainable standard of health is one of the fundamental February 1948, several social welfare schemes that rights of every human being”. Many countries have included food subsidies, free education system, food attempted to provide for this right to medical care by supplementation and a health service provided free of legislation. In some countries, the question of whether charge were available and continued after medical care should be provided as a legal right or as independence. Availability of an organizational a privilege is still not resolved. In others, it would structure for provision of maternal health services at involve a high proportion of national resources to the time of independence and the political attempt to provide comprehensive health services. commitment at the highest level for implementation of welfare measures were crucial factors that influenced David Armstrong (1987, p.70) concerned doctor’s the programme aimed at improving maternal health. and patient’s share in their consultation. He uses the By 1960, the state sector health services responsible for word ‘mutual co-operation’. It omits another power the major component of the maternal care services more innocent and more concrete, even casual. He identified the need for development of appropriate shows lines of medical surveillance, such as ‘what is policies and programmes, to further improve the your complaint?’, ‘How do you feel?’, ‘please tell me situation. In the next few decades, with the changing your troubles?’ and he shows the routine clinical needs and emphasis on a wider scope for prevention of techniques such as the rash is displayed, the hand maternal mortality and disability, changes were made applied to the abdomen, the stethoscope is placed in the organizational structure for provision of gently on the chest. He says that this is the staff of maternal care. In Sri Lanka, Family Health Bureau is power. In this case stethoscope is an important responsible for planning, co-coordinating, monitoring instrument of power. So these arguments lead us to and evaluating the programme provision of family think more. Cicilia Van Hollen (2003) in her work health services through the health infrastructure of the “Birth on the Threshold: Childbirth and Modernity in Ministry of Health. In addition, it provides support South Asia” discuss this issue. She mentions that “in services for programme implementation by way of in- the context of the Industrial Revolution, women’s service training, provision of supplies and equipment reproductive bodies came to be viewed as machines for family health programmes and technical guidance. which should operate in uniform and efficient ways to Government maternal hospitals provide its service in facilitates (re)productivity”. prenatal maternity care and childbirth. Ann Oakley (1993, p.124) in her book, Essays on When talking about health, functionalist point of Women, Medicine and Health, mentions that, “in many view is important rather than looking at conflict or places in the world today, birth is considered an violence, because health is a major issue which has a abnormal event. It is an episode in women’s lives and dominant place in the progress of the society. As a in the lives of families which is not part of everyday common public view about health is “a condition of life, but an occasion for medical surveillance and well being free of disease or infirmity and a basic and treatment”. Thus, to think about the possible normality universal human right.” It is reflected in the universal of birth requires a deliberate refocusing of one’s Declaration for Human Rights, in 1978 declarations at attention. But what is significant is that such a Alma – Ata lent new pushes to tackle ill-health. refocusing was not necessary before birth became the province of experts. She further mentions that, Vasak (1977) also affirms that several new human obstetricians and pediatricians are not the only experts rights such as, to right to development, to a healthy on birth who have helped to make it special in this environment and to peace were already beginning to way. Other professional groups have also participated, energy in international law. The special problems of and benefited, including childbirth educators, social financing health services stem from the growing belief [112] Abdul Wadood Noor Naleefa Keeping Them in the Dark: Pregnant Mothers’ Reaction and Attitude towards Pre-Natal Care in Sri Lanka workers, health visitors, psychiatrists, psychologists, q To examine the possibilities given to pregnant sociologists, anthropologists, epidemiologists, mothers to be involved in the decision technicians and other members of the commercial making about their child birth. world surrounding birth. While these different professional groups have had different perspectives on birth, we have all, in effect, collaborated in Methods transforming birth. Since this was an empirical work and in a need to Medical knowledge is used as a power not only use case studies as examples of some of the themes by the doctors but also from the top to bottom all the which I had identified in my literature review, my worker and maternal institutions claim about their approach was a mixed meaning of a combination of quality services. It led the researcher to think how far the quantitative and qualitative methodologies. The pregnant mothers’ psychological attitudes prevail focus in qualitative approach was on meanings and towards the treatment they receive in between medical experiences and the research attempted to understand power and improved physical resources. Here I the lives of those being studied, their behavior, values, attempted to pay my attention on psycho-social aspects beliefs and so on, from the perspectives of the people of maternity and childbirth of pregnant mothers at themselves. In this study the researcher paid more Antenatal Clinics (ANCs) conducted by government attention on meanings and real life experiences of maternity hospitals and village clinics under the pregnant mothers. Since my research was a more management of Family Health Bureau. qualitative one, the data was gathered by semi- structured interviews, case studies, individual The background and the interest in this area was narratives and observation. This study contained semi- a result of my own experience as a pregnant mother at structured interviews, which allowed the respondents an ANC and a government hospital. Especially some to reveal their experiences freely. Further to cover my of the maternity hospitals in Sri Lanka claim to have themes, I used some case studies. As an additional the about their best and quality services. For an method data was gathered by using observation too. example Castle Street Hospital for Women mentions Observation is one of the most important methods of in their name boards as “a hospital with a sense of data collection. quality” and it has won several quality awards too. It motivated me to think that not only the quality but Here as the researcher it was able to observe also the psychological response about the services every physical and other aspects of maternity health received by pregnant mothers is also very important. care providing services by the researcher since the So the problem for the research was created as ‘why researcher was also a pregnant mother during the pregnant mothers are not happy even they are researching period. So here the self and the personal provided with the best services?’ knowledge were used as the primary instrument to gather useful data. Since the researcher was a pregnant Research objective specifies much more precisely mother in the whole data collection period, it became about my goals. That was what I intend to find in the an opportunity to access the places easily. It did not research study. In the study, were four basic objectives, need special permission to enter the field locations. q To find out the views of doctors about how Further it was very easy to discuss with pregnant pregnant mothers should be treated medically mothers as the researcher too was in the same position. and psychology while they are in the clinic. They did not feel uncomfortable when discussing their feelings. Furthermore, the researcher had a great q To explore whether the above views are chance to be involved in the study as a participant practiced by doctors and medical staff. observer. My observation was an unstructured q To discover the feelings, anxiety and observation. It is to sit at the side or back of the room psychology of pregnant mothers due to the and detailed notes were taken later to refrain from treatment given by doctors and medical staff disturbing the setting. at Ante Natal Clinics. [113] Proceedings of the Third International Symposium, SEUSL: 6-7 July 2013, Oluvil, Sri Lanka In this study all the maternity hospital and of recovered data would maintained at all times, and village clinics functioning under Family Health Bureau identification of participants were not available during considered as the total population or the universe. But or after the study. Confidentiality was assured and considering the convenience of the researcher, it was maintained on information provided by the decided to select few places situated in the Colombo respondents. city. Selection of the research field was done on the Results and Discussions purposive basis. It was selected according to the researcher’s convenience. Accordingly Castle Street This section presents findings on psycho-social hospital for Women, De Soysa Maternity Home and aspects of maternity and childbirth of pregnant Sedawaththa and Gothtuwa village clinics were mothers at Antenatal Clinics (ANCs) conducted by included in the whole process of data collection. In the government maternity hospitals and village clinics designing stage it was decided to select respondents under the management of Family Health Bureau. The from the particular clinics of these hospitals. Later health care that a mother receives, during pregnancy, based on the comments made by the panel board in at the time of delivery, and soon after delivery are the proposal presentation, pregnant mothers were important for the survival and wellbeing of both selected from outside the hospital based on the rapport mother and child. The study reveals that Psychological builded during the clinic sessions.. But observations and emotional support is appreciated as the physical were based only inside the hospital and village clinics. and human resources. Further these findings are important to policymakers and programme Since my study was done for an academic implementers in formulating programmes and policies. purpose within in a limited time and funds, I selected When they improve reproductive and child health care a non probability sampling method here. I selected services it will stress the importance of considering this sampling method to gain fruitful data on psychological and emotional support. ‘treatment received by pregnant mothers and their psycho-social reaction at ANCs’, as going for other Almost all the respondents included in the three types of non probability methods were not that research had at least primary education. 20% of them appropriate are teachers. 45% had secondary education. Women of all educational levels are equally likely to see a public To achieve the objectives of the research data was health midwife during pregnancy, but women with collected by spending more time. It was decided to more education see doctors more frequently than those complete 50 semi-structured interviews based on the with only primary education. 80% had Rs.10000- place where pregnant mothers are cared. But after the 15000 or above as their or their spouse’ monthly discussion held to examine the methodology it was income. advised to conduct interviews at home premises of the pregnant mothers. After completing semi structured The study confirms that regular attendance and interviews, 8 interviews were considered as interesting the advices received helped the pregnant mothers to go cases. So, based on that 5 cases were studied in-depth. for a safe delivery. Annual Health Bulletin (2007) Further to the respondents 5 doctors and 2 nurses 2 validates that, regular antenatal care throughout midwives and an attendant were interviewed to find pregnancy contributes to positive outcomes at delivery. out their attitude related to expected services and the Dissanayake (2007) highlights, that the major delivered services. objective of antenatal care is to identify and treat This study presented minimal risk to participants problems during pregnancy such as anaemia and pertaining to psychological harm. Care was taken to infections. In addition he mentions, early contact with ensure that the participants fully understood the nature the health care system can improve the timely and of the study and the fact that participation was appropriate use of delivery care services. This study voluntary. A statement was made that confidentiality also reveals that all the respondents had the chance to [114] Abdul Wadood Noor Naleefa Keeping Them in the Dark: Pregnant Mothers’ Reaction and Attitude towards Pre-Natal Care in Sri Lanka find out their problems related to anaemia and took the baby to inject. I had no idea about what was infections. All the respondents had been given advice going on. I was always crying thinking that my little one on physical exercises during pregnancy. They have is sick. When I came back home we consulted a attended class on ‘how to feed their new born babies. pediatrician to get to know everything. Then only, we There were seminars conducted to pregnant mothers came to know the situation. It was very easy explaining about the health care that a mother receives, during what was wrong. But they do not think that we are pregnancy, at the time of delivery, and soon after affected emotionally and psychologically due to their delivery inside the hospital. 96% of the respondents silence. I think parallel to the well advanced developed had attended this seminar. physical services, psychological and emotional services The study shows that almost all pregnant women should be implemented during pregnancy, at the time of studied have been received core antenatal services. At delivery, and soon after delivery” their first visit they have been weighed, their blood pressure checked, and blood and urine tests done Being pregnant is a very personal experience for (virtually 100 percent for each item). Almost all the each patient. They mentioned that they had new pregnant mothers seemed and mentioned that they are challenges and problems. How they respond to these happy with provided services such as tests and the challenges is dependent on their emotional maturity or advices. But 90% of them mentioned that the mental lack of it. It is the responsibility of the doctors, nurses, support given by the doctors and entire staff is not midwives, etc. to help her understand and meet these significant. They revealed that they had several challenges appropriately. Throughout pregnancy, their questions and doubts which they do not know. Doctors emotional reactions had described as ambivalence, fear did not have enough time to answer to such questions. and anxiety, introversion or narcissism, and 40% of the respondents had a fear to ask questions due uncertainty. These feelings predominate at different to the hurry of the doctor. periods of the pregnancy; other tends to fade in and out as the pregnancy progresses. So as suggestions Annual Health Bulletin (2007) shows that women pregnant mothers mentioned that psychological and are less likely to be informed about pregnancy emotional support should be given throughout the complications. Almost three quarters of women having progress of the pregnancy. They further mentioned their first birth got such information, but the that during the delivery period, inside the labour room proportion declines steadily for second- and higher- or the theatre, inside wards psychological and order births. Women living in estate areas are also less emotional support must be given. It was found that the likely to report that they had received information on physical treatments received by pregnant mothers are complications (50 percent) compared with women in much appreciated but psychological treatment is other rural (70 percent) and urban (66 percent) areas. trifling. But the study found that almost all the respondents revealed that they really wanted to know about their complications but the staff on duty did not have any References communication related to their complications. This has Academic Learning Support, 2007, Harvard (author-date) led the respondents to feel that they are (baby and referencing guide, Central Queensland University, mother) in danger. Queensland, viewed on 2013 March 19, http://www.library.uow.edu.au/content/groups/public/ 20% of the studied had experience inside a Pre- @web/@health/documents/doc/uow025425.pdf mature Baby care Unit(PBU). They had neither been given reasons for the admission of the baby to the PBU Armstrong, D, 1987, ‘Bodies of knowledge: Foucault and the nor emotional or psychological support given. Problem of Human Anatomy’, in G Scambler (ed), When the case number III reveals her experience, Sociological Theory and Medical Sociology, Tavistock Publications, London. “I was not happy even I got my baby. They time to time [115] Proceedings of the Third International Symposium, SEUSL: 6-7 July 2013, Oluvil, Sri Lanka Dissanayaka, D 2007, Reproductive Health Annual Health Bulletin, Ministry of Health, Colombo. Fernando, D, Jayatilleka, A & Karunaratna, V 2003, ‘Pregnancy-Reducing Maternal Deaths and Disability in Sri Lanka: National Strategies’, in British Medical Bulletin 67:85-98 viewed on 2012 Oct 12, http://bmb.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/reprint/67/1/85?eaf Hollen, C V, 2003, Birth on the Threshold: Childbirth and Modernity in South India, University of California Press, Berkeley. Karel V,1977, A 30 year struggle, The UNESCO Courier, Nov p-29. Oakley, A, 1993, Essays on Women, Medicine and Health, Edinburgh University Press, Edinburgh. Uragoda, C G, 1987, A History of Medicine in Sri Lanka, Sri Lanka Medical Association, Colombo. [116] S. Mohammed Azaad(1) Dr. Ambedkar and Gender Equality (1) Legal Consultant, Chennai, India. (email:[email protected]) “I measure the progress of a community by the degree of progress which women have achieved” - Dr. B.R. Ambedkar Abstract: Dr. Ambedkar fought tooth and nail for given even the basic rights. They were even equated women’s economic liberation and for securing women’s to animals and put to the lowest rug of humanity. social rights. The all round development of women was his top most agenda and he left no stone unturned Equality Based Reconstruction of the Hindu in achieving this goal. As the Chairman of the Drafting Society: Committee of Constitution, Ambedkar tried an The All India Dalit Mahila conference was adequate inclusion of women’s rights in the political organized, on 20th July, 1942 and 25,000 women vocabulary and constitution of India. Dr. Ambedkar, a attended this event. Ambedkar was highly pleased with social visionary aptly provided appropriate rights to the awakening and activities of women. On 13th women in the Constitution through several articles August, he wrote to one of his friends, Meshram about and at a later stage, many more were included. The this. On 6th January 1945, the All India Untouchable vision of Ambedkar is yet to become reality and unless Women’s Conference was held in Mumbai. (Limaye, minds are united it will be only a distant dream. 1999:57-61). In the movement, his strategy was similar to Gandhian method though he had disagreements on Keywords: Tooth and nail, Vocabulary, Visionary many things with Gandhi. To him the emphasis was Agenda, Distant Dream on reconstruction of the Hindu society on the basis of equality rather than the social reforms initiated Dr. Ambedkar as Saviour for by Brahma Samaj or Arya Samaj because their Women’s Liberation attempts were limited only to the upper strata of the society. His in depth study of Smritis and Shashtras Dr. B.R. Ambedkar who is well known as the and his experience from the response of upper castes ‘Father of Indian Constitution’ is a multi-faceted during his temple entry movement crystallised his personality exhibiting in himself a iron willed conclusions on Hindu philosophy and society. political leader, a par excellence freedom fighter, ideological thinker, shrewd philosopher, a social Crusade against Unjust Social Practices: reformer, a great editor and so on. Ambedkar fought Running newspapers, women’s hostels, boarding tooth & nail for women’s economic liberation and for schools participating in Sathyagrahas were some of the securing women’s social rights. He stressed the need activities of woman for acquiring the personality to safeguard the dignity and to respect the modesty of development to secure efficient administrative and the women folk. The all round development of women leadership capacity as men have. Gaining inspiration was his top most agenda and he left no stone unturned and encouragement from Ambedkar, many women in achieving this goal. wrote on topics like Planning, Buddhist philosophy Societal positioning of women: and such other topics. Women also wrote plays, autobiographies, and participated in Satyagrahas. Irrespective of the ages, somehow women in our Tulsabai Bansode started a newspaper titled land were not given proper treatment. Her societal ‘Chokhamela’. This showed how Ambedkar created positioning was never at par with men. She was not awareness among poor, illiterate women and inspired [117] Proceedings of the Third International Symposium, SEUSL: 6-7 July 2013, Oluvil, Sri Lanka them to fight against the unjust social practices like will do so only by putting our political democracy in child marriages and devdasi system. peril. We must remove this contradiction at the earliest possible moment or else those who suffer New Charter of Human Rights: from inequality will blow up the structure of political democracy which this Assembly has so As the Chairman of the Drafting Committee of laboriously built up. The new social movements Constitution, Ambedkar tried an adequate inclusion of emerged especially from Dalits, women and peasants, women’s rights in the political vocabulary and to assert democratic rights and urged for a new path constitution of India. Therefore, by considering of development which legitimises this warning of the women’s equality both in formal and substantial senses Father of the Indian Constitution, when he submitted he included special provisions for women while all it to the nation. other general provisions are applicable to them, as to men. Hence, there are Articles like 15(3), 51(A), and Significance of the Hindu Code Bill: so on. His key work in the preparation of Indian Constitution made it to be known as a ‘New Charter His strong concern for women appeared in the of Human Rights’. He looked upon law as the form of the Hindu Code Bill in Parliament on 11th instrument of creating a sane social order in which the April 1947, which invited strong opposition from the development of individual should be in harmony with Hindu orthodoxy in post-independent India. The Bill the growth of society. He incorporated the values of provided for several basic rights to women. The Bill liberty, equality and fraternity in the Indian sought to abolish different marriage systems prevalent Constitution. among Hindus and to establish monogamy as the only legal system. It aimed at conferment of right to Political Democracy vs. Social Democracy: property and adoption of women. It provided for restitution of conjugal rights and judicial separation. It Considering the belief that any scheme of attempted to unify the Hindu code in tune with franchise and constituency that fails to bring about progressive and modern thought. (Mathew, 1991:73- representation of opinions as well as representation of 73; Ahir, 1990). persons falls short of creating a popular government, he submitted the Constitution with a warning. He said Constitutional Support: in his speech delivered in the Constituent Assembly on 25th November 1949, “Political democracy cannot Dr. Ambedkar, a social visionary aptly provided last unless there lies at the base of it social appropriate rights to women in the Constitution democracy.” By social democracy he means a way of through several articles and at a later stage, many more life, which recognizes liberty, equality and fraternity as were included and a suggestive list reads as follows:- principles of life. He further said: “On 26th January Article -14 Equal rights and opportunities in political, 1950, we are going to enter into a life of contradictions. economic and social spheres. In politics we will have equality and in social and economic life we will have inequality. In politics we Article -15 Prohibits discrimination on the ground of will be recognizing the principle of one man one vote sex. and one vote one value. Article -15(3) Enables affirmative discrimination in favour of women. Dr. Ambedkar’s Early Warning Signal: Article -39 – Equal means of livelihood and equal pay In our social and economic life, we shall, by for equal work. reason of our social and economic structure, continue to deny the principle of one man one value. How long Article - 42 – Just and human conditions of work and shall we continue this life of contradictions? How long maternity relief. shall we continue to deny equality in our social and Article - 46 – The State to promote with special care, economic life? If we continue to deny it for long, we [118] S. Mohammed Azaad Dr. Ambedkar and Gender Equality the educational and economic interests of the weaker Basic Rights Still at Stake: section of the people and to protect them from social The resignation show how the parliament of injustice and all forms of exploitation. independent India deprived its women citizens of even Article - 47 - The State to raise the level of nutrition basic rights (Haksar, 1986: 56- 57) Although most of and the standard of living of its people and the the provisions proposed by Ambedkar were later improvement of public health and so on. passed during 1955-56 in four Bills on Hindu ‘marriage’, ‘succession’, ‘minority and guardianship’ and Article - 51(A) (c) Fundamental duties to renounce ‘maintenance’ and later in 1976 some changes were practices, derogatory to the dignity of women. made in Hindu Law, it still remains true that the basic Article - 243 D (3), 243T (3) and 243R (4) provides for rights of women have yet to be restored to them even allocation of seats in the Panchayat Raj System. after fifty years of the working of the Indian Constitution based on the principle of liberty, equality Opposition for the Bill: and justice to all Indian citizens. The nature of controversy on Hindu Code Bill made it clear that the The Hindu Code Bill was introduced in rights for women documented in the Book of Indian parliament in 1948 and when debated on the floor of Constitution is very difficult to translate into reality. the house, the opposition was strong against the Bill. Ambedkar tried his level best to defend the Bill by Birth of ‘Second Wave Feminism’ pointing out the drawbacks of Indian society and arguing that the ideals in the Bill are based on the One can find an adequate answer for this in Constitutional principles of equality, liberty and Ambedker’s analysis of the Hindu social order and its fraternity and that in the Indian society characterised philosophy that perpetuates inequality, slavery, poverty, by the caste system and the oppression of women since ignorance and powerlessness for the oppressed classes women are deprived of equality, a legal frame work is and also to women, which has its impact in modern necessary for a social change in which women have times also. However, the Hindu Code Bill helped the equal rights with men. He also pointed out that the resurgence of feminist movement in India. This aim of the Bill was “to codify the rules of Hindu Law crusade of Ambedkar to emancipate women from which are scattered in innumerable decisions of High injustice inspires the women leaders in Parliament to Courts and of the Privy Council which form a keep the issue alive until its enactment. This was the bewildering motley to the common man”. (Arya, starting point for women to recognise their position 2000:63). and pursue rights movement by acquiring strength from ‘second wave feminism’ started in the early 1960s. Resignation of Dr. Ambedkar: Women are still fighting issues such as rape, dowry death, communalism, fundamentalism, sexual However, the Bill could not withstand the harassment, violence-domestic and social, poverty and opposition from the Hindu orthodoxy. Their major so on. argument was that the Bill was an attempt at the “demolition of the entire structure and fabric of Hindu Embracing Buddhism: Society. The very foundations not only of one pillar but of all the pillars on which the Hindu society rests are His strong disagreements with Hindu ideals shaken”. In reality, the Bill was a threat to patriarchy on compelled him to accept Buddhism as his religion. In which traditional family structure, was bounded and a speech at Nagpur on 15th October, 1956 he said that that was the major reason behind the opposition. according to the tenets of Hinduism only the so called Therefore, on the eve of the first elections in 1951 higher castes have been benefited. Sudras and Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru dropped the Bill by untouchables have nothing much to gain from it. “As saying that there was too much opposition. On this soon as the wife of a Brahmin conceives, she thinks of issue, the then Law Minister Dr.Ambedkar resigned. the High Court whether any post of a Judge has fallen vacant but when our women become pregnant, she [119] Proceedings of the Third International Symposium, SEUSL: 6-7 July 2013, Oluvil, Sri Lanka cannot think of anything better than a sweeper’s post ‘Bharat Ratna’ Award: under the Municipal Corporation”. In contemporary Dr.Ambedkar was honoured by the Nation India the globalisation process has made this thesis through ‘Bharat Ratna’ posthumously which was applicable to all economically deprived sections received by his widow Savita Ambedkar in 1990. Dr. irrespective of caste due to the trend of making the rich Ambedkar Foundation was set up under the Ministry richer and the poor poorer and denying labour rights of Social Justice and Empowerment on 24th March to them. He concluded that Hinduism will ruin the 1992 for the purpose of promoting and propagating his Hindus and ultimately India. ideology of social justice so as to reach the common masses. The Foundation implemented Schemes such as Voicing Against Hinduism: Dr. Ambedkar National Memorial, Dr. Ambedkar The inclusion of Hinduism in politics is a sure National Public Library, Dr. Ambedkar Chairs in road to degradation and to eventual dictatorship. He Universities/ Institutions, Dr. Ambedkar Award for recalled Daniel O. Connell to caution India that “No Social Understanding and Upliftment of Weaker man can be grateful at the cost of his honour, no Sections and the Dr. Ambedkar International Award woman can be grateful at the cost of her chastity and for Social Change. no nation can be grateful at the cost of its liberty”. The dissatisfaction with Hinduism which led to the mass Tribute to Dr.Ambedkar: conversion of 30000 untouchables into Buddhism even It made a feature film on Ambedkar and in the 21 century is a point to rethink about the published 144 volumes of his speeches and writings so manifestations of Hinduism in the post modern era. If far in various languages. Dr. Ambedkar Chairs have not, as Ambedkar said, Hinduism will remain as a been set up in nine universities/institutions. Baba religion that glorifies ignorance and preaches Amte was given Dr.Ambedkar International Award for inequality and hatred, divides people into Social Change in 1999 and Remy Fernand Claude multitudinous castes and sub castes, sanctions poverty Satorre Bonhomme of Spain has been selected for the and keeps majority of its followers poor, illiterate, year 2000. As Lord Casey said, Ambedkar stands as the ignorant, disunited and divided. Re-domestication of “fountainhead of wisdom and knowledge” in modern women will be the ultimate result. That women can be India also. raped and paraded naked through the streets is a reality in contemporary India and is a symptom of restoration of Manusmriti Raj. Conclusion Ambedkar as Social Architect: Ambedkar authored, ‘The riddle of the women’, ‘The woman and the Counter Revolution’, ‘The rise Dr. Ambedkar who was recognized and fall of Hindu women’, all portrayed the pathetic internationally as a crusader against caste system, a and pitiable condition of Indian women as passive vigilant fighter for the human rights of all the and submissive and best suited only to a life of oppressed and enslaved and the emancipator of domestic and family chores. humanity from social and economic injustice, had his last breath on 6th December 1956. In the condolence One cannot forget the recent hue and cry over message, on Ambedkar’s death in Parliament, Prime ‘Women’s Reservation Bill’ which is yet to see the light Minister Jawaharlal Nehru said; “Dr. Baba Saheb of the day but no one seems to be honest in its Ambedkar was a symbol of revolt against all oppressive perspectives and a clear cut approach is not within features of the Hindu society”. His dream of society reach. The provisions of Constitution and Acts are not based on gender equality is yet to be realized and suffice to deal with the magnitude of domestic violence therefore his thoughts are important for the social in the country. The vision of Ambedkar is yet to reconstruction that favours women’s empowerment. become reality and unless minds are united it will be only a distant dream. [120] S. Mohammed Azaad Dr. Ambedkar and Gender Equality References Ambedkar, B.R. “Women and Counter Revolution”, “Riddles of Hindu Women” Arya, Sudha, “Women Gender Equality and the State”, Deep and Deep Publications, New Delhi. 2000. Government of India: “The National Policy for the Empowerment Of Women 2001”, Department of Women and Child Development, Ministry of Human Resource Development, New Delhi, 2001 Haksar, Nandita, “Demystification of Law for Women”, Lancer Press, New Delhi. 1986. Heywood, Andrew: “Political Ideologies: An Introduction”, Macmillan Press, London. 1998. Limaye, Champa: “Women: Power and Progress”, B.R.Publishing Corporation, New Delhi, 1999. Mathew, Thomas: “Ambedkar: Reform or Revolution, Segment Books, New Delhi [121] M. I. Mohamed Irfan(1) Practical Challenges of the Eighteenth Amendment of the Constitution of the Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka ,yq;if [dehaf Nrh\yprf; FbauR murpay; ahg;gpd; 18tJ jpUj;jr; rl;lKk; mjdJ eilKiwr; rthy;fSk; (1) Faculty of Islamic Studies & Arabic Language, South Esatern University of sri Lanka, Oluvil, Sri Lanka. (email: [email protected]) Ma;Tr; RUf;fk; (Abstract):,yq;if fiyr; nrhw;fs; (Keywords): 18tJ jpUj;jk;> [dehaf Nrh\yp] FbauR ahg;gpy; ,Jtiu [dehafk;> mjpfhuk;> ghuhSkd;wk;. nfhz;Ltug;gl;l ahg;Gj;jpUj;jr; rl;lj;jpy; 18tJ jpUj;jr; rl;lkhdJ gpujhdjhFk;. [dhjpgjpapd; mwpKfk; Ml;rpf;fhyk;> ghuhSkd;w rigia (Introduction) cUthf;Fjy;> nghyp]; kw;Wk; Nju;jy; 1978Mk; Mz;ila ,yq;if [dehaf Mizf;FOf;fis kPs;guprPypid nra;jy; Nrh\yprf; FbauR ahg;gpy; ,d;Wtiu Nghd;w gy khw;wq;fis cs;slf;fpajhf fhyj;jpd; Njitf;Nfw;g 18 ahg;Gr; rPu;jpUj;jq;fs; ,j;jpUj;jk; mike;Js;sJ. (Constitution of the Nkw;nfhs;sg;gl;Ls;sd. ,j;jpUj;jq;fspy; 18tJ Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka (1978), jpUj;jr; rl;lkhdJ ,d;W ru;tNjr uPjpapy; Eighteenth Amendment to the Constitution) 18tJ gpurpj;jp tha;e;jjhfg; Ngrg;gl;L tUfpd;wJ. ahg;Gr;rPu;jpUj;j cUthf;fj;jpd; nghUj;jg;ghL> ,t;turpayikg;Gj; jpUj;jr; rl;lkhdJ 2010.09.08 mjdJ eilKiw uPjpahd [dehafj; jd;ik ghuhSkd;wj;jpy; tpthjpf;fg;gl;L 161 thf;Ffs; kw;Wk; mjd; kPJs;s mOj;jq;fisAk; MjuthfTk; 17 thf;Ffs; vjpuhfTk; milahsk; fhz;gJ ,t;tha;tpd; Nehf;fkhFk;. mopf;fg;gl;l epiyapy; ,r;rl;lk; ,q;F gz;Grhh; kw;Wk; msTrhu; juTfs; cUthf;fg;gl;lJ (rgup:; 2010.09.12> 04). gad;gLj;jg;gl;Ls;sJld; mj;juTfs; ,j;jpUj;jkhdJ rptpy; mikg;Gf;fspdJk; Kjd;epiyj; juTfshd tpdhf;nfhj;J> vjpu;f;fl;rpfspdJk; ghupa vjpu;g;Gf;F kj;jpapy; Neh;fhzy; Mfpa Ma;T El;gq;fisAk; epiwNtwpaJ. ,jw;F jpkpo;j; Njrpa ,uz;lhk; epiyj;juthd nghUj;jkhd E}y;fs;> $l;likg;Gk; Njrpa [ddhaf Kd;dzpAk; Mtzq;fs;> rQ;rpiffs;> gj;jpupiffs;> vjpuhf thf;fspj;jd. gpujhd vjpu;f;fl;rpahd ,izj;jsk; vd;gtw;wpypUe;Jk; If;fpa Njrpaf; fl;rp r%fkspf;fhky; Nrfupf;fg;gl;Ls;sJ. ,j;jpUj;jkhdJ> thf;fspg;ig gfp];fupj;jJ. [dhjpgjpapd; mjpfhuj;ij NkYk; tYg;gLj;JtjhfTk; ghuhSkd;w> gq;Fgw;Wjy; ,yq;if murpay; tuyhw;wpy; 2/3 [dehafk;> tYNtwhf;fk;> ePjpg;Guzha;T ngUk;ghz;ik thf;fpidg; ngw Kbahj #o; mjpfhuk; Nghd;wtw;iw epiyapy; vjpu;fl;rp cWg;gpdu;fspd; fl;rpj;jhty; Nfs;tpf;Fl;gLj;jpAs;sNjhL Rje;jpukhdJk; %yk; 2/3 ngUk;ghz;ik ngw;W ,j;jpUj;jk; epahakhdJkhd Nju;jYf;F vjpu;kiwahfTk; nfhz;L tug;gl;lJ. Muk;gj;jpy; [dehaf mike;Js;sJ. kf;fs; Kd;dzpapd; gpugh fNzrDk; [130] M. I. Mohamed Irfan Practical Challenges of the Eighteenth Amendment of the Constitution of the Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka njhopyhsu; Njrpa rq;fj;ijr; Nru;e;j q nghyp]; Mizf;FOTf;Fg; gjpyhf jpfhk;guKk; murhq;fj;Jld; ,ize;J nghyp];kh mjpgh; cw;gl nghyp]hh; nfhz;ldu;. ,jidj; njhlu;e;J vjpuzp Nrit vd;w fl;likg;Gf;fs; cWg;gpdu;fs; muRf;F thf;fspj;jdu; . nfhz;LtUjy;. mt;tifapy;> If;fpa Njrpaf; fl;rp cWg;gpdu;fshd gJis khtl;l vy;. gp. Yf;kd; q Njh;jy; Mizf; FOtpd; mjpfhuq;fs; nrdtpuj;d> nghydWit khtl;l vk; .gp. kw;Wk; nraw;ghLfs; kPsikf;fg;gly; FzNrfu> fhyp khtl;l vk; gp; kZr (rgup:; 2010.09.12> 04). ehzafhu> fz;b khtl;l V.Mu;. vk;. mg;Jy; 18tJ jpUj;jj;ijg; nghUj;jkl;by; gy;NtW fhju;> Gj;jsk; khtl;l vk;. gp. Gj;jpf gj;jpud Gjpa tplaq;fs; cs;slf;fg; gl;Ls;sNjhL MfpNahu; murhq;fj;jpw;F MjuT toq;fpdu;. Vw;fdNt nfhz;Ltug;gl;l ,yq;if murpay; ,f;fl;rpj; jhty; ,lk;ngWk; Ntisapy; vjpu;f; ahg;gpYk; jpUj;jq;fspYk; gy khw;wq;fs; fl;rpj; jiyth; uzpy; tpf;ukrpq;f ,e;jpah nfhz;L tug;gl;Ls;sd. mjhtJ Fwpg;ghf nrd;wik Fwpg;gplj;jf;f tplakhFk;. NkYk; 13Mk;> 17Mk; jpUj;jq;fs; cNgf;rpfh nrhu;zkhypfh> epy;ts tpN[rpq;f> ngha;g;gpf;fg;gLkstpw;F ,j;jpUj;jk; nfhz;L kDr ehzafhu Nghd;w Kd;dhs; If;fpa tug;gl;Ls;sJ. Njrpaf; fl;rp cWg;gpdu;fSk; murhq;fj;jpw;F MjuT njuptp;j;jdh;. ,j;jpUj;jj;jpd; %yk; murpyikg;gpd; 31> 32Mk; ruj;Jf;fs; ([dhjpgjpapd; gjtpf;fhyk;)> NkYk; ,j;jpUj;jr; nra;wghl;bw;F 41.1 – 41.7 tiuahd ruj;Jf;fs; ePf;fg;gl;L (17k; Muk;gj;jpy; vjpu;g;Gf; Nfh\q;fisj; njuptpj;J jpUj;jr; rl;lj;jpd; gpufhuk; cl;Nru;f;fg;gl;lJ) te;j ,lJrhupfs; ,Wjp Neuj;jpy; MjuT GjpanjhU 41.1 ruj;J Nru;f;fg;gl;Ls;sJ. njuptpj;jJ. Vjpu;f;fl;rpapy; ,Ue;j rpwp uq;fh> (ghuhSkd;wg; Nguit)> 54Mk; ruj;J (gfpuq;f jkpo;f; $l;likg;G mk;ghiu khtl;l vk;. gp. Nrit Mizf;FO) 55.1 cWg;Giu ePf;fg;gl;L gpaNrd Nghd;NwhUk; MjuT njuptpj;jdh;. Gjpa ruj;J cl;Nrh;f;fg;gl;Ls;sJ. (epakdk;> ,t;tifapy; Kw;WKOjhf nghJkf;fspd; gjtp cah;T> ,lkhw;wk;> xOf;ff;fl;Lg;ghL tpUg;gj;jpw;F khw;wkhd KiwapNy ,j;jpUj;jr; kw;Wk; gjtpePf;fk; njhlh;ghd nfhs;if rl;lk; nfhz;L tug;gl;Ls;sJ vdyhk;. cs;slq;fyhf nghJj;Jiw mjpfhhpfSld; njhlh;Ggl;l nfhs;if tplaq;fisj; 18tJ murpayikg;Gj; jpUj;jr; rl;lj;jpd; jPu;khdpf;Fk; mjpfhuk; fgpdl;bld; cUthf;fkhdJ mjd; gpujhd Gjpa toq;fg;gl;Ls;sJ.) mt;thNw 55.2 (rfy mk;rq;fisf; nfhz;Ls;sJ mt;tifapy;> jpizf;fsj; jiyth;fspdJk; epakdk;> gjtp q xUth; vj;jid jlitAk; cah;T> ,lkhw;wk;> xOf;ff;fl;Lg;ghL kw;Wk; [dhjpgjpahfg; gjtptfpf;fyhk;. gjtp ePf;fk; vd;gd mikr;ruitf;F chpj;jhf;fg;gl;Ls;sJ.) 55.3Mk; ruj;J q %d;W khjj;jpw;nfhU Kiw [dhjpgjp (Copah;fs; njhlh;ghd ,f;fUkq;fs; midj;Jk; ghuhSkd;wj;jpw;Fg; nghWg;Gf; [dhjpgjpahy; epakpf;fg;gLk; gfpuq;f Nrit $wNtz;Lk;. Mizf;FOitNa rhUk;) (Constitution of the q murpayikg;Gr; rigf;Fg; gjpyhf Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka (1978)). ghuhSkd;w rignahd;iw cUthf;Fjy;. Nkw;$wpa Kf;fpa khw;wq;fis mwpKfk; nra;Js;sjhfNt murpyikg;Gf;fhd 18Mk; q mikr;ruit kw;Wk; mur Nritfs; jpUj;jk; fhzg;gLfpd;wJ. ,j;jpUj;jr; rl;lj;jpd; Mizf;FO vd;gdtw;wpd; mjpfhuq;fs;> cs;slf;fj;jpid Nehf;Ffpd;w NghJ mit nraw;ghLfs;> nghWg;Gf;fs; [dhjpgjpapd; fuj;jpid NkYk; kPsikf;fg;gl;L mjpYs;s eilKiwr; gyg;gLj;Jtjid mtjhdpf;fyhk;. %d;W rpf;fy;fisf; fisjy;. khjq;fSf;F xU jlit [dhjpgjp [131] Proceedings of the Third International Symposium, SEUSL: 6-7 July 2013, Oluvil, Sri Lanka ghuhSkd;wj;Jf;F r%fkspf;f Ntz;bAs;sjhy; KbTk; fye;JiuahlYk; (Results and mtuJ ghuhSkd;wj;Jf;Fg; nghWg;Gf; $Wk; Discussions) jd;ik mjpfhpf;Fk; vd thjplg;gl;lhYk; mit eilKiwg; ngWkhdk; mw;wit vd;Nw 18tJ jpUj;jr; rl;lj;jpd; cz;ikj; $wNtz;Lk;. RUq;ff; $Wtjhapd; mur jd;ikapidapidAk; [dehafg; Nghf;fpid ,ae;jpuj;jpd; mjpfhuq;fs; gyg;gLj;jg;gl;L Muha;tjpid Nehf;fhff; nfhz;l [dhjpgjpapd; gjtpf; fhyj;jpid ePbg;gjw;fhd ,t;tha;thdJ tpdhf;nfhj;J> Neu;fhzy; kw;Wk; jilia mfw;Wtjw;fhd xU jpUj;jkhf ,J njhlu;ghd E}y;fs;> rQ;rpiffs;> ,j;jpUj;jj;jpidf; fz;Lnfhs;tNjhL ehl;bd; gj;jpupiffspD}lhf ngwg;gl;l jfty;fis [dehafj;ij Nfs;tpf;Fl;gLj;Jk; xU ikakhff; nfhz;L gy;NtW KbTfisAk; jpUj;jkhfTk; mike;Js;sJ. ,jdbg;gilapy; mjdJ eilKiwj; jd;ikapidAk; Muha ,yq;ifapy; murpay; ahg;Gr; rPu;j;pUj;jj;jpd; Kbe;jJ. mt;tifapy;> 18tJ jpUj;j cUthf;fj;jpd; mtrpaj;jpidAk; ,j;jpUj;jj;jpy; fhzg;gLk; rthy;fisAk; 18tJ jpUj;jr; rl;lj;jpD}lhf 13Mk;>17Mk; mjdJ eilKiwg; Nghf;fpidAk; Muha;tjhf jpUj;jk; ngha;g;gpf;fg;gl;Ls;sd ,f;fl;Liu mikfpd;wJ. (Obsolesce of the 13th & 17th Amendment through the 18th Amendment) NkYk; 18tJ ahg;Gr; rPu;jpUj;j cUthf;fj;jpd; nghUj;jg;ghL> mjdJ mjhtJ> murpay; ahg;G khw;wk; vd;gJ eilKiw uPjpahd [dehafj; jd;ik kw;Wk; ehl;bd; [dehaf gz;Gfis Nkk;gLj;Jtjhf mjd; kPJs;s mOj;jq;fisAk; milahsk; mika Ntz;Lk;. Mdhy; ,yq;ifapd; fhz;gJ ,t;tha;tpd; Nehf;fkhFk;. tuyhw;W mDgtj;jpy; [dehafg; gz;Gfis ngha;g;gpg;gjhf mike;Js;sJ. ,jdbg;gilapy; cUthf;fg;gl;Ls;s 18tJ jpUj;jr; rl;lkhdJ Ma;T Kiwapay; (Methodology) gy;NtW tpjkhd jhf;fq;fis Vw;gLj;jpAs;sik ,t;tha;T tpguzuPjpahd gFg;gha;T khjpupapid Fwpg;gplj;jf;fjhFk;. mjhtJ ,r;rl;lj;jpd; %yk; mbg;gilahff; nfhz;ljhFk;. ,q;F gz;Grhh; 13Mk; jpUj;jr; rl;lk;> 17Mk; jpUj;jr; rl;lk; kw;Wk; msTrhu; juTfs; Nghd;wd nraypoe;Js;sNjhL muh[fj; jd;ik gad;gLj;jg;gl;Ls;sJld; mj;juTfs; Kjd;epiy tha;e;j Ml;rp ,lk;ngWtjw;Fk; [dhjpgjpapd; kw;Wk; ,uz;lhk; epiyj;juT mjpfhuk; NkYk; tYg;ngWtjhf mike;Js;sJ. %yhjhuq;fspypUe;J ngwg;gl;Ls;sJ. ,jdbg;gilapy; gpujhdkhf 18tJ jpUj;jr; Kjd;epiyj; juTfs; tpdhf;nfhj;J> Neh;fhzy; rl;lkhdJ 13tJ jpUj;jr; rl;lj;jpid Mfpa Ma;T El;gq;fisf; nfhz;Lk; ,uz;lhk; Nfs;tpf;Fwpahf;fpAs;sikahdJ khfhz epiyj;juTfs; nghUj;jkhd E}y;fs;> rigfspDila nraw;ghl;bw;F rthyhf Mtzq;fs;> rQ;rpiffs;> gj;jpupiffs;> mikfpd;wJ. ,izaj;jsk; vd;gtw;wpypUe;Jk; Nrfupf;fg;gl;Ls;sJ. tpdhf;nfhj;jpD}lhf 18tJ jpUj;jr;rl;lk; cUthf;fg;gLtjw;F ,yq;ifapy; ahg;Gr; rPu;jpUj;jk;> 18tJ Kd;du; 13tJ jpUj;jj;jpy; cs;s gy jpUj;j;jpd; cUthf;fk;> mjdJ mjpfhuq;fis kj;jpa muRk; [dhjpgjpAk; cz;ikj;jd;ik> ,j;jpUj;jj;jpd; Njit jd;trk; itj;Js;sdu;. NkYk; vQ;rpa czug;gl;l tpjk;> 18tJ jpUj;jj;jpd; Njrpa> mjpfhuq;fisAk; jq;fs; trk; ngw;Wf; ru;tNjr uPjpahd ghu;it> ,j;jpUj;jj;jpdhy; nfhs;Sk; re;ju;g;gj;ij ,j;jpUj;jk; Vw;gLk; rthy;fs;> ghjpg;Gf;fs; Nghd;w gy;NtW Vw;gLj;jpAs;sJ. mjhtJ 13Mk; jpUj;jr; tpjkhd jfty;fs; ngwg;gl;ld. rl;lj;jpid epiwNtw;wp mjw;fg;ghy; ,d;Dk; gy ,t;tpdhf;nfhj;jhdJ nghJkf;fs;> Jiwrhu; tplaq;fisf; nfhLg;Ngd; (13+) vd ,Jehs; epGzu;fs;> murpay; Mu;tyu;fs;> tiuAk; ,yq;if muR mwptpj;jpUe;jJ. Mdhy; Nghd;wtu;fsplk; 250 tpzhf;nfhj;J nfhLf;fg;gl;L juTfs; Nrfupf;fg;gl;Ls;sJ. ,d;W 18tJ jpUj;jr; rl;lj;jpd; %yk; 13tJ [132] M. I. Mohamed Irfan Practical Challenges of the Eighteenth Amendment of the Constitution of the Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka jpUj;jr; rl;lj;jpw;fhd tplaq;fs; Mdhy; mJ ,d;W 18tJ jpUj;jj;jhy; 13tJ ghjpf;fg;gl;Ls;sJ. mjhtJ 13tJ jpUj;jj;jpy; jpUj;jj;jpy; cs;s tplaq;fs; gwpf;fg;gl;Ls;sJ cs;s nghyp]; Mizf;FO vd;w tplak; vd;wdu;(jpdf;Fuy; 2010.09.12:04). mopf;fg;gl;L ,J njhlh;ghd rfy mjpfhuq;fSk; [dhjpgjpapdhy; epakpf;fg;gLk; NkYk; [dhjpgjp rl;lj;juzpAk; nghyp];kh mjpguplk; xg;gilf;fg;gLfpd;wJ. murpayikg;G fw;iffSf;fhd epiyaj;jpd; ,jdhy; ,j;jpUr;rl;lj;jpYs;s nghyp]; ,af;FeUkhd fyhepjp n[ae;j tpf;fpukul;d Mizf;FO vd;w tplak; ,y;yhky; njuptpf;Fk; NghJ “18tJ jpUj;jr; rl;lkhdJ nra;ag;gl;Ls;sJ. ,jdbg;gilapy; 18tJ ehl;Lf;F ve;j tifapYk; gadw;wJ” vd;whh; jpUj;jr; rl;lkhdJ vt;tifapy; rthiy (jpdf;Fuy; 2010.09.12:15). Njw;Wtpf;fpd;wJ vd;W gy;NtW tpjkhd fUj;Jf;fs; njuptpf;fg;gl;Ls;sd. mt;tifapy; NkYk; jkpo; Njrpaf; $l;likg;G Nehf;Fk; NghJ> ghuhSkd;w cWg;gpdh; RNu\; gpNukre;jpud; njuptpf;Fk; NghJ “13tJ murpayikg;Gj; Kd;dhy; fpof;F khfhzrig Kjyikr;rh; jpUj;jj;jpYs;s khfhz nghyp]; Mizf;FO> rptNdrdJiw re;jpufhe;jpud; fUj;J khfhz eph;thf Mizf;FO ,y;yhky; njuptpf;Fk; NghJ “khfhz rigf;F toq;fg;gl;l nra;ag;gl;Ls;sJ 18tJ jpUj;jk; jkpo; NgRk; nghyp]; mjpfhuk; 18tJ murpayikg;Gj; kf;fSf;fhd jPh;tpid ntFJ}uk; js;sptpLk;” jpUj;jj;jpd; %yk; nray; ,of;fg;gl;Ls;sJ. vd;whh;. (jpdf;Fuy>; 2010.09.08:07). khfhzj;jpw;Fw;gl;l nghyp]; kw;Wk; fhzp mjpfhuk; njhlh;gpy; toq;f Kbahky; ,e;jtifapy; 13tJ jpUj;jr; rl;lj;jpd; cs;sNghJk; gjpNdohk; jpUj;j murpayikg;Gg; gpufhuk; tpje;Jiuf;fg;gl;l kl;Lg;gLj;jg;gl;l FOtpy; 10Nguhf ,Ue;jth;fs; 18tJ mjpfhuq;fs; 18tJ jpUj;jr; rl;lj;jpd; khtl;l jpUj;jj;jhy; Ie;J Nguhf Fiwf;fg;gl;Ls;sJ. nghJrd Nritfs; Mizf;FO kw;Wk; khtl;l NkYk; khfhzrig Kiw gykpof;Fk; epiyf;F nghyp]; Mizf;Ftpd; epuhfupg;ghy; te;Js;sJ” vd;whh;(jpdf;Fuy;> 2010.09.14:12). gwpj;njLf;fg;gl;Ls;sJ> mt;thNw I.Nj.f. cWg;gpdh; Nahfuh[h $Wk;NghJ> NkYk; jkpo; Njrpaf; $l;likg;gpdh; “rh;tjpfhuj;ij gyg;gLj;jpf; nfhs;tjw;fhf ,j;jpUj;jj;jpid vjph;j;jdh;. ,J kl;Lky;yhJ 18tJ jpUj;jk; Kd;itf;fg;gLfpd;wJ. NkYk; khfhzrig Kiwapd; nraw;ghl;by; ghupa jkpo; kf;fs; ePz;l fhy vjph;ghh;g;ghfpa rthy;fis Njhw;Wtpf;fpd;wJ. vd mjpfhug;gfph;T> Njrpa murpay; jPh;T Kw;whff; gupe;Jiuj;jJ. me;j tifapy; jkpo; Njrpaf; xopf;fg;gl;Ls;sJ” vd;whh;. (jpdf;Fuy; $l;likg;gpdh; fUj;J njuptpj;j NghJ >2010.09.08:20). “[dhjpgjpahdth; ,uz;L jlitf;F Nky; gjtp tfpg;gJ rh;thjpfhuj;ij Njhw;Wtpf;Fk>; mt;tifapy; 18tJ jpUj;jr; rl;lj;jpD}lhf mt;thNw gjpd;%d;whtJ murpayikg;Gj; 13tJ jpUj;jr; rl;lj;jpy; khfhzrigfSf;nfd jpUj;jj;jpd; %yk; jkpo; NgRk; kf;fSf;F toq;fg;gl;l XusT mjpfhuj;ijf; $l toq;fg;gl;l kl;Lg;gLj;jg;gl;l ew;gyq;fisAk; ,y;yhky; nra;Js;sJ. mjhtJ khfhz nghyp]; Mizf;FOtpid ,y;yhky; ,y;yhkw; nra;Js;sJ” vdj; njuptpj;Js;sJ nra;jNjhL [dhjpgjpahy; epakpf;fg;gLk; (jpdf;Fuy>; 2010.09.12:04). nghyp];kh mjpguplk; mjpfhuq;fs; xg;gilf;fg;gLfpd;wJ. NkYk; khfhz nghJr; mJ kl;Lky;yhJ murpayikg;G tptfhu Nrit Mizf;FOf;fspd; mjpfhuq;fisAk; epGzh;fSk; jkpo; Njrpaf; $l;likg;gpdhpd; ,j;jpUj;jkhdJ jl;bg;gwpg;gjw;fhd re;ju;g;gj;ij mwpf;ifAk; fUj;J njuptpf;Fk; NghJ 13tJ Vw;gLj;jpAs;sJ. ,jD}lhf khfhz rigahdJ jpUj;jr; rl;lj;ij epiwNtw;wp mjw;fg;ghy; gykpoe;j xd;whf khWfpd;wJ. ,r;nraw;ghlhdJ ,d;Dk; gy tplaq;fisf; nfhLg;Ngd; vd khfhz rigapd; nraw;ghl;bw;Fk; ghupa ,Jehs; tiuAk; ,yq;ifauR njuptpj;jJ. rthypid Vw;gLj;Jtjhf mikfpd;wJ. [133] Proceedings of the Third International Symposium, SEUSL: 6-7 July 2013, Oluvil, Sri Lanka 17tJ jpUj;jj;jpy; cs;s Rje;jpu Mizf; Vida fl;rpfspdJk; RNal;irf; FOf;fspdJk; FOtpYs;s cWg;gpdu;fis epakpf;Fk; NghJ ngUk;ghz;ik rk;kjj;jpd; %yk; ngau; murpayikg;gpd; rpghuprpf;F mika [dhjpgjp Fwpf;fg;gl;L [dhjpgjpahy; epakpf;fg;gLk; xU epakpf;f Ntz;Lk;. Mdhy; ,j;jpUj;jj;jpD}lhf cWg;gpdh;. ,th;fSs; gpujku;> rghehafh;> mg;gjtpia [dhjpgjp Neubahf epakpf;Fk; vjpu;fl;rpj; jiyth; MfpNahh; mth;fsJ mjpfhuk; toq;fg;gl;Ls;sJ. mt;thNw 17tJ gjtptop fhuzkhf Nguitapd; cWg;gpdh;fshf jpUj;jj;jpYs;s nghyp]; Mizf;FO ePf;fg;gl;L ,Ug;gh;. rhghehafh; ,g;Nguitapd; jiytuhf mjw;fhd mjpfhuq;fs; midj;ijAk; ,Ug;ghh;.) mjw;F gjpyhf ghuhSkd;w nghyp];kh mjpgUf;Fk; Nju;jy; Mizahsupd; MNyhridr; rig cUthf;fg;glTs;sJ. ,jpy; mjpfhuq;fs; kl;Lg;gLj;jg;gl;Lk; murNrit 5NgH mq;fk; tfpg;gH. rghehafH> gpujkH> kw;Wk; ePjpr; Nrit njhlu;ghd mjpfhuq;fs; vjpHfl;rpj;jiytH cl;gl gpujkhpdhYk; mikr;ruitf;Fk; toq;fg;gl;Ls;sJ. vjpHf;fl;rpj; jiytuhYk; epakpf;fg;gLk; ,UtH. rpWghd;ik ,dj;Jf;Nfh rpWfl;rpfSf;Nfh 17tJ jpUj;jr; rl;lj;jpD}lhf [dhjpgjpapd; vt;tpj mq;fj;JtKk; ,y;iy. mjpfhuq;fSf;F kl;Lg;ghLfs; fhzg;gl;lJ. Mdhy; ,j;jpUj;jj;jpd; %yk; tYxd;whf;fk; ghuhSkd;w [dehak; tPo;r;rp> tYNtwhf;ff; ,lk;ngw;W jilfSk; rkd;ghLfSk; ,y;yhj Nfhl;ghL Nfs;tpf;Fwp xU gjtpahf khw;wkilaf;$ba epyik (The decline of Parlimentary democracy and Vw;gl;Ls;sJ. tsu;r;rpaile;j ehLfisg; the question of Separation of Power) nghWj;jkl;by; VNjhnthU tifapy; Ml;rpahsDf;fhd mjpfhuf;fl;Lg;ghL nghJthf epiwNtw;W mjpfhu Kiwik fhzg;gLk;. cjhuzkhf mnkupf;fhit vLj;Jf; gpd;gw;Wfpd;w ehLfspy; Kj;Jiwfspy; xU nfhz;lhy; mq;F jilfSk; rkd;ghLk; Jiw kw;nwhU Jiwapy; nry;thf;Fr; nrYj;jf; gpd;gw;wg;gl;L rpwg;ghd Ml;rpf;F $lhJ vd;gjw;fhf tYNtwhf;ff; Nfhl;ghl;Lld toptFj;Js;sJ. ,jdhy; kNyrpah> rpq;fg;G+u;> jilfSk; rkd;ghLfSk; gpd;gw;wg;gLfpd;wJ. njd; nfhupah Nghd;w ehLfspy; ,jw;F vLj;Jf;fhl;lhf mnkupf;fhtpidf; [dhjpgjpahdtu; cr;r mjpfhuq;fs; Fwpg;gpl KbAk;. tYNtwhf;f Nfhl;ghL vd;gJ nfhz;ltuhff; fhzg;gLtJ Nghy ,yq;ifAk; rl;lj;Jiw> epHthfj;Jiw> ePjpj;Jiw Xd;NwhL khw;wkile;Js;sJ. xd;W jiyaPNlh fl;Lg;ghNlh ,y;yhky; Rfe;jpukhf ,aq;FtNj MFk;. ve;j xU 17tJ jpUj;jj;jpd; Clhf [dhjpgjpapd; JiwahdJ jdf;F ,Uf;Fk; mjpfhuq;fis kPwp mjpfhuq;fis kl;Lg;gLj;Jtjw;fhf murpay; elf;Fk; NghJ Vida Jiwfs; jiyapl;L mikg;G Nguit kw;Wk; Rje;jpu mjid rkepiyf;F nfhz;LtUtNj jilfs; Mizf;FOf;fs; Nghd;wd nfhz;Ltug;gl;lJ. rkepiyfs; vdg;gLk;. mJ epiwNtw;Wj;Jiw Mdhy; ,it 18tJ jpUj;jj;jpd; %yk; [dhjpgjpia ikakhf itj;Nj ,y;yhky; nra;ag;gl;L Gjpa mikg;Gf;fs; nfhz;Ltug;gl;lJ. cUthf;fg;gl;Ls;sJ. mjhtJ 17tJ jpUj;jr; rl;lj;jpy; fhzg;gl;l murpay; mikg;Gg; ,yq;ifahdJ 1978Mk; Mz;L Kjy; Nguitia ePf;fp (gpujkh;> rghehafu;> ,d;Wtiu epiwNtw;W mjpfhuKila Ml;rp vjpu;f;fl;rpj; jiyth;> [dhjpgjpahy; Kiwapid gpd;gw;wp tUtNjhL rl;lj;Jiwf;F epakpf;fg;gLk; xU cWg;gpdh;> gpujkupdhYk; nghWg;ghf ghuhSkd;wKk; epu;thfj;Jiwf;Fg; vjph;fl;rpj; jiytupdhYk; rpghh;R nghWg;ghf [dhjpgjpAk; ePjpj;Jiwf;F nra;ag;gLtjd; %yk; [dhjpgjpahy; ePjpkd;wKk; vd mjpfhuk; gpupf;fg;gl;L epakpf;fg;gLk; Ie;J cWg;gpdh;fs;> gpujkUk; fhzg;gLfpd;wd. Mdhy; 18MtJ jpUj;jkhdJ vjph;fl;rpj; jiytUk; ve;j murpay; fl;rpia tYNtwhf;ff; Nfhl;ghl;il my;yJ RNal;irf; FOitg; Nfs;tpf;Fl;gLj;jpAs;sJ. 17tJ jpUj;jj;jpy; gpuepjpj;Jtg;gLj;Jfpd;whh;fNsh mitfsy;yhj caH epakdq;fis fl;Lg;gLj;j murpay; [134] M. I. Mohamed Irfan Practical Challenges of the Eighteenth Amendment of the Constitution of the Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka mikg;G Nguit epHthf mjpfhuq;fis fhzg;gl;l %j;j cWg;gpdu;fspd; mOj;jq;fs; vNjr;irahf gpuNahfpf;ff;$lhJ vd;gjw;fhf fhuzkhf Xa;T ngw;whu;. nghJthf xU Rje;jpu Mizf;FOf;fs; vd;gd ,Ue;jd. ehl;bd; ahg;ghdJ fhykhw;wj;jpw;Nfw;g murpay; 18MtJ jpUj;jk; mjid ,y;yhJ nra;J> elj;ijiaf; nfhz;L nry;tjw;Fk; kf;fspd; [dhjpgjpaplk; mjpfhuq;fis Ftpj;Js;sJ. eyd;fisg; NgZtijAk; ikakhff; nfhz;L tYNtwhf;fk; ,Ug;gjhf nrhy;yKbahJ tY mika Ntz;Lk;. Mdhy; ,yq;if murpay; xd;whf;fk;jhd; fhzg;gLfpwJ. mjpfhuq;fs; ahg;gpidg; nghWj;jkl;by; Ml;rpgPlj;jpy; midj;Jk; [dhjpgjpaplk; Ftpf;fg;gl;L ,Uf;fpd;w mjpfhupfspd; eyd;fis ,Uf;fpwJ. ,j;jpUj;jj;jpD}lhf ,yq;ifapd; NgZfpd;wjhf mike;Js;sJ – mike;J murpay;> nghUshjhuk;> r%f tsu;r;rp> tUfpd;wJ. ey;yhl;rp> kdpj cupik kw;Wk; Neu;ikahd Nju;jy; eltbf;iffs; Nghd;wtw;wpy; jhf;fk; nghJthf [dhjpgjp Ml;rp Kiw nrYj;Jtjhf ,j;jpUj;jk; mikfpd;wJ. gpd;gw;wg;gLfpd;w ehLfspd; Kw;W KOjhd mjpfhuq;fSk; [dhjpgjpaplNk ,Uf;Fk;. [dhjpgjpapd; mjpfhuj;jpid NkYk; ,jw;fhfNt cyf ehLfspd; [dhjpgjp gyg;gLj;jpAs;sJ Ml;rpKiw gpd;gw;wg;gLfpd;w ehLfspy; (Consolidation of the executive Presidential jiytupd; gjtpf; fhyk; tiuaWf;fg;gl;ljhff; Power) fhzg;gLfpd;wJ. Kjd;Kjyhf [dhjpgjp Ml;rp Kiwapid cyfpy; mwpKfg;gLj;jpa 18tJ jpUj;jkhdJ 1978Mk; Mz;L mnkupf;fhtpy; $l ,uz;L jlitf;F Nky; nfhz;Ltug;gl;l murpaikg;gpd; ruj;J 32(2) ,y; xUth; [dhjpgjpahf ,Uf;f KbahJ. Fwpg;gplg;glLs;s [dhjpgjpahdtu; ,uz;L mnkupf;fhtpy; Muk;gj;jpy; [dhjpgjpapd; jlit khj;jpuNk gjtp tfpf;f KbAk; vd;wJ. gjtpahdJ vt;tpj tiuaiwAk;; Mdhy; 18MtJ jpUj;jj;jpD}lhf fhzg;gltpy;iy. mjd;gpwF 1951Mk; Mz;L [dhjpgjpahfj; njupT nra;ag;gLgtUk; murpaikg;gpd; 22MtJ jpUj;jj;jpy; kf;fshy; ,UKiw [dhjpgjpahfj; njupT [dhjpgjpahdth; ,uz;L jlitf;F Nky; gjtp nra;ag;gl;ltUk; mjd; gpd;du; vj;jid tfpf;f KbahJ vd;w tiuaiw jlitNaDk; [dhjpgjpj; Nju;jypy; nfhz;Ltug;gl;lJ. mt;thNw gpuhd;];> ,e;jpah> Nghl;baplTk; [dhjpgjpahfj; njupT njd;dhgpupf;fh Nghd;w ehLfspYk; [dhjpgjpapd; nra;ag;glTk; KbAk; vd khw;wk; gjtpf; fhyk; tiuaWf;fg;gl;Ls;sJ. nra;ag;gl;Ls;sJ. [dhjpgjpapd; gjtpf;fhyk; ,yq;if murpay; tuyhw;wpy; Ml;rp tiuaWf;fg;gLfpd;w NghJ Kj;JiwAk; rkepiy gPlNkwpatu;fspy; mjpfkhNdhu; epiwNtw;w Ngzg;gLk;. ,yq;ifapidg; nghWj;jkl;by; mjpfhuk; nfhz;l [dhjpgjp Ml;rp Kiwia 18MtJ jpUj;jj;jpd; %yk; [dhjpgjpapd; ,y;yhky; nra;Nthk; vd;w Nfhrj;JlNd Ml;rp iffspy; midj;J mjpfhuq;fisAk; gPlNkWfpd;wdu;. Mdhy; mJ ntUk; xg;gilf;fg;gl;Ls;sJ vd RUf;fkhff; $w tha;r;nrhy;yhfTk; kf;fspd; thf;Ffisg; KbAk;. ngUfpd;w rhjdkhfTk; gad;gLj;jpdu;. ,jdbg;gilapy; Kd;dhs; [dhjpgjp re;jpupf;fh NkYk; 18tJ jpUj;j;jpdhy; Vw;gl;l FkhuJq;fTk; jw;NghJ Ml;rp nra;fpd;w kw;WnkhU rthyhf nlhd%u; fhyj;jpypUe;J [dhjpgjp k`pe;j uh[gf;\ Nghd;Nwhupidf; jkpo;> K];ypk; kw;Wk; kiyaf kf;fspd; Fwpg;gl KbAk;. epiwNtw;W [dhjpgjpj;Jt cupikfs; gwpf;fg;gl;ld. Kjd;Kjyhf rpq;fs Ml;rp Kiwia mwpKfg;gLj;jpa kf;fspd; cupikfs; Kjd;Kjyhf 18tJ N[.Mu;.n[atu;j;jd jdJ ,uz;lhtJ jpUj;jj;jpd; %yk; gwpf;fg;gl;Ls;sJ. mjhtJ> gjtpf;fhyk; Kbe;j gpwF %d;whtJ jlit ,yq;ifapd; [dhjpgjpj; Nju;jypid Ml;rpgPlNkw Kaw;rpj;j NghjpYk; fl;rpapilNa nghWj;jkl;by; rpWghz;ik ,dj;ijr; Nru;e;j [135] Proceedings of the Third International Symposium, SEUSL: 6-7 July 2013, Oluvil, Sri Lanka xUtu; [dhjpgjpahf tUtJ Clf Nehf;F> 18MtJ murpayikg;G rPu;jpUj;jk; rhj;jpakw;wnthd;whFk;. 18tJ jpUj;jj;jpD}lhf njhlu;ghd mur mr;R Clf mwpf;ifaply;> xUtu; vj;jid jlitAk; [dhjpgjpahfj; (2011, January), CPA - khw;Wf; nfhs;iff;fhd njupT nra;ag;glyhk; vdf; $wg;gl;likahdJ epiyak;. rpq;fs kf;fspd; cupikfisg; ghjpj;Js;sJ vdr; Rl;bf;fhl;l KbAk;. NkYk; ,j;jpUj;jk; Nkw;nfhs;tJ njhlu;ghf kf;fs; kj;jpapy; Basil Fernando, ‘The last debate on the Sri Lankan ve;jtpjkhd thf;nfLg;Gk; elhj;jg;glhikahdJ constitution’,http://www.humanrights.asia/resources/jo ghupanjhU FiwghlhFk;. urnals-magazines/article2/0903/the-last-debate-on-the- sri-lankan-constitution, (Accessed on: 2012.10.28). KbTiu (Conclusion) M.A.M. epyhk;> ‘18tJ jpUj;jj;ij Mjupg;Nghh; gzk;> gjtpf;F tpiy Nghdth;fs’; > jpdf;Fuy; ehNsL> 18tJ ahg;Gr; rPu;jpUj;jkhdJ mjpfhuj;ij 2010.09.08;. NkYk; tYg;gLj;JtjhfTk; kdpj cupik Mizf;FOtpd; RahjPdj;jd;ikf;F ghjpg;gpid Vw;gLj;JtjhfTk; miktNjhL> ,j;jpUj;jkhdJ nuh\hd; ehfypq;fk;> ‘18tJ jpUj;jk; jkpo; [dehafj;jpw;F vjpuhdJ vd;Wk; tYNtwhf;fr; kf;fSf;fhf jPh;it ntFJ}uk; gpd;js;sp nraw;ghl;il Nfs;tpf;Fwpahf;FfpwJ vd;Wk; tpLk;’> jpdf;Fuy; ehNsL> 2010.09.08;. 13tJ jpUj;jr;rl;lj;jpd; %yk; toq;fg;gl;l mjpfhuq;fis kPz;Lk; kj;jpa muR ifg;gw;Wk; tha;g;Gk; fhzg;gLfpd;wJ. NkYk; gq;Fgw;Wjy; rgup> ‘18tJ jpUj;j Nahridfspd; gpd;dhy; [dehafk;> ghuhSkd;w [dehafk;> kiwe;Js;s murpay;’> jpdf;Fuy; ehNsL> ePjpg;Guzha;T mjpfhuk; Nghd;wd 2010.09.12. Nfs;tpf;Fl;gLj;jg;gl;Ls;sJ. NkYk; Rje;jpukhdJk; epahakhdJkhd Nju;jYf;F rptNerd;Jiw re;jpufhe;jd;> ‘khfhz rigfSf;F vjpu;kiwahfTk; mike;Js;sJ. ,t;thwhd gy toq;fg;gl;l nghyp]; mjpfhuk; 18tJ jpUj;jr; rthy;fis jd;dfj;Nj nfhz;ljhf 18tJ rl;lk; Clhhf ,of;fg; gLfpd;wJ’> jpdf;Fuy; jpUj;jr; rl;lk; cUthf;fg;gl;Ls;sJ. ehNsL> 2010.09.14. crhj;Jizfs; (References) rgup> ‘,yq;ifapd; murpayikg;Gj; jpUj;jk; Constitution of the Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri [dehafj;ij gytPdg;gLj;jp tpl;lJ’> jpdf;Fuy; Lanka (1978), Department of government, Sri Lanka. ehNsL> 2010.09.13. (2001). Constitution of the Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka (1978), Eighteenth Amendment to the Constitution, (2010). Transparency International Sri Lanka, (2010), ‘Adverse Impact of the 18th Amendment on Governance’. ‘18 Constitutional Amendment: Issues and Challenges in Curriculum and Standards’, (2010), Institute of Social and Policy Sciences (I-SAPS) [136]