The Newsletter of

Middle East Studies Center, American University in Cairo

May 2007

WWW.AUCEGYPT.EDU/ACADEMIC/MESC/ Page 2

ALUMNI UPDATE

Hanan Thabet Jack Montgomery

MA 2002 MA 1994

Current Job: Current Job: Program Officer at the Other Information: Jack is currently based in Institute of International Dubai, working as a Education (headquartered Despite having lived in consultant in sales and in New York). Hanan is numerous Middle Eastern marketing for the FMCG managing a newly cities, Jack still believes sector and looking for new launched scholarship that Cairo is "the best city regional opportunities. program for the Libyan in the Middle East." He is still in touch with friends Waha Oil Company. from AUC in 1992/1994. Recent Career These include Betsy Crook Recent Career Accomplishment: (now in Riyadh), Peter Accomplishments: Ilyck (still in Cairo), John Since graduation, Jack has Speaks (in Venezuela), In May 2006 Hanan worked for multinational Burr Gavin (in Dubai) and completed her MA in Near organizations throughout the Garrett Dorer (Jerusalem). Studies at New York Middle East, including 4 years University, where she was in Saudi Arabia, 2 years in awarded the Foreign Bahrain, and almost 10 years Language and Areas in Dubai, where he currently Studies Fellowship resides. (FLAS).

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INSIDE THIS ISSUE:

FROM THE DIRECTOR 4 JOEL BEININ

THE JAMAHIRIYYA AT THIRTY 5 RORY A. MCNAMARA

KHOMEINI & SHARIATI 7 KRISTEN ALFF

TERRORISM IN THE MIDDLE EAST: 10 DIGGING FOR THE ROOTS MONA HEIKAL

SANDRA MACKEY’S LEBANON: A HOUSE DIVIDED 11 A BOOK REVIEW BY SHUANG WEN

VALI NASR’S THE SHIA REVIVAL: HOW 12 CONFLICTS WITHIN WILL SHAPE THE FUTURE

THE GAS EXPORTING COUNTRIES FORUM 14 & WHAT IT MEANS FOR QATAR IVAN ROSALES

Editor Garth Hall The views expressed here are those of their authors and not necessarily Editor J. Marshall Brown those of MESC, the editor, or the Editor Rory A. McNamara Middle East studies program. WWW.AUCEGYPT.EDU/ACADEMIC/MESC/ Page 4

FROM THE DIRECTOR JOEL BEININ

on the Modern Middle East Lenka Benova has kindly s the academic year which includes faculty and taken the initiative to A is coming to a researchers from AUC, organize this event. close, this is a good time to national universities, and A major project for the review the achievements of foreign and Egyptian next academic year will be to the Middle East Studies research centers. Part of review the requirements for Center and reflect on what the money will fund a the BA and the graduate we can aspire to do in the conference to be held at diploma. future. Among the AUC in March 2008 on outstanding “Islamists and Democrats.” As always, we welcome accomplishments of the input and suggestions from Dr. Joel Beinin is the new current academic year are: students. director of the Middle East Studies Center here at AUC. 4) The Center and its Before coming to AUC, he

graduate student fellows taught Middle East history at Stanford University since 1) The highest number of (especially Anne Czichos Please mark your calendars students ever enrolled for and Rory McNamara) have for the end of year party: MA and diploma studies in worked closely with the Tuesday, May 15, 4:30 pm fall 2006-07 library to try to fill in its at the gaps in the area of modern Middle East Studies Center Middle East studies and to 2) The faculty Senate has expand the scope of Entertainment will be approved the plan to collecting language provided by Karam Murad enhance the standard of items. playing Nubian music on the the MA curriculum. The oud

introductory

interdisciplinary seminar, 5) The Center sponsored MEST 569, was taught for or co-sponsored ten the first time in fall 2006. lectures and a Ramadan A course on research iftar for students and methods for MA thesis affiliated faculty writers, MEST 598, will be

taught for the first time in

fall 2007. A higher level of A major objective for the Arabic language proficiency future is to encourage more will be required to students to write MA theses.

graduate. This will apply to A first step in this direction is all students entering the the open-invitation event on program as of fall 2007. Monday, May 7, at 4:00 in

the MESC offices. Several

current students who have 3) The Center won a just completed or are about

$75,000 grant from the to complete MA theses will Ford Foundation. Part of share their experiences with the money funds a monthly all current students Interdisciplinary Seminar interested in writing a thesis.

OCTOBER 2006 Page 5

THE JAMAHIRIYYA AT THIRTY RORY A. MCNAMARA

Group to find ways to help Qadhafi began explaining attract foreign investment. why traditional forms of his past March, democracy were Libyan regime It is no surprise that T inappropriate for Libya. members celebrated the 30th Libya’s reversal of economic Formal introduction of Libya’s anniversary of the formal and diplomatic tact comes unique political system would inception of the jamahiriyya, after the 1990s, which was not come until March 1977; Libya’s “republic of the internally the most tenuous in the meanwhile Qadhafi set masses.” Three decades in, decade of Qadhafi’s four out to consolidate economic this unique political system is decades in power. It’s and political power in the still all about one man. obvious that his sudden hands of the state. Foreign embrace of foreign Colonel Muammar al-Qadhafi banks, hospitals, and oil businesses and smoothing has held power since companies were over of past antagonisms September 1, 1969—longer nationalized; all Libyan with the West is the ploy of a than any other ruler in the insurance companies, Col. Qadhafi prefers to be ruler seeking to reconsolidate Middle East. And despite false televisions channels, and addressed as “Brother Leader” his power. by his fellow Libyans. promises of “direct radio stations were seized on democracy,” Libya remains Therefore, international behalf of the state; the right dominated by an elite regime companies and investors to strike was abolished and thinly veiled in a system of seeking investment in Libya, private property was officially some 3,000 people’s and the governments which stripped of legal standing. committees and congresses. ultimately control access to Once the primacy of the that market, risk bolstering a After decades of Libyan state in the economic regime which has repressed international and economic realm had been assured, political and economic isolation, the Qadhafi regime is Qadhafi focused his efforts freedoms and trampled on now seeking to reestablish its on eliminating any vestige of human rights. Normalization ties to the global economy. political pluralism under the So far, common of economic ties with Libya International companies guise of “direct democracy” – signals to Qadhafi a lack of Libyans do not seem competing for increased a complicated and importance in the rights of to be benefiting from access to Libya’s vast oil burdensome network of Libyans. Aside from being the Libya-West resources have poured into the thousands of committees morally bankrupt, such a country. Shukri Ghanem, comprised of Libyans from all rapprochement. In strategy undermines future president of the Libyan occupational stripes. fact, allowing an relations between Libya and National Oil Company, told Adherence to state ideology, the West, as Libyans now influx of revenues to Agence France Presse that, however, was mandated by a alienated will harbor reach the Qadhafi “It’s a race for our black gold. 1972 law making political resentment for such a cold- regime threatens to We are organizing it like the activities outside the one shoulder long after ‘Brother Olympic Games and may the state party punishable by further insulate elites Leader’ has been toppled. best one win.” death. from the need of

The Libyan government has Freedom of expression making any political even go so far as to hire the Consolidation of Power and press freedom have also concessions been made subservient to Cambridge, Massachusetts- Just months after the coup lock-step adoption of the based consulting firm Monitor which brought him to power, WWW.AUCEGYPT.EDU/ACADEMIC/MESC/ Page 6 party line. Journalist Abdullah increased access to Libyan enjoyed by Gulf monarchies, Ali al-Sanussi al-Darrat, oil fields. In the meantime, as Qadhafi would have little arrested in 1973, remains upscale retail shops along impetus to move towards detained incommunicado. Tripoli’s Gergaresh street see political liberalization and Reporters Without Borders increased business from would likely continue along claims that al-Darrat has Libya’s elites, the country’s the path which many analysts spent more time in prison infrastructure, hospitals, and believe may lead to the than any other journalist in education remains eventual handover of power the world. The vicious murder substandard. Libya’s oil to his son Seif al-Islam. of Daif al-Ghazal in 2005 wealth has not trickled down The appalling lack of also remains unpunished and to citizens outside the circle Fathi el-Jahmi, human and political rights suspicions circulate that his of power. perhaps Libya’s afforded to Libyans is death came as punishment Political pluralism and deplorable in its own right. It best-known for his outspoken criticism of rights of free expression and would be all the more dissident, was the Libyan regime. association have been regrettable if western arrested in 2002 Fathi el-Jahmi, perhaps similarly elusive. Since the countries were to continue to for having the Libya’s best-known dissident, US dropped Libya from its list compound this dismal record temerity to suggest was arrested in 2002 for of state sponsors of terrorism by contributing to its having the temerity to last summer, a small US capability to maintain a at a people’s suggest at a people’s embassy has opened inside hostile monopoly on political congress meeting congress meeting that the plush Maltese-owned expression. The that “reform in “reform in Libya would Corinthia Bab-Africa hotel in strengthening of economic Libya would require require free speech and Tripoli. The embassy’s and diplomatic ties with Libya free speech and democracy.” The former website echoes Secretary of should be delayed until the governor of al-Khaleej State Condoleezza Rice’s Qadhafi regime shows it is democracy.” province, el-Jahmi was briefly words when she announced committed to a more released from prison to the reestablishment of US- pluralistic order. To do coincide with Assistant US Libyan diplomatic relations: otherwise is to continue Secretary of State William “Today marks the opening of along a road of hypocrisy and Burns’ visit to Tripoli only to a new era in U.S.-Libya tolerance of authoritarianism. be returned to prison two relations that will benefit days after Burns’ departure. Americans and Libyans Today, El-Jahmi remains in alike.” prison, and according to his So far, common Libyans brother Mohammed, faces a do not seem to be benefiting possible death penalty. from the Libya-West rapprochement. In fact, allowing an influx of revenues The Right Message? to reach the Qadhafi regime This March, as el-Jahmi threatens to further insulate and other prisoners of elites from the need of conscience such as Idrees making any political Boufayed languished in concessions or allowances prison cells, Exxon Mobil for civil society and rights of Corp. CEO Rex Tillerson and expression. Col. Qadhafi met in a tent Buoyed by staggering oil outside of Tripoli to discuss receipts similar to those OCTOBER 2006 Page 7

KHOMEINI & SHARIATI KRISTEN ALFF

throughout Iran, making its been touted on picket posts uring the lead- citizens more aware of his as the embodiment of the D up to the 1978- opposition to the government revolution like Khomeini once 1979 revolution, there were and to its leadership. Though was, but his social-political two prominent Islamic the messages of his works – discourse was just as critical discourses. Shi’ite cleric e.g. Kashf al-Asrar (a polemic of the Shah and perhaps had Ayatollah Rohollah Khomeini on critics of devotional an even wider audience. was at the head of one of proprieties and practices of Shariati had a different view them. Less well known Islam) and in his lectures in of the part religion would play today, but equally influential Najaf – Khomeini called for in the revolution and who Ali Shariati at the time, is the discourse an alternative to the would be the ultimate of sociologist ‘Ali Shariati. monarchy and the acquisition alternative to the Shah. of temporal power by the Whereas Khomeini bolstered Ali Shariati may Khomeinism represented a clergy. the position of the clergy in political ideology, born out of not have been politics, Shariati was anti- a radical-militant, populist This political variant of clerical, censuring religious touted on picket view of Islam. Shariati’s view Islamic ideology, villayet al- leaders for institutionalizing was one of radical-leftism, , was unprecedented. posts as the Islam and calling their combining European Until the rise of Khomeini as embodiment of historical ties with rulers from socialism and revolutionary guide, religious affairs in Iran the time of the caliphate a the revolution Shi’ism. Tapes and writings had a long history of being kind of ‘clerical despotism’. of each discourse figured entirely separate and like Khomeini In contrast to the Islam of prominently in the excluded from civil society Marwan – the Islam that he once was, but his mobilization of the specific and the polity. Khomeini viewed as anathema to that groups of Iranian people maintained that it was his social-political of 19th century reformers against Mohammad Reza duty to faqh to arrogate discourse was such as Abu Zarr and Jamal Shah; while Khomeinism power and rule by the al-Din al-Afghani – Shariati just as critical of dominated the field and precepts of shari’a as well as championed a version of Shariati’s role was he was able; an Iranian the Shah... Islam that was one of undoubtedly one of society based on the holy law individualism, science, faith ideologue. of Islam and superintended and personal devotion by a Muslim religious Khomeini’s emergence as culminating in the concepts jurisconsult was the most the face of the Islamic of “Liberty, Equality, and that could be consummated revolution had much to do Spirituality.” before the arrival of the with his critical judgment of Mahdi. It was this It was this trilogy existing the Shah’s regime, which was revolutionary political alongside his vision of complimented by the component of Islamic democracy without exposure he gained in 1963 ‘Khomeinism’ within post- capitalism or totalitarianism as marja-i al-taqlid. After the 1953 autocratic Iran that that made up the core of death of his ‘quietist’ gave Khomeini the lead role Shariati’s vision of the predecessor, Ayatollah in the revolution, at least Iranian utopian state. Within Sayyed publicly. it, Islam represented the Burujerdi, Khomeini writings social glue, the cultural A Young Khomeini on fiqh were circulated ‘Ali Shariati may not have hegemony in a Gramscian OCTOBER 2006 Page 8

sense, and the intelligentsia, and promoted the idea of the after it. In the 1990’s, in spite of their paucity of poor uniting against the rich. leaders like former President At present, formal religious training, not Khomeini’s concept of the Khatami championed the intellectuals and the ulema, acted as its mostazafin (oppressed) and importance of civil society outspoken critics of advocates and political the zagheh-neshinha (slum and “rule of law,” as did new heads. Shariati opposed the dwellers) rising up against religious intellectuals, like Iranian’s ruling clerical version of Islam the mostakberin (oppressors) Abdolkarim Soroush, whose clerics, including the because it promoted religion and the kakh-neshinha works echo Shariati’s self-proclaimed as an opiate for the masses. (palace dwellers) had obvious understanding of the socialist, President In contrast, “radical Islam” socialist connotations and individual faith of believers. served a more dynamic dual served to answer the The main tenet in Soroush’s Ahmadinejad, share purpose; through the rise of supplication of the people to writings centers on the more in common the intellectuals, a revolution recalibrate the increasing dynamism of Islam – the ideologically with would to restore justness in economic and social rejection of the Shariati than spite of the Shah; it would imbalances within Iran. understanding of religion as Khomeini, speaking eradicate poverty through the Replacing Shariati’s concept scared and timeless. Popular restructuring of social of rawshanfekran, or support for him, Khatami, out in favor of classes by ousting the ‘enlightened intellectual’ as and others like Mojtahed eradicating poverty imperialist rulers who were the leader of the Islamic Shabestari, point to the and economic the impediments to it. revolution, with this idea of Iranian population’s want, inequality... fiqh, Khomeini put these not only for social and Khomeini and Shariati Marxist ideas in the context political change, but also for found much common ground of Islam and in their opposition to the his villayet al- monarchy and in Iran’s fiqh. inauspicious social conditions, as they both New interpreted the Iranian nation perspectives as growing rapidly less on Iran’s polity devout and increasingly represents a stratified by economic class, evolution of with the Shah at the very religious pinnacle. It was on this point intellectualism that Khomeini, emerging as that has been the ultimate leader of the pervasive in Islamic revolution, the country incorporated much of since its pre- Shariati’s ideologies into his revolutionary own. Indeed, Khomeini found years and has that by using Shariati’s been Marxist, ‘Third Worldist’ instrumental in ideology in his works he shaking the could better amalgamate already various groups opposed to unstable the Shah; Khomeini declared foundations of himself emissary of the the clerical- disinherited in Marxist terms guided political Is Ahmadinejad more of a Shariati man? in his post-1970 discourse apparatus OCTOBER 2006 Page 9

a shift from the rigidity of Khomeini and Shariati’s malcontent, brought into and bold international Islamic ideologies that opponents as well, sharing international purview by a politics, Iranian society is now represent the status quo. their belief in the altogether new, disenfranchised calling for a departure from Soroush’s compilation of incommensurability of generation of young Iranians. the nearly three-decade-old articles, called “Contraction religion and politics. theocratic regime, and the Growing increasingly and Expansion of Religious ideologues and political Transparently unpopular uncertain of their Knowledge,” undermines the leaders, like those before with the ruling clergy, many government and concept of villayet al-fiqih in them, are responding to this of the new Iranian nationalization policies, favor of a more democratic society’s entreaties. revolutionary writers have privatization, globalization government. Similarly, been censored and clergyman, Shabestari, disciplined by their promotes the message that government, but as a “juridical Islam” established result of growing by the revolution is not factionalism at the capable of addressing the top, freedom of fluctuating social, economic movement within and political exigencies of society has been society and leads to a made more available. devaluation of religion and a The result has been a deficit in the political sphere. new Iranian Of course, as in the time of reformism that has Khomeini and Shariati, there inspired a large social are other reformists and movement, which can members of the clergy who be seen as a still strongly support continuation of the ‘Khomeinism’, especially the still maturing reform notion of villayet al-fiqih. Yet, characterized by the influence of this ‘Khomeinism’ and ideological camp is much Shariati’s Islamic- less puissant in today’s Iran. leftism. Indeed, the At present, intellectuals and social and political outspoken critics of Iranian’s grievances of the ruling clerics, including the present day echo the self-proclaimed socialist, economic, social, President Ahmadinejad, international and share more in common cultural ideologically with Shariati remonstrations of than Khomeini, speaking out Khomeini and in favor of eradicating poverty Shariati’s anti-Shah and economic inequality discourse that was while bolstering Soroush and instrumental in the Shabestari’s visions of forming of the post- changing and individualistic revolution era. Shi’ism. In some cases, these Except, today’s Iran new visions reflect the reflects a slightly In 1998, Time Magazine included Khomeini on a list of the 100 discourse of the pre- altered set of most influential people of the twentieth century. Khomeini was revolutionary ‘quietists’ and impetuses for civilian selected for having “revived Islam's faithful and authored a new form of religious government.” Shariati did not make the list. WWW.AUCEGYPT.EDU/ACADEMIC/MESC/ Page 10

TERRORISM IN THE MIDDLE EAST: DIGGING FOR THE ROOTS MONA HEIKAL

that the Middle East started chemical weapons. And the Individual incidents ccording to to know organized gangs unhidden aim is to keep the A dictionaries, the such as: Stern, Haganah, and supremacy of the "Jewish" of assassination word terrorism refers to the Irgun Zify. These groups not race!! cannot be mass use of violence to only terrorized the It is not me who is considered as spread demoralization Palestinian peasants and claiming that the creation of terror actions... By among civilians, usually for urbanites, but also launched the state of Israel was the this definition, the political aims. Most systematic attacks against source of terrorism in the definitions further specify the British soldiers in assassination of Middle East: it is history. that terrorism is a continual, Palestine as well, when Omar b. el-Khattab, These historical facts have organized and systematic Palestine was still under the been noted not only by Arabs which is often action to achieve some British mandate. Many and Muslims, but also by the considered the first specific political goals. readers will recall the Zionist and Israeli historians assassination assassination of Count Folk Consequently, individual as well. Bernadette—the UN mediator incident in Islamic incidents of assassination between the Arabs and the When you hear the former history, was not a cannot be considered as Israelis—in the King David Israeli Prime Minister proudly terror actions. By this terrorist action. Hotel in Jerusalem in the saying in his campaign definition, the assassination course of these systematic speech that he is very skillful of the late President Sadat terrorism. at shooting the Palestinians was not a terrorist action. By in the head from behind to this definition, the These terror attacks took see their eyes blow out from assassination of Omar b. el- different shapes, from their faces, then who would Khattab, which is often poisoning water to kill you call a terrorist? considered the first livestock, to uprooting trees assassination incident in and burning farms, to Islamic history, was not a slaughtering people in their terrorist action. beds. In comparing what the Zionist gangs have done to On these grounds, the the Palestinians, the "Ku Klux Middle East did not know Klan" raids come to mind. systematic and organized Such systematic and terrorist actions until the organized violence was kept state for the Zionists up until after the creation of emerged; to be more precise, the state of Israel in 1948. until the premier waves of the Zionist immigration to Regretfully, this violence is Palestine in the late 18th still practiced today but in an Century. The Zionists used even more violent and organized violence to horrify aggressive style: demolishing the Palestinians who refused homes using the F16 and the to sell their lands. Apaches, remote assassination, and even It was in this Zionist era Were the Zionists the first Middle East terrorists? using different kinds of OCTOBER 2006 Page 11

SANDRA MACKEY’S LEBANON: A HOUSE DIVIDED A BOOK REVIEW BY SHUANG WEN

Mackey highlights two main within Lebanon tried ebanon is a causes. First, the identity to use these games to L perplexing country, dilemma: trapped between their benefit, reaching hence reading books about the East and the West, out for help and Lebanon is often a perplexing Lebanon suffers from a kind constantly shifting process too. However, of schizophrenia. allies with different Sandra Mackey’s Lebanon, A Demographic pluralism is her “protectors” at House Divided (2006) sorts beauty, but also her problem. different times, only to out the entangled history with To illustrate this point, be betrayed by vivid descriptions and clear Mackey gives detailed everyone in the end. organization. historical backgrounds of the To me, the story of various Christian groups Sandra Mackey The book starts with a Lebanon is a micro- (Maronites, Greek Orthodox picture of Lebanon in her reflection of the entire Arab and Melkites) and Muslim the point that the “Golden Age,” a Lebanon that world. Diversity in religion, groups (Sunnis, Shiites, academic neutrality of the distinguishes herself from culture and natural resources and ) in book is compromised. the rest of the Middle East. are her fatal attraction, which Lebanon and their long But Mackey warns the reader often triggers internal However, the book is still a rivalries. Recounting these that this golden age was conflicts and allures good choice for beginners histories, Mackey really just a gilded bubble outsiders to reap their own who wish to understand emphasizes the point that which soon burst. benefits. Lebanon. And it surely gives the Lebanese have always a more accurate picture than Concerning the civil war, identified with their social The book is a new edition is delivered by the today’s and religious of Mackey’s 1989 book sensationalist media communities Lebanon: Death of a Nation. coverage and downtown first and their Unfortunately, she does not façade tourists see in Beirut. nation second, give an update on the latest Also, Mackey’s writing is if at all. developments in Lebanon, beautiful and can be even such as the pullout of the The second appreciated from a literature Israeli troops in 2000 and cause Mackey perspective. the Syrian troops in 2004, as considers is the well as the conflicts between The book ends on a sad, interference of Israel and Hezbollah in 2006. personal note. In it, Mackey outside powers. Also, when Mackey is trying refuses to propose a solution France, the to explain the enduring for the country’s future PLO, Israel, histories of different religious because the Lebanon she Syria, US and groups, she sometimes knew and loved died a long Iran carefully becomes so bogged down in time ago. orchestrated the details that she digresses their power a great deal from the main games on the theme of the chapter. tiny playing field Furthermore, as a veteran of Lebanon. journalist who was based in .The various Lebanon during the Civil War, political groups Mackey writes with clear affection for the country, to WWW.AUCEGYPT.EDU/ACADEMIC/MESC/ Page 12

VALI NASR’S THE SHIA REVIVAL: HOW CONFLICTS WITHIN ISLAM WILL SHAPE THE FUTURE A BOOK REVIEW BY JANAN DELGADO

as Kurds, Turks, Arabs, and West, and the US in he recent events Persians”, but more particular, ceases seeing in the Middle prominently, “the broader the Shia as the biggest T one between the Shias and threat to American East have reminded the international community that the Sunnis.” As expected, interests in the region. democracy is not the only when speaking of unresolved However, this does not possible alternative to Sunni-Shia conflicts, a whole seem very easy to achieve dictatorship: chaos and civil chapter of the book is due to the current role Iran, war are prospects too. In his dedicated to the Iraqi case. the great patron of Shiism in the political arena, is book The Shia Revival, the The case of Iraq is playing in Iraq, exacerbated renowned scholar and prolific important to the Shia by its open defiance to the writer Vali Nasr finishes the question because it upset the American demands to job of shattering the centuries’ old regional terminate its nuclear misconception that the balance of power that had program, and its avowed Islamic world is a favored the Sunni over the antagonism towards the homogenous body that can Shia. In fact, the Israeli State and the Zionist Vali Nasr be dealt with relative ease. In empowerment of the Iraqi ideology. revisiting the ancient rivalry Shia majority is perhaps the between the Sunna and the chief consequence of the Impeccable scholarship Shia in the Middle East, and Iraqi 2003 war. This change notwithstanding, one can still placing it at the pendulum of is accompanied by the rise of distinguish a hue of naiveté the region’s political Iran as a regional power and in Nasr’s desire to make the dynamics, Vali Nasr provides the awakening of the Shia West see the Shia in a more The clean picture in the reader with an alternative populations in Lebanon, positive light. There is more which Nasr describes pair of glasses through which Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, the than one instance where this the Ashoura the current political reality of UAE, and Pakistan. These are is what he appears to be celebrations is a the region can be re-thought. what Nasr considers the attempting to do. The clean case in point. The This, as one discovers early three major pillars of the picture in which Nasr images of the white on in his book, proves to be a “Shia Revival” phenomenon. describes the Ashoura horse with the valuable tool for unraveling a celebrations is a case in It is apparent throughout political dilemma whose point. The images of the “beautiful saddle” the book that Nasr sees a protracted existence white horse with the and the “gentle fairer distribution of power continues to shed blood and “beautiful saddle” and the beating” are a far cry between the Sunna and the tears. “gentle beating” are a far cry away from the Shia to be essential in away from the images of self- Vali Nasr sees that there preventing Shii resentment images of self- flagellation and running are unresolved issues in the over past marginalization flagellation and blood which one is Middle East that need whose from spoiling all possibilities running blood which accustomed to see through resolution is a prerequisite of a political settlement to one is accustomed to the mass media. More for the realization of a the current regional crises. significantly, Nasr does not see through the democratic solution in the For power to start being think the rise of political mass media. region. These conflicts distributed in a more even Shiism should be a reason to involve ethnic groups “such way it will be crucial that the OCTOBER 2006 Page 13

worry. Rather, one of Nasr’s wrong direction”, and that in as diverse as Pakistan and In conclusion, “when the dust major theses in the book is that fact, “the Shia revival Lebanon, and digging deep settles, the center of gravity the “Sunni backlash that [the constitutes the most powerful into the intricacies of regional will no longer lie with the Shia revival] will generate” is resistance…to Sunni history, Nasr concludes that Arab Sunni countries but will what should indeed raise extremism and activism the phenomenon of Shia be held by Shia ones”, concern. In fact, Nasr tries to in the region.” Revival is part of a new reason for which the US explain to his audience that the regional order replacing the might as well begin reviewing Having written a brilliant problem lies in the “Sunni old order where the Sunni its choice of allies in the book to illustrate the Shia extremists” who would not allow used to hold an upper hand. region. Revival, exploring its different the Shia a fairer slice of the manifestations in countries cake. Chief among them, Nasr says, are the Wahhabis who have never considered the Shia as fellow Muslims.

Another thesis in the book is that “the most salient threat from extremist interpretations of Islam now wears Sunni [as opposed to Shii] garb” However, (and perhaps to Nasr’s disappointment) the US does not seem likely to give up its Wahabbi ally in the region to settle for Iran any time in the foreseeable future. In fact, during the past weeks there have been talks about military action against Iran. Regardless of the American dismissal of this idea, the fact that something of this sort is being spoken about suggests the improbability of a US change of heart.

Unfortunately for those who would like to see a rise of moderate and even secular brand of Shiism in Iran and elsewhere, the face of Shiism that is visible to the international community today is that of Nasrallah in Lebanon, Moqtada al Sadr in Iraq, and Ayatollah Khomeini in Iran. Yet, Nasr insists that Sunni religious and political ideology, unlike with the Shia, “is moving in the WWW.AUCEGYPT.EDU/ACADEMIC/MESC/ Page 14

THE GAS EXPORTING COUNTRIES FORUM been increasingly dependent & WHAT IT MEANS FOR QATAR on LNG imports as they have IVAN ROSALES been unable to fulfill their demands through pre- probably never become a gas market will take time. existing arrangements. n 9 April 2007 the “natural gas OPEC.” Natural As energy minister Khelil Gas Exporting gas is much more difficult to Natural Gas in Qatar O alludes, the gas market is Countries Forum (GECF) transport than oil. Unless it undergoing fundamental The state of Qatar sits on gathered in Doha, Qatar for is in liquid form, gas must be changes. Some of the main the third largest natural gas its sixth annual Ministerial transported in pipelines and factors causing this change reserves in the world. While Meeting. The nature of the therefore has much higher have largely resulted from Russia and Iran, the holders gas market has created vast transport costs than increased demand and of the first and second speculation of the petroleum. As Algerian sustained high prices. Gas largest reserves, have been possibilities that the GECF Energy Minister Chakib Khelil prices in many markets are slow to develop their LNG might become a cartel along put it, “[t]o have an OPEC indexed to oil, thus, as oil exporting abilities, Qatar has the lines of the Organization gas, you need to have a liquid prices remain high so does rapidly been expanding its of the Petroleum Exporting gas market. Right now only a the price of gas. Minister LNG infrastructure. Countries (OPEC). However small part of the gas market Khelil elaborates, “the price Despite Qatar’s vast natural this is not the case. is liquid”. of gas does not reflect its real gas reserves, its production In 2006, natural gas Another challenge to the value.” It could be for this stood at only 1.6% of total accounted for approximately viability of a gas cartel is that reason that the United States world production in 2005. 21% of all global energy key players such as Australia, and the United Kingdom have This figure was so low supply. Natural gas is Canada, and Norway have deregulated their gas because certain markets predominantly exported not shown much interest in markets, basing natural gas were previously regionally through pipelines, the GECF, let alone a cartel. prices on short-term prices, ‘inaccessible’. For example, and alternatively as liquid reflecting the supply and Also, most natural gas the US—the world’s largest natural gas (LNG), a cooled demand equilibrium of the contracts are for extended natural gas consumer—has form of natural gas, which market. China and India, who periods of time, ranging from been exploiting its own enables it to be transported are looking to supply their 15 to 25 years, unlike those reserves at an by ship. increasing demands, of crude oil, which are unprecedented rate. In 2005 illustrate the growth potential The MENA region accounts established for significantly the US had an estimated of the LNG market. for 44% of the worlds natural shorter periods. Thus, the reserve of 3% of the world gas reserves, with Iran, transformation of the natural The US and Europe have reserves, while producing Algeria, Qatar, and Egypt being the largest producers. Looking to future output, Russia (26.6%), Iran (14.9%) and Qatar (14.3%) are the world’s largest gas reserve holders, accounting for approximately 56% of all global natural gas reserves.

However, GECF will 19% of world production. And Qatar clientelism exists in an as their production has been extreme form. Clientelism decreasing (a 2.3% change has been described as, ‘a from 2004 to 2005 alone) system of patron-client ties they have been looking that bind leaders and towards LNG imports from followers in relationships not abroad. only of mutual assistance’. Traditionally Qatar has been In anticipating an dependent on rent from oil, increased world demand for to ensure that citizens LNG, Qatar has sped up the (clients) are financially construction of its LNG appeased; consequently infrastructure. Al-Khaleej undermining the creation of a Gas Project (AKG) was strong opposition to the initiated in 2000, with the state. Such economic aim of developing its emoluments have consisted reserves from the North of paid schooling, subsidized Field. The Dolphin Project, housing, appointment to currently under construction, diplomatic posts and will be the first gas pipeline complete medical coverage. between Qatar and the UAE. Likewise, the upcoming And if the production of oil Qatar/Kuwait Gas Supply peaks as expected within the Project aims at the long-term next 10 to 30 years, Qatar’s exportation of lean gas from natural gas reserves will Qatar to Kuwait. provide a means to continue the current political Qatar: Gas & Politics dynamics. Whether or not a Qatar’s political system is gas cartel is established, the Qatar is unique in its Above: A map of the Qatari based on the personal rule of expansion of Qatar’s LNG natural resources, and its oil, gas fields, marked in red. the Emir, Sheikh Hamad bin exports will ensure a abundant natural gas, and The white dotted line marks Khalifa Al-Thani. The far- continued flow of monies, key geographic location have Qatar’s territorial boundaries reaching economic capability which will facilitate the ability given the Qatari government in the Gulf, which have been of the ruling elite undermines of the Qatari Emir to maintain the rents necessary to for the hotly contested with Bahrain. any change in the his clientelist relation with his expensive costs of running a governmental institution. In citizens. rentier state.

Right: The 5th annual GCEF meeting., with delegates from most of the world’s largest gas producers.

Left: A map of the world’s largest gas producers. The largest producer is Russia with 641 billion cubic meters. Other major producers (in brown and red on the map) are the US, Canada, the UK, the Netherlands, Iran, Norway, & Algeria. MAY 2007

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6 7 8 9 10 11 12 6PM Middle East Anthropology Studies Thesis of Christianity Information in Egypt Session A. Shenoda (see below) MESC Seminar Room 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 end of the year party! Feat. Karam Murad playing the oud 4:30PM; MESC Seminar Room

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Event Focus

Middle East Studies Thesis Information Session

Presenters: Middle East Graduate Students and Dr. Beinin Time: May 7, 4-5.30pm in the Middle East studies office

If you are interested in the topics of the theses presented to the Middle East Studies department this semester, join us to hear from the students who wrote them. Each MIDDLE EAST STUDIES author will have a short presentation, followed by a Q&A OFFICE session. If you have any questions or concerns, especially if you are planning to submit a thesis yourself in the future, learn from the experience of your colleagues. Questions can cover a broad area, for example thesis 5 Youssef El Guindi St. Apt. #4 proposal writing, selection of advisors, timelines and deadlines, research grant application, etc. Phone: (+20-2) 797-5994

E-mail: [email protected]