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Hydrogeologic and Hydrochemical Framework of Indian Wells Valley, California: Evidence for Interbasin Flow in the Southern Sierra Nevada

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Hydrogeologic and Hydrochemical Framework of Indian Wells Valley, California: Evidence for Interbasin Flow in the Southern Sierra Nevada HYDROGEOLOGIC AND HYDROCHEMICAL FRAMEWORK OF INDIAN WELLS VALLEY, CALIFORNIA: EVIDENCE FOR INTERBASIN FLOW IN THE SOUTHERN SIERRA NEVADA by David V. Williams ABSTRACT The Indian Wells Valley is a desert basin of southeastern California located in the transition zone of the Sierra Nevada, Great Basin, and Mojave Desert. Previous conceptual models of the groundwater system suggest that the surrounding granitic rocks are unable to transmit or store significant amounts of water and have described Indian Wells Valley as a closed hydrologic basin with limited recharge and discharge. In contrast, a comprehensive analysis of hydrologic, hydrochemical, isotopic, and structural data of the Indian Wells Valley performed in this thesis indicate a more complex model. The revised paradigm of Indian Wells Valley is one of an open basin, wherein much of the groundwater recharge is derived from outside the topographic divide by way of a unique combination of interconnected faults and fractures serving as conduits for interbasin flow. Hydrogeologic analysis suggests the aquifer flux in one portion of the valley is more than five times precipitation-based estimates using the Maxey-Eakin method. This high volumetric flux is due to a steep hydraulic gradient, which was dismissed in previous studies as an alluvial fault acting as a flow barrier. However, this study found no geophysical or hydrologic evidence to support the presence of a flow barrier, corroborating the high calculated flux. Groundwater chemistry indicates seven major hydrochemcial facies distributed within the valley and the surrounding areas. For the most part, water types are consistent with chemical evolution common to this portion of the Great Basin, but data indicate a large volume of groundwater within the basin that is not derived from within the confines of the topographic watershed. Chemical and isotopic characteristics of this water are iii consistent with water derived from low-enthaply geothermal systems, and data suggest the origin of this water is the Kern Plateau Region of the southern Sierra Nevada located outside the topographic watershed of Indian Wells Valley. This atypical groundwater chemistry is coincident with the location of the hydraulic discrepancy indicating a higher aquifer flux than precipitation-based estimates of recharge. In addition, isotopic and hydrologic data also indicate that much of the groundwater present the basin is most likely Holocene to Recent age, contradicting previous studies which suggest that the majority of groundwater in the basin is Pleistocene age, lingering from the pluvial periods that once predominated the region. Structural mapping and analytical flow modeling suggest groundwater flow within the region is complex, reflecting the significant effect of numerous geologic and structural features such as roof pendants, shear zones, and dike swarms. Hydrologic, chemical, and isotopic analysis of the surrounding area indicates a regional groundwater flow pattern for this portion of the Great Basin flowing from the northwest to southeast. Continuity of chemical and isotopic patterns suggests Indian Wells Valley is part of a regional groundwater flow system that includes the southern Sierra Nevada and adjacent Great Basin and Mojave Desert. Therefore, the boundary between the Tulare Lake and South Lahontan hydrologic regions of southern California has been revised based by these groundwater flow patterns. Total groundwater recharge to Indian Wells Valley prior to urban and agricultural development is estimated to be 36,415 acre-feet/year (ac-ft/yr) and a large portion of the groundwater indicates varying degrees of geothermal influence. This recharge rate has since been modified to approximately 46,170 ac-ft/yr due to ongoing groundwater development. Estimates of recharge and discharge presented herein have increased the overall water-budget of Indian Wells Valley approximately 400 percent compared to previous estimates, with much of this recharge originating in the Kern Plateau Region of the Sierra Nevada outside the topographic watershed. iv TABLE OF CONTENTS ABSTRACT.....................................................................................................................iii LIST OF FIGURES ......................................................................................................... ix LIST OF TABLES.......................................................................................................... xii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS...........................................................................................xiii CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION ......................................................................................1 1.1 Statement of Problem ................................................................................................1 1.2 Study Objectives and Implications............................................................................2 1.3 Report Organization ..................................................................................................3 CHAPTER 2: REGIONAL SETTING ..............................................................................4 2.1 Physiography and Geographic Setting ......................................................................4 2.2 Regional Geology......................................................................................................6 2.2.1 Sierra Nevada Batholith.....................................................................................7 2.2.2 El Paso Mountains ...........................................................................................13 2.2.2.1 Garlock Assemblage ...........................................................................13 2.2.2.2 Goler Formation..................................................................................14 2.2.2.3 Ricardo Group.....................................................................................16 2.2.3 Plio-Pleistocene Units......................................................................................17 2.2.3.1 White Hills Sequence..........................................................................17 2.2.3.2 Pleistocene and Holocene Sediments..................................................18 2.3 Structural and Tectonic Setting ...............................................................................19 2.4 Climate ....................................................................................................................23 v 2.5 Hydrogeologic Setting.............................................................................................26 2.5.1 Aquifer Structure and Hydrostratigraphy........................................................31 2.5.2 Aquifer Properties............................................................................................33 2.5.3 Occurrence and Movement of Groundwater ...................................................34 2.6 Paleoclimate and Paleohydrology ...........................................................................37 2.7 Geothermal Systems................................................................................................39 CHAPTER 3: EVALUATION OF GROUNDWATER RECHARGE AND DISCHARGE ...............................................................................................................................43 3.1 Groundwater Recharge............................................................................................43 3.1.1 Mountain-Front Recharge................................................................................43 3.1.1.1 Stream Gaging.....................................................................................44 3.1.1.2 Maxey-Eakin Method .........................................................................50 3.1.1.3 Chloride Mass-Balance.......................................................................55 3.1.1.4 Aquifer Flux Calculations...................................................................58 3.1.1.5 Evaluation of Evidence for Groundwater Flow Barrier......................62 3.1.2 Artificial Recharge ..........................................................................................68 3.1.2.1 Wastewater and Municipalities...........................................................68 3.1.2.2 Agriculture ..........................................................................................69 3.1.2.3 Owens River-Los Angeles Aqueduct..................................................69 3.2 Groundwater Discharge...........................................................................................70 3.2.1 Evapotranspiration...........................................................................................71 3.2.1.1 Previous Estimates of Evapotranspiration ..........................................71 3.2.1.2 Revised Estimate of Evapotranspiration.............................................73 3.2.2 Groundwater Development..............................................................................79 3.3 Previous Numerical Groundwater Models ..............................................................79 3.4 Summary..................................................................................................................82 CHAPTER 4: HYDROCHEMISTRY AND ISOTOPES................................................84 4.1 Hydrochemical Analysis .........................................................................................84 4.1.1 Sierran Group...................................................................................................89
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