Edible Houseplants The reported human edibility of 1,264 genera, arranged alphabetically.

Arthur Lee Jacobson Preface

All people eat. Most people embrace eat- conservatories and greenhouses, or used ing a diverse diet. Many people like re- in interiorscaping, in aquaria, terraria, search and writing. Fewer people share and as indoor bonsai. In my enthusiastic their learning through books. Until now, zeal, it seemed reasonable to also include no one has arranged in one book a thor- some genera that are grown outside in the ough account of those cultivated warm season, but kept indoors, contain- indoors and how people around the erized, to protect against winter weather. world have eaten them or related plants, Like an addict, I sought more and more. or have not eaten them, or been poisoned Just because a plant was grown by them. You’re reading an original book. rarely in the past, does not mean it is un- Why and how this book was worthy of being grown commonly in the future. created In describing the relative frequency How I learned so much, and the way with which a given genus is cultivated, the book was written, is worth explain- I attempted to learn and share its overall ing. In the beginning, I didn’t know the level of rarity or commonness, not mere- first thing about houseplants. The truth ly its status currently in the USA. Now be told, I despised them. Then why did and then, a given houseplant may be I write this book? Love is the answer. I common in , or Japan, but not in love plants (I make my livelihood as a the USA. Many plants were once grown plant expert). I love research and writ- commonly but are now out of favor or ing. I love food and eating. After carnal fashion. pleasure, the joys of eating, drinking, and To compile this book, I visited 9 cooking rank very high in the list of great public libraries, took 22 out-of-state re- sensual pleasures humans can revel in. I search trips, consulted over 2,600 articles, feel a responsibility to share useful but books, nursery catalogs, scholarly the- under-known information. And food for ses, and abstracts, which dated from the people is a fundamental need. Finally, I 1700s onward and ranged from dull and confess that when I conceived the notion cumbersome to fascinating and lively. I of this book, I didn’t know how many used a relatively tiny number of online plants were involved nor that the job databases, blogs, and the like. would hog so much time. I guessed that I The approximate geographic break- could finish within five years. down of the references consulted was as It started with a basic list of the com- follows: mon plant genera grown as houseplants. To do this, I looked at over 60 houseplant Africa, Arabia & Madagascar 18% books. Then I added uncommon genera, New World 24% and a selection of rare, very rare, and ex- India, Kashmir, , Nepal 23% tremely rare genera. Not yet satisfied, I SE Asia, Australia, NZ, etc. 18% added some genera grown exceedingly Temperate climates 17% rarely, and grown mainly or even only in Many general books, such as those about Of the 1,264 genera in this book, I global edible plants, toxic plants, or trop- have personal experience with, and stud- ical , as well as botany mono- ied firsthand, only 600+ of them, and of graphs, were also consulted. those have tasted only about 414 of them Chimpanzees and Bonobos (Pan and grown indoors over 175 of them. paniscus and Pan troglodytes) are the ex- At this writing (March 2018), the house tant primates related most closely to us I live in contains only 111 plants. This “brainy chimps” called Homo sapiens book is thus mainly the reported human (being classed in the same animal fam- edibility of plant genera ; if it was limited ily Hominidae, sharing 99%+ identity at to my personal experience, it’d be far functionally important DNA sites, and smaller. This book is not intended at all as even placed by some zoologists in genus a how-to guide, an identification guide, Homo), so I also consulted 15 references or to suggest what you ought to try to that discuss the plants eaten by them, in grow or eat. “Recipes” supplied are just the Congo (Zaire), Gabon, Uganda, and for the sake of accurate and interesting Tanzania. reporting. During my study, I ate house- I purchased over 90 books. I bought plants raw, boiled, fried, dried, made into hundreds of plants to grow, familiar- liqueurs, and roasted. Some I was scared ize myself with, and taste. I started in to sample. Some meals tasted heavenly, 2009–2010, and went to press in 2021. I and others were inedible due to acridity. could have easily spent more time add- Often, people in one region, or one ing data, but desired to stop at a certain age, ingest as food plants or animals that point of diminishing returns. The drama other people avoid. For example, some and trauma of acquiring plants and infor- of us love bitter foods , but others don’t. mation took a whale of a cost in time and Many plants are eaten only in times of dollars. While compiling the informa- famine. Some foods appeal mostly to tion, I had to earn a living, so the book children. For the majority of humanity’s was done in my spare time. I was thrilled existence, most individuals had to work to taste plants that were reported neither hard to obtain enough calories and nutri- edible nor toxic, and discovered a few tion to thrive. All kinds of plants, fungi, that tasted delicious and many that were and animals have been ingested as food: if meh, or bitter, acrid, astringent, or too fi- it moves or grows, eat it ! Only a percent- brous and bland. age of that vast heritage has been put into Unlike university academics, I had writing. And I the researcher have had almost no access to costly restricted on- access to only a percentage of the avail- line scientific journal articles held by able literature. Thus, this book is by no commercial enterprises such as Elsevier means the final word on the subject. It and Springer, so missed reading much is a hefty report of what one student— writing of value. I did what one unaf- I myself— found in 10 years of looking, filiated person could, part time, armed by growing, and tasting. The sunshine of pluck, rare focus, patience, and passion, learning pierced many dark clouds of ig- unencumbered by dumb bosses, “publish norance. or perish” idiocy, or deadlines. Further exploration of gen- “comestible” instead. If Brazilian mainly era not in this book . . . or wholly, use comestível. Also, try the word “ethnobotany,” (ethnobotanique, For any genus not included in this book, or etnobotánica, etnobotânico). And if I share with you the process I employed there are alternative generic names indi- to determine any reported edibility. So cated in Mabberley’s book, search also if you desire to check about edibility of those names. You may also need to em- a genus not in this book, you can ben- ploy Google® Translate to decipher the efit from my advice on how to conduct results of your search. a search yourself. (Please do not write To locate comprehensive, accurate asking me ; do the search yourself ! ) To data in this subject, one must use both research the reported edibility of a genus, printed sources and digital. Internet first make sure that you have a proper searches are needed, but large university scientific generic name —rather than a libraries also supply valuable data not re- common name. Confusingly, sometimes vealed using the web. Try to visit librar- the proper scientific name is also a com- ies strong in holdings of botany, horti- mon name—for example: Camellia and culture, and anthropology, archaeology, Magnolia. and ethnobotany (Library of Congress If you can use only one book to start subject subclasses QK, SB, and GN, re- with, best is the 2017 Mabberley’s Plant- spectively) Book. Mabberley’s guide often states A few genera that I ignored, but that whether a genus has edible or not. could have been added if I desired to Numerous books cover edible plants. spend yet more days researching: Most such books are local in coverage. In contrast is Günther Kunkel’s 1984 book Anemopægma Plants for Human Consumption. Includ- Annona Arundo ing over 3,000 genera, it superseded all Cistus previous global compendia, but nowa- Gyrocarpus days has been replaced by online data- Humulus bases such as Food Plants International, Libertia which includes mushrooms. This Edible Limonium Houseplants book contains at least 275 Macadamia edible genera that are not in Kunkel’s Paullinia book, but fewer than 40 not in Food These and others left out are as worthy Plants International at this writing. of inclusion as some that were permitted When you have a correct generic in the book. Being thus inconsistent does name, then try looking, both in books not bother me, because the book has far and on the internet using search engines. more genera than any reader could expect If the genus is found much in parts of or desire in such an undertaking. If I had the world where English is spoken, you not stopped adding more genera, I would can do a search in Google® Scholar using never have finished the book. Obscure, the generic name and the word “edible.” small genera I can check thoroughly in a Also use Google® Books. If the genus is, few hours ; a large genus with many ed- however, in a place such as Madagascar ible species takes days. where French is spoken, or Spanish, use There are also genera not grown as added, or improved. Such is life. In the indoor ornamental plants, yet are edible, same way that even Earth’s most beauti- and may prove valuable as indoor food ful women wish they were in this or that sources. For example: way “improved,” so each writer desires Amaranthus his or her book to be better. Calandreinia Final words Commelina Durio To get inspired sufficiently to change Faidherbia longtime habits, and to try new and un- Limonium familiar things, is often uncomfortable. Litsea On the other hand, the rewards of learn- Parietaria ing about, trying, and finally embracing Polygonum an entire new realm of food possibilities, Rumex excite those of us who relish adventure, Tetragonia and desire to expand our lives. I hope Toona to expand your life. May you take sol- Trichanthera ace from the gentle, calming influence of Have you ever had to chew under- gardening, and in consuming wholesome cooked pasta? A most unpleasant ex- food ; may you wiggle with joy upon perience ! Even so, I desired to compile tasting new flavors. I consider this book this book without a deadline, in order my most valuable gift to humanity. Since to “cook” or polish it adequately. Yes, I am not a parent of children, this book is had I spent still more time on it, I would my “child.” Raising either plants or chil- have improved it. As it my hands, dren, adults get exasperated, tired, dirty, I know that even while it is still at the and harvest a sumptuous mix of sorrow printing press, I shall think of some- and joy. thing I could’ve and should’ve corrected, Introduction

Pure scientific inquiry is, at least ide- The book mostly does not deal with the ally, dispassionate and unemotional. In following: contrast, pure art, such as opera, is de- • Annual vegetables of temperate zones, such void of the strictures of logic, reason, and as lettuce, or their when sprouted in technical vocabulary. Gardening, wheth- the kitchen to consume. er indoors or outdoors, combines art and • Herbs of temperate zones, such as science. This edible houseplant book is dill, sorrel, and tarragon. limited to cultivated plants. Accordingly, • Hybrids of genera, many of which this book offers a blend of pure, solid are in the orchid family. facts enlivened with a varying “season- ing” of passion, fun, titillation, humor, • Florists’ imported foliage, if from species not cultivated indoors, such as Baloskion and amusement. tetraphyllum (Dingo Tail), Brunia, This book has idiosyncrasies and Cannomois virgata (Rekoala Grass), quirks to note. First, since I was born in Caustis Blakei (Koala Fern), etc. Seattle and am a lifelong USA resident, • Various plants cultivated very rarely, and the book has that perspective and in- limited mostly to greenhouses. tended readership. Thus, I use feet (') and inches (") rather than the metric measure- • Fungi, such as edible mushrooms, ments. Second, the term “houseplant” in except a few lichens used in terraria. the title is used in the broadest possible • Rooftop garden and exterior green sense. The book is not limited to com- wall species not also grown inside. mon living room houseplants. Preferring The result of my choice of what to in- the most comprehensive and inclusive clude / exclude is the great size of the approach, it includes plant genera used in book. Its depth and completeness will the following: shock readers who guess about the con- • apartment balconies tent just from its title Edible House- • florists’ potted plant offerings plants. It is fascinating to learn how what • forced in pots we think of as “ornamental plants” in the • home conservatories or atria USA can elsewhere be vegetables, spices, • houseplant settings or edible . Even if you have no in- • indoor bonsai terest in houseplant growing, knowing • interiorscaping the edibility of outdoor garden plants is • terraria, aquaria, riparia, & vivaria valuable. Depending on what region or • under grow-lights and the like climate you reside in, more or fewer of • windowboxes your outdoor plants will be included in this book. Most houseplant genera con- The final result is an inclusive, detailed tain edible species; depending where you reference work on reported edibility of live, most of your outdoor “ornamental” most plants containerized and grown in- plant genera may contain edible species. doors. What this book tells you APOCYNACEÆ 345 (Dogbane family) For each of 1,264 genera included, this CRUCIFERÆ (BRASSICACEÆ) 343 book supplies the family name, the num- (Mustard family) ber of species, the distribution, and cli- LABIATÆ (LAMIACEÆ) 240 mate ranges of species globally ; what (Mint family) kinds of plants the species are ; the spe- MALVACEÆ 229 cies’ role as houseplants or as grown oth- (Mallow family) erwise in containers indoors ; the English EUPHORBIACEÆ 214 name(s) ; and of course, any reported ed- (Spurge family) ibility. One or more of the species (or ACANTHACEÆ 202 a hybrid ) is described for you in plain (Acanthus family) English using minimal technical jargon A genus consists of related species. It can and maximum lively writing. For some contain only 1 or many species. Earth’s but not all genera, the book explains the plant genera with the most species are as meanings of names ; cites related genera ; follows. supplies line drawing illustrations ; pro- vides notes on , propagation Astragalus (not in this book) 2,850 Carex 2,100 and pollination, cultivation, and other Piper 2,000 economic usage ; and offers enlighten- Miconia 1,900 ing quotes —whatever seems interesting. Bulbophyllum 1,900 The selection of vernacular or common names is strong only in names used by A family or a genus can have either a English speakers. This book supplies a relatively low or high percentage of ed- tiny percentage of non-English common ible members. A well-stocked USA gro- plant names. cery store will offer likely fewer than 100 genera of “fresh” produce and , al- Plant names: families, beit additional genera are found canned, genera & species dried, pickled, powdered, or rendered A plant family is a group of related gen- into spices, oil, syrups, flours, teas, and era. Over 470 plant families exist ; this so forth. book has 227. A plant family can have Scientific plant names can be simple only one genus or many. Earth’s 12 fami- or complex. Quercus rubra (red oak) and lies with the most genera are as follows. Pinus nigra (black pine) are simple. At the other extreme is a cactus encumbered COMPOSITÆ (ASTERACEÆ) 1,568 with 18 syllables: Echinocereus arizonicus (Sunflower family) ssp. nigrihorridispinus (Arizona cactus ORCHIDACEÆ 762 with black, especially horrible spines). (Orchid family) GRAMINEÆ (POACEÆ) 752 Lumping and splitting (Grass family) LEGUMINOSÆ (FABACEÆ) 741 Regarding scientific plant names, some (Pea family) scientists use a broad or “lumping” ap- RUBIACEÆ 576 proach, while others prefer a narrower (Madder family) or “splitting” view. This is one reason UMBELLIFERÆ (APIACEÆ) 431 why it is inaccurate to state—as is done (Carrot family) often—that only one scientific name is Most scientific names, also called correct for a given plant. This book sup- botanic names, are Latin, Latinized, or plies ample historic and alternate names, Greek, but they can be in any Romanized so whether the reader searches for a plant language. was named after Thomas under one name or another, he or she can Hoy of England, Magnolia was named find it. Alas!—academic plant taxono- after Monsieur Pierre Magnol of France, mists often change names that gardeners Fuchsia after Herr Leonhart Fuchs of have grown familiar with. In this book, Germany, and Washingtonia, after Presi- I mostly let scientists have their way ; dent George Washington. Jacaranda is sometimes I give the lay public a break. from a Brazilian common name of the However, in all cases of wiggle room or tree. When a plant is named after a per- uncertainty about lumping, splitting, and son directly, the ideal way to pronounce rearranging that I’m aware of, I indicate it, is just like the person himself or her- as much. Fairy tales commonly end with self would, adding the appropriate suffix people living happily after. But in real such as ia, iæ, ie, or ii. life, new facts, conflicts, mistakes, igno- Alternative family or generic names rance, disagreements, and whatnot occur, are duly cited and cross-referenced. For therefore plant names are unstable. Simi- species, much-abbreviated names of larly, some plants have their edibility or the scientists who applied the names— toxicity contradicted by varied authors. named the plants— are supplied. Ugly to It can be difficult to remain patient. readers, this is needed for precision. Unlike “family” and “genus,” the Diacritical usage and word “species” is singular and plural, but pronunciation the abbreviation sp. refers to one species In scientific names, I diverge from the and spp. refers to more than one. international standards in several re- Some readers may think I’ve been spects. This may raise hackles. I don’t too heavy-handed by citing so many care. Ligatures æ and œ are used as well scientific name synonyms, with all their as diaereses. Why? Because plant names small print, abbreviated author names. mispronounced annoy me. The proper My rationale is this : when discussing ed- pronunciation of Lagerstrœmia is LAG ible or poisonous plants, certainty is to ER STREE ME UH, as indicated by be aimed for. For example, take Allium the œ which denotes a silent o, just like senescens ; this one species name has been in œcology, Phœnix, or diarrhœa. And applied to six different species : Alstrœmeria is AL STREE ME RI UH. However, Aloë is not AL EE but rather L. 1753 A. senescens (the original) AL OH EE. Elæagnus is E LEE AG Th. 1784 = A. Thunbergii NUS, not E LUH AG NUS. That said, Suter 1802 = A. angulosum since scientific names are pronounced Ker Gawl. 1808 = A. spirale differently in North America, England, Host 1827 = A. lusitanicum and continental Europe, a case is made Miq. 1867 = A. ramosum that there is not only one correct pro- To not supply author names for plant nunciation. But informed ladies and gen- names is like not doing so for authors of tlemen do not pronounce silent letters. books. Unfortunately, many “reputable” books, nurseries and blogs use inaccu- flowers is eaten as food. The Gesneriad rate plant names frequently, whether the Family drags down the edible percent- creators know it or not. And whenever I age. Of those families that this book in- become aware of their ignorance or de- cludes with at least 9 genera, the percent- ception, I call it out to warn the reader. age of genera with edibility reported is as A good example is the Latin hort. abbre- follows : viation (meaning hortulanorum ; of hor- GRAMINEÆ 13/13 100.00% ticulture or gardens ; not botanic science) ARALIACEÆ 11/11 100.00% following a scientific name. This refers to EUPHORBIACEÆ 9/9 100.00% “nursery Latin:” names either applied in- PALMÆ 34/35 97.14% correctly by gardeners, or names made- RUTACEÆ 15/16 93.75% up by them. PTERIDACEÆ 12/13 92.30% ARACEÆ 34/37 91.89% The genera in this book LEGUMINOSÆ 54/59 91.52% This book includes 1,264 genera, ZINGIBERACEÆ 10/11 90.90% arranged alphabetically. Whether they CYPERACEÆ 8/9 88.88% are edible, toxic, or neither, they are in- APOCYNACEÆ 30/34 88.23% cluded. Inclusion of non-edible genera in MYRTACEÆ 15/17 88.23% this book is a marked departure from the ASPARAGACEÆ 35/40 87.50% norm. It is a valuable addition because the IRIDACEÆ 13/15 86.66% MALVACEÆ 19/22 86.36% reader can learn which genera are grown LABIATÆ 27/32 84.37% indoors, and whether they are reported BIGNONIACEÆ 10/12 83.33% edible, toxic, or neither. To silently ig- CACTACEÆ 55/66 83.33% nore and omit genera not reported edible ACANTHACEÆ 23/28 82.14% would leave the reader wondering about RUBIACEÆ 25/31 80.64% their status. With this book’s approach, MELASTOMATACEÆ 10/13 76.92% instead, any genus apt to be looked for, COMMELINACEÆ 8/11 72.72% will have an account. And even if a genus BROMELIACEÆ 18/25 72.00% is not reported edible, there is accurate, CRASSULACEÆ 10/14 71.42% helpful information about it, such as if POLYPODIACEÆ 10/14 71.42% it is related closely to edible genera yet COMPOSITÆ 26/37 70.27% has no toxic near relatives. In some cases, SOLANACEÆ 14/20 70.00% HYDROCHARITACEÆ 6/9 66.66% such information supplied suggests that a AMARYLLIDACEÆ 14/25 56.00% given genus is well worth careful testing PLANTAGINACEÆ 7/16 43.705% for edibility. AIZOACEÆ 12/26 46.15% Whether a genus is rich or poor in ORCHIDACEÆ 31/80 38.75% usefulness, common or rare, beautiful GESNERIACEÆ 12/32 37.50% or plain, grown easily or not—all are in- Certain genera cultivated most common- cluded. Of these genera, 78½% have been reported edible as noted by other writers, ly outside, are nonetheless in the book, and I have found some genera edible in such as: Allium, Anemone, Camellia, my testing (such as Alluaudia, Hatiora, Campanula, Carex, Clematis, Cotoneas- ter, Crocus, Daphne, Fuchsia, Gladiolus, Leucocoryne, and Ruttya), so the percent- age is yet higher. I did not count a genus Iris, Lobelia, , Pinus, Potentilla, as edible if only bee honey made from its Primula, Rhododendron, Salvia, , Sequoia, and Viburnum. Every one of is either edible or not, but it’s not that those genera has species eaten by people. simple. Regarding specialist collections of Unlike other animals, clever humans large families, notably the cacti and or- detoxify plant foods often. A main fam- chids, I chose arbitrarily to include only ine food of east Asia is the Asiatic Bit- 66 cactus genera and 80 orchid genera. ter or Intoxicating Yam, whose tuber Plenty more are cultivated indoors by must be sliced thinly, soaked in saltwater enthusiastic collectors. 3 days, next put in a sack and placed in a river for days, before being boiled to The genera in this book with the most eat. Some scientists think a contributing species cited as edible are : factor to the demise of the dinosaurs 66 Solanum 225 million years ago was plants evolving Acacia s.l. 221 toxins so rapidly that dinosaurs were too Allium 205 dumb to stop ingesting them. Moreover, Dioscorea 165 Syzygium 150 we humans even are thrilled to consume Garcinia 135 various toxic plants, such as ferment- Diospyros 132 ed Vitis juice (Grape wine), Cannabis Eugenia 129 (Marijuana), and Nicotiana (Tobacco). Ficus * 127 In moderate use, such plant toxins make Inga 114 our hearts merry, lighten our loads, and Begonia 111 induce sweeter dreams. Bottom line, this Salvia 102 book is full of plant genera that are also Grewia 100 found in poisonous plant books. Piper 95 The best part of this whole undertak- Ipomœa 90 ing was the eye-opening revelation that a * Ficus would be highest of all (300+), but significant number of toxic plants can be, I ignored recording its species of which if harvested at the right time and prepared only the fruit is eaten—because potted fig the right way, rendered into wholesome trees inside usually don’t fruit. food. Yes, the exact same plant, depend- Poisonous plants  ing on precise details of its ingestion, can be healthy or deadly upon ingestion. And Plants are accustomed to being munched if that was not enough, there are personal on by animals, and many have adapted allergies so that one person is hurt by self-defences, such as much hairiness plants that do not bother most people. or fuzz ; barbs, prickles, thorns, spines ; Plants containing pyrrolizidine alkaloids waxy, shell-like hardness ; extreme bit- can taste delicious, be very nutritious, terness ; stinging or burning substances ; and their ill-effects be not noticed until and horrible odors. This book contains the consumer has eaten quantities for a profuse data on dangerously toxic—even long time. In a word, it’s complicated. deadly—plants. Plant edibility is inter- Abdel-Fattah M. Rizk: “In view of twined in a 100% continuum with plant the large distribution of carcinogenic risk toxicity. Just like and trees, good factors of natural and synthetic origin in and bad, and hot and cold. Plant genera the human environment and in the hu- frequently contain both toxic and edible man diet, absolute safety is, in fact, non- species. People may think a given plant existent. . . the human diet also contains bade Adam and Eve from eating a certain many natural antimutagens and anticar- fruit. They ate it anyway, thereby causing cinogens.” trouble. Dear reader, please heed my cau- Plant edibility defined carefully : The tion notes and do not act carelessly with plant has one or more parts that can be the data in this book. eaten as human food if gathered at the appropriate stage of growth, prepared properly, and ingested in a safe quantity. I am just a reporter for you ; the ap- plication of the information herein is wholly out of my control. Accessing the profuse plant data presented in this book, intelligent and discerning readers such as yourself will doubtless benefit. Even of you are not very interested in the subject, this book is a serviceable doorstop, or can lull you to sleep. But if they read this book, fools, knaves, and scoundrels may cause mischief. Many foods are also medicinal, and have been termed functional foods, health foods, pharmafoods or nutraceuti- cals: coffee and tea, for instance, or eating prunes as a laxative. In some cases, people Dietary preferences eat the food mostly for flavor or calories, Both cultural and individual dietary with incidental health benefits ; in other tastes vary. Not only the liking or dislik- cases the food is ingested mainly to ease ing of flavors, but in some cases a bodily bodily problems such as constipation. ability or inability to digest certain food- Likely most plants ingested as spices and stuffs. Individuals vary in how many via infusions or teas, are of this category, taste receptors exist on their tongues. inasmuch as their caloric value is minis- That means each person’s dectection of cule. The safe edibility of certain plants is bitterness or spiciness is unique. Certain limited severely, such as a small amount strong-flavored foods elicit a physiolog- used as a spice or flavoring in a liqueur. ic rejection from sensitive individuals. Rosemary, for example, if eaten in excess, Think of horseradish, hot chilies, blue is toxic. Some plants harmless to people cheese, cilantro, Brussels sprouts, and can poison pet dogs. A good example is beets. That said, a person can first dis- Chocolate (Theobroma Cacao). Lilies like a food, yet gradually acquire an ac- (Lilum) are toxic to cats. ceptance, then even a liking for it. Many Some plants edible in a technical sense North American residents are content really ought not be grown indoors, since to imbibe bitter coffee, chocolate, beer a curious child, or neurotic pet, cannot or liqueur, but dislike bitter vegetables be expected to know that ingestion can and fruits such as dandelion greens, bit- be dangerous. Reader, beware ! God for- ter melons, and the like. Bitter foods are healthy, and to associate bitterness with of factors: latitude, elevation, climate, “yucch” is to preclude many nutritious, air temperature (both day and night), diverse foods. Then there is the matter water characteristics, air humidity, light of preparation. A food can taste or smell level, soil mix, and the skill, dedication, very different depending on whether and ability of the grower. Indoors can it is consumed raw, steamed, blanched, be a hotel lobby, a skyscraper bedroom, boiled, baked, fried, stewed, or ferment- a steamy greenhouse, an RV, an orbiting ed. Finally, “hunger is the best sauce.” space station . . . making the number of Starving people eat things they would variable factors daunting to consider. I not touch otherwise. This book has many find that any given plant seems to “care” plants that most people will find foul- most about one factor or another. For tasting. But some people, in some places, example, some need moisture above in some times, ate them. all (aquatic plants), some need light and aridity (desert plants), some need Growing plants inside warmth (ultra-tropical plants), some are Just as a person can make us fall in love weedy—even inside buildings. And so at first sight, so do certain plants we see forth. Some hit the ceiling quickly, and for the first time, seem to shoot affec- are forced to grow sideways. So, often I tion charms right into our hearts. Alas, tell you this sort of thing, in case you care keeping the beloved new plant content in to try growing a genus indoors. Having your home can be as hard as maintaining “a green thumb” can boil down to one’s an intimate relationship with another hu- ability to recognize and provide for a man. It’s easy to err and cause stress and plant’s “comfort zone” as regards light sadness. In a way that recalls how some level, temperature, humidity, and soil. people love big city life, while other peo- If a person’s care for a potted plant ple desire or need rural quietude, it seems is limited to watering it now and then, that certain plants can live in containers when he or she remembers to, how can indoors, while others protest mightily, much food be produced? Whereas given yearning to be outside and free like an the ideal location, soil, fertilizer, pest animal that cannot be tamed. The patient, control, and temperature, the same plant experienced, and skilled human grower will grow bountifully, look better, and can often make indoors life delightful for produce much. That said, some plants his or her pet plants. On the other hand, such as pineapples and bananas are ineffi- the inexperienced, harried human can cient because growing your own requires barely even keep “tough” houseplants so much space and time relative to buy- alive. Many detailed, superb written ac- ing their fruit at the grocer. Some plants counts direct how to grow plants indoors flower inside but fail to set fruit unless successfully. Whether a plant genus is the gardener hand-pollinates them. easy or difficult to grow inside, has zero Farmers vary the crops they raise ac- bearing on whether or not it is included in cording to region in an effort to ensure this book. Someone should write a book the best yield. Likewise, indoor plant about foolproof edible houseplants. growers should also try to acquire the What genera, species, or hybrids best plants for their location, and ideally thrive indoors depends on a multitude even their seasons. It’s easy to grow gin- ger roots in a house, but a pain to grow Chlorpyrifos, a organophosphate pes- your own chocolate or vanilla without a ticide that can cause birth defects, brain greenhouse. damage, and mental disorders in children, A useful generalization is: tropical has been sprayed on more than 50 fruits, plants that never rest, and grow all year, vegetables, and nuts ! If farmers and nurs- are apt to outproduce temperate plants ery growers do not employ pesticides— which need a yearly rest period. Each organic or not— then often bugs, fungal species comes from a climate that is tem- disease, or some other plague renders perate (frosty winters), subtropical (frost their crops unsalable. When buying a new occurs rarely) or tropical (never frosty). plant, I wait 2 or 3 months before tasting It is easier to grow a tropical plant in a it, and try new growth only, hoping that heated temperate-region building, than by then most of the pesticide residues to grow a temperate plant in the tropics. will be broken down. If you grow food, In short, as plants are accustomed indoors or out, you can do so organically to variously sweltering tropical jungles, and safely ; chemical sprays are not the baking deserts, misty, beautiful moors, only solution to problems—with very bogs or swamps, and whatnot—so they few exceptions. Someone should start a therefore need diverse growing condi- nursery that specializes in edible house- tions indoors. But if you can scramble plants grown organically, next door to a eggs for breakfast, or capture a spider restaurant whose meals feature some of alive in your house to release outside, the plants grown. then you have sufficient IQ to grow Raising food inside houseplants —at least the non-demand- ing sorts. And you can prune and use Despite the manifold joys and riches af- in your kitchen the excess growth of forded by the goddess Flora, for those many. Extra credit if you conserve spe- people who live in an apartment and have cies rare or endangered in the wild, by no access to land outside, it is ideal to also growing them inside. For example, most raise edible insects such as mealworms, or tree species in Madagascar are threatened keep Guinea pigs inside, enabling denser with extinction in the wild. Some can be caloric return, with more protein and fat. grown as edible houseplants. Most livestock raised can digest cellulose more efficiently and ingest easily many Pesticides plants that humans find unpalatable, in- Insects and fungi work 7 days a week cluding our “kitchen scraps.” Studies in without vacations. Plant growers must China report that certain silkworms will react to the injurious ones, one way eat not only mulberry but other leaves, or another. Most plants sold as house- and the silkworms themselves grow plants are intended as ornamentals, not rapidly, taste good, and are very high food. So, government regulations permit (± 60%) in protein. The human-essential various obnoxious, even cancer-causing, amino acid content in silkworms is two growth retardant sprays and pesticides times higher than in pork and four times not usually allowed on food crops to be than in egg and milk. Silkworm pupae used on nursery plants. These can include yield good taste, complete protein, and herbicides, fungicides, and insecticides. abundant fatty acids. If eating insects makes you squeamish, trapping squirrels est to professionals. There is no room to or rabbits is also a more efficient way to also make it a plant identification guide. feed yourself. The fact that one cannot use this To achieve maximum food security, book as an identification guide brings to boost health and secure reliable avail- no apology from me. Five houseplant ability, people should acquire skill in both books with many genera, and also well- home growing (inside and out); keeping illustrated, are : chickens; tending honeybees; and forag- RHS Encyclopedia of Houseplants ing, fishing, and hunting outside. A soci- (Beckett 1995) ety that delegates the vast majority of its ca. 1,000 genera food supply and distribution to special- House Plant Expert I & II ists, has gone wrong. Those of us out of ca. 500 genera touch with obtaining and cooking fresh (Hessayon 2004, 2005) food, can learn to change our ways, and later assist others when the globalized, Houseplant Encyclopedia ca. 500 genera hi-tech supply system falters. “In recent (Jantra & Krüger 1997) centuries humans have focused on rela- tively few plant species with the result Ortho’s Houseplant Encyclopedia ca. 400 genera that 80 % of total dietary energy intake, (1993) globally, is obtained from 12 domesticat- ed species: 8 cereals and 4 tubers.” Encyclopedia of Houseplants ca. 300 genera Plant identification (Vermeulen 1997) If you have a plant and desire to learn Websites or smartphone “apps” may of its reported edibility, first identify help identify plants, but I have paid no it. Then you can read about it. Expert attention into searching for or testing plant i.d. skills are uncommon, and are such things. decreasing. Guessing or approximate, or inexpert i.d., is frequent, however, and better than nothing. So begin by asking around. The merits, ease, and productivity of plants vary big time. This book includes the entire plant spectrum from “losers” to “superstar” species. Of course, each reader would prefer a book that dealt only with his or her unique growing conditions, and that included edible or- namentals that grew outside as well. The current book is so weighty, and filled with so many rare or less valuable plants, that it can be faulted as clumsy overkill. It is a compendium that can help a range of readers, from those of a casual inter- Abbreviations and Signs

Used with plant names Used generally affin. allied to, akin to æ indicates a silent a auct. (auctorum) authors of (as in Julius Cæsar) plant names C central c f. (confer) akin to or ca. (circa) about like this species E east or eastern f. forma ; a trivial variant e.g. (exempli gratia) for example of a species et al. (et alia) and other authors fil. (filius) son etc. (et cetera) and others hort. (hortulanorum) of i.e. (id est) that is or namely horticulture or gardens ; N north or northern not botanic science œ indicates a silent o (as in Phœnix) nom. illeg. (nomen illegitimum) S south or southern illegitimate name sp. species (singular) nom. nud. (nomen nudum) spp. species (plural) invalid name vs. versus ; compared with due to no description W west or western non not (used when botanists or ? possibly horticulturists misapply ' feet names) " inches p.p. (pro parte) in part, but not wholly sensu in the sense of s.l. (sensu lato) in a wide sense ; a broad view of a species’ limits s.s. (sensu stricto) in a strict sense ; a narrow view of a species’ limits ssp. subspecies ; a major race of a species stat. nov. (status novus) a new name combination var. varietas ; a minor race of a species × sexual hybrid Plant group general articles

The bulk of this book is its 1,264 A to Mangrove trees are not beautiful, not Z generic accounts. Below, are brief in- grown easily in general and, grown in- troductory remarks on 31 general plant doors, their long dangling roots can hang groups that consist of multiple genera. clumsily to the floor. Mangrove trees are not very edible, but they are of supreme Air plants (epiphytes) importance ecologically, and of high in- These plants grow perched on rocks, terest to the few people who do grow cliffs, or trees rather than on the ground. them indoors. Some adaptable plants can be either epi- Some people like the idea of growing phytic or terrestrial. The best known plants indoors, using no soil, a method genus is Tillandsia, but many other bro- called . This can be either meliads, ferns, mosses, and orchids are air simple (low-tech) or energy-intensive, plants. Even some cacti and a potato rela- high-tech, and suitable for skyscrapers tive are ! They vary so greatly that it is and spacecraft, but is not a subject that I not fair to generalize about them. In rot- have studied. ting holes of apple tree trunks and maple The present volume includes only trees in Seattle, I’ve seen growing wild the more common aquarist plants, per- clumps of chives, cyclamen, and straw- haps 50 genera ranging from mosses and berries. Epiphytes are not parasites and algæ to water lilies. There are hundreds do not rob their host tree of nutrients. of species suitable, and rarer genera are Indoors, they are put on corky bark, or sold by sources that sell sup- coconut husk “bricks” or the like. Some plies. With the proper set up, much plant rot and molder if planted in pots contain- food can be produced in water systems. ing soil. Aroids Aquatic plants Of 128 genera and about 6,000 species People with an aquarium, paludarium, (many undescribed), the ARACEÆ riparium, an indoor pond, a sopping wet (Arum family) are represented in this terrarium, or who in some way provide book by 37 genera, only 3 of which are enough humidity, can grow indoors not reported edible. But there is a catch: aquatic, semi-aquatic, and moisture- most are unpalatable if not injurious in needing plants. These are plants that the raw state, and must be processed by more or less cannot drown. Some need to various methods to be rendered whole- be submerged, some just like wet roots, some food. many are intermediate. Aquatic plants Virtually all aroid species are protect- can be easy or difficult to cultivate. You ed by calcium oxalate crystals that irritate certainly cannot overwater them. They people’s mouths and throats. The pain can be tropical or tolerant of freezing. It can be soothed by sugar, or lime juice. is curious that relatively few such plants The plants vary in whether they like sun are notably toxic. or shade (most), are evergreen or not, Bromeliads aquatic or not (most), and cold-hardy or Pineapples are the best known of the tropical (most). But nearly all genera are bromeliad family plants. Almost all forest dwellers with darkest green leaves, New World plants, BROMELIACÆ and bear their flowers in a tight mass of are herbaceous or shrubby, their leaves tiny florets packed into a corncob-like spiraling, usually tough and fibrous; of- spike, shielded by a big leafy called a ten cupped to catch rain. They grow in spathe. Imagine a skunk cabbage, a peace tropical to subtropical regions; extremely lily, or flamingo flower. The flowers of few species tolerate frosty winters. Of many aroids smell, sweet or foul depend- the 25 bromeliad genera in this book, 18 ing on the being attracted. (72%) are reported edible, and certainly Earth’s largest flower is an aroid:Amor - other genera are nontoxic and could be phophallus titanum. Its can reach 20' eaten safely if they had the appeal. Many × 15' and floral organ to 12' high ; its (ed- genera are epiphytes, and difficult to ob- ible) tuber can weigh 160 pounds. The tain from their perches on trees or cliffs. most important aroid food species is taro Many bromeliads are small, and offer (Colocasia esculenta), a staple crop of the little food. Usually, the fruit (borne in- tropics cultivated for 10,000 years. Many doors rarely) or inner stems or tender aroids are among the easiest, most beauti- leaf bases are consumed. Two genera of ful, and common indoor plants. No other promise for indoor edibility are Bromelia plant family is more valuable economi- and Tillandsia. Bromeliads in general are cally for ornamental indoor plants. easy to grow indoors, if given adequate Balcony & window-box light, soil, and humidity. Some get too plants large, or are armed with viciously sharp spines that are a hazard. A few genera Certain plants can be outdoors for part are prized for the leaves more than their or all of the year, are confined to contain- flowers. Æchmea fasciata, the Urn Plant, ers, and can qualify as “houseplants” to Living Vase Plant, or Silver-Vase Plant, is the extent that one’s dwelling has a win- the most popular, common, and easiest dow that opens—or a balcony better yet. bromeliad houseplant. A large percentage of plants, if they had their choice, would prefer to be outside Bulbs and similar organs in the summer and kept sheltered during Most of us visualize bulbous plants as pe- the cold, wet winter (“snowbird” plants). rennials that we plant in autumn, as dry, Both the exposure of the window or bal- leafless things, trusting that come spring cony, and the attention given by the gar- they will grow fresh leaves and lovely dener, determine what plants are easy or blossoms. “Plant bulbs, harvest smiles.” worthwhile in such settings. This book To plant scientists, there’s much more. includes a few genera well suited for such Swollen, root or rootlike storage organs cultivation that would not endure if kept are classified variously into bulbs, tubers, inside a house all year. For example: Ag- pseudobulbs, corms, swollen roots, rhi- eratum, Chamæcyparis, Pallenis, nearly zomes, and the like. A general catch-all all Pinus spp., Tamarix, and Tigridia. term is underground , USO for short. Though most exist below ground, Cacti some are borne at the soil surface—or Cacti are, in a scientific sense, members above as in many “bulbils.” They vary of the CACTACEÆ. All of the 126 gen- enough that generalizations are risky. era are succulent ; most are guarded by The one thing bulbs and “almost bulbs” angry-looking spines ; most grow in arid, all share in common is that they are dense sunny places such as the SW USA and in calorie sources. Few bear evergreen foli- México. Most cacti have no leaves at all, age ; most must have a dormant rest pe- but their odd stems are plump, store wa- riod. Some grow in deserts, some are ter, and photosynthesize. Various other aquatic plants ; some are edible, others more-or-less spiny succulent plants are toxic ; some are tropical, and others with- called cactus by non-scientists. Cacti stand frigid winters. Many different plant vary from tiny buttons to lush vines families make such things. Five families growing 50' into trees, stout shrubs, or with many bulbous genera are: lofty trees—Pachycereus grandis can AMARYLLIDACEÆ grow over 80' in height. Most grow okay ( family) in containers indoors, if given sharp ARACEÆ drainage, water in the right season and (Arum family) quantity, and ample light. ASPARAGACEÆ Cacti are collected by many people. (Asparagus family) COLCHICACEÆ The sharp spines that guard most are (Colchicum family) fascinating, and people cannot resist the IRIDACEÆ urge to touch them. The flowers are of- (Iris family) ten bright colored whether tiny or huge, and a few are fragrant. When some cac- Most bulbs of temperate climates bloom ti bloom, after the grower has waited once a year, but a few such as Cyclamen years, celebration ensues. The fruits of can do so for months on end. Some sub- most species are edible berries, and some tropical and tropical bulbs can also bloom Opuntia are treated, in effect, as fruit intermittently all year or are nearly non- trees. Of the 66 CACTACEÆ genera in stop, such as some tuberous Begonia. this book, 55 (83%) are reported edible, Well known examples of bulbous and certainly other genera are nontoxic species that are eaten much include Alli- and could be eaten safely if they had the um (onion, , leek, and chives), Sola- appeal. The flower are sometimes num tuberosum (potato), Zingiber offici- sour and juicy, other times dryish and nale (ginger), and Ipomœa Batatas (sweet bland. Only a few species such as the potato). Even eaten are the swollen roots famous peyote (Lophophora) are hallu- of some young trees, such as Horseradish cinogenic and toxic. The “jungle cacti” tree (Moringa), Baobab (Adansonia), and of varied genera need less light, tolerate the Australian Brachychiton. more humidity, and produce more edible If one simply learns the needs of each greenery, flowers and fruit indoors than species, growing them in a pot indoors is the desert cacti. easy. But if one does not know what the plant needs, then murdering them unin- tentionally is also easy. Carnivorous plants grower skillful, virtually any plant can Plants that eat animals—mostly insects, be grown in one. But my book includes spiders and the like, are weird and defy only the more common plant genera be- the common way of the world. This cause the simple fact is most of us lack book features 9 such genera, and their such luxurious assets. Still, many of us reported edibility to people is minimal. can visit greenhouses, wherein we can Best known of these oddities as house- pretend to be visiting a tropical paradise. plants are Venus’ Flytrap (Dionæa) and So, it is appropriate to include plants seen the Sundew (Drosera). In terraria, one commonly therein. can grow the petite Butterwort (Pin- Ferns and fern allies guicula) and Bladderwort (Utricularia). This book features 62 genera of ferns, Grown rarely and not pleased easily are horsetails, and spikemosses cultivated five pitcher plant genera:Cephalotus, inside (over 87% of them with edible Darlingtonia, Heliamphora, Nepenthes, species), including all genera grown as and Sarracenia. Only Nepenthes is eaten houseplants commonly, as well as some much ; its pitchers are cleaned of bugs and grown inside rarely. Ferns—speaking digestive juices, then stuffed with rice or strictly—are non-flowering plants re- whatnot, and steamed. producing by dust-like spores, not seeds. Conifers Certain flowering plants called ferns, “Conifers” are cone-bearing trees or but which are not the pteridophytes of shrubs, usually evergreen. All are called in botanists, are treated with the flowering science gymnosperms, and include some plants that they are. The ferns and their of earth’s largest, mightiest, and longest- relatives evolved more than 100 million lived trees. However, the gymnosperms years before flowering plants. “Coal is include more than conifers. And coni- composed almost entirely of fossilised fers such as Juniperus and Podocarpus do ferns.” Ferns grow around the world, + not make woody cones, but berries. The varying much. 10,500–12,000 fern spe- best known conifer indoors is the Nor- cies exist, in 274–312 genera. More so folk Island Pine, Araucaria heterophylla, than in other plant groups, the fern spe- whose grass-green, tiered branches are cialists disagree hotly on classification, so very familiar. Included in this book are many synonyms are needed. Few ferns 13 coniferous genera: Agathis, Araucaria, are trees ; some are aquatic, some grow Cedrus, Chamæcyparis, Cryptomeria, on rocks, many are epiphytes or swamp Cupressus, Juniperus, Pinus, Podocarpus, plants, and a few grow in deserts or wa- Sequoia, Taxodium, Widdringtonia, and ter. They can be minute and dainty or Wollemia. All but 3 are reported edible. bear fronds over 23' long. As they uncoil, many fronds resemble clenched fists or Conservatory & Greenhouse “fiddleheads.” Some ferns do not make plants the customary fronds and do not look Dating from the 1600s in northern Eu- like familiar ferns. They can be rope, conservatories and greenhouses or evergreen. In general, ferns need high- can be cool, or heated, and low or high- er humidity to thrive than most homes tech, with or without fans, artificial light- provide. But ingenious people make do, ing, and so on. If large enough, and the using terraria or humidity trays, misting the foliage, growing the plants in bath- is akin to a basic leaf/chlorophyll flavor. rooms, and so on. The relaxing green Most people prefer flowers that taste in- color and delicate beauty of fern fronds teresting and distinctive. Better known are very popular. As food sources, most edible flowerbuds/flowers include agave ferns, especially if grown indoors, yield (in alcoholic drinks), artichoke, banana, little. Also, varied toxins are common in borage, broccoll, calendula, capers, car- ferns. nation, cauliflower, chives, chrysanthe- mum, citrus, cloves, dandelion, daylily, Florist plants hibiscus, lavender, nasturtium, rose, rose- Most plants mass produced and sold in mary, saffron, squash, viola, and wisteria. florists shops or supermarkets are, just Some human cultures eat flowers raw; like cut flowers in a vase, intended as many also dry, ferment, pickle, candy or gifts to enjoy while fresh, and then dis- crystallize, render into powder or oth- card. But if potted in soil, and then cared erwise process and store edible flowers. for properly, many kinds can endure in- With each plant eaten, people variously doors, or be planted outdoors. You can choose the flower buds, the open flowers, assume reasonably that florist plants are or both. They sometimes pluck away and tainted with pesticide residues and ought discard the calyx, or the , or the not be eaten, until months have passed . Often, only the nectar is sucked and new growth resumed. as a sweet snack food. The role of flowers Flowers is to produce fruit. So sometimes people eat the petals, as in pineapple guava, but Houseplants can be divided into foliage leave the ovary to develop into edible plants and flowering plants, based on fruit. Even if your potted plant flowers people’s main motive in growing them. inside, it may not set fruit unless it gets Yes, a few plants are ambiguous and hard pollinated by you or otherwise. Some- to categorize. Botanists are precise about times it requires pollen from a second what they term a flower. Laypeople are plant. So, regarding floral production and not, and may call things flowers that edibility indoors, details matter. botanists call , spathes, aments, and so on. Regarding flowers inside, wheth- Food market plants er a plant blooms freely or not depends Certain edible plants from food markets on varied factors, but mainly if enough can be bought and then grown rather light is provided. Sometimes a plant must than eaten. Growing avocado trees from reach a certain age and size before it can their seeds ; ginger and sweet potatoes bloom. Certain plants will bloom almost from their roots ; and pineapples from continuously, others do so once yearly, their crowns, are well known examples. or even require years before they bloom. At large ethnic food stores, numerous ex- Indoors, the pollen or nectar falling can otic vegetables and herbs are sold fresh, cause a mess. Male and female flowers and if you have a “green thumb” it is sometimes are on seperate plants, and it often possible to start cuttings easily of can be that the flowers of only one of the such things as Ipomœa aquatica (Water two are prized as human food. There is a Spinach) Limnophila aromatica (Rice- general basic flower flavor, that is paddy Herb), and Piper sarmentosum relatively bland and unremarkable. This (Climbing Pepper-plant). If you can get canes, chocolate, , lime, orange, viable, organic, raw seeds of a fruit, herb, pear, grapefruit, sweet bay, or pineapple. or vegetable, and the plant is not a sterile 2) Thyme (Thymus): the vast diversity of hybrid, you can raise offspring. Even a scents afforded by this genus is one of the package of bird mix can be used to wonders of nature: camphor, caraway, raise your own food ! coconut, eucalyptus, lavender, lemon, licorice, mint, nutmeg, orange, oregano, Fragrance pepper, pine, pineapple, savory, turpen- Fragrance influences people vitally. It is tine, and varnish! 3) Scented Geraniums hard and horrible to imagine a life with- (Pelargonium): the prize-winner, with out perfumery or incense. A fragrance/ more diversely distinctive leaf scents odor may be fleeting, emitted only at the than any other genus. The way a child few hours when a flower’s is may play with multiple colored crayons, active. Or at the other extreme, an entire Pelargonium does with its unparalleled plant can possess an unmerciful over- diversity of scents. powering repulsive scent/odor. Warmth Whole books exist on fragrant plants. increases both fragrance and flavor, which The best is Roy Genders’ Scented Flora is why cold cheese is less delectable than of the World. A book on fragrant house- warm cheese. Various plants are not eaten plants is Tovah Martin’s The Essence of in a caloric sense, but are used to impart Paradise. Below are listed 100 genera in a floral flavor/scent to rice. Flowers may this book that include famous fragrant taste like they smell—or not. Some smell species prized for their notable scents. beautifully yet taste horribly. It’s not An F indicates the prized scent is in the consistent. And every person has unique flowers mostly or only. likes and dislikes. Acacia F Karen MacNeil wrote in The Wine Aërides F Bible: “The genes that encode for olfac- Agathosma (Buchu) tion are the largest group of genes in the Aglaia F body. Of the one million genes in the hu- Allium (Chives, Garlic, Onions) man genome, thirty thousand are solely Alpinia (Galangal) dedicated to encoding smells.” Aloysia (Lemon Verbena) In some flowers, fragrance is released Bergera F by the anthers, so if male and female Boronia F flowers are borne on seperate plants, and Bouvardia F Brassavola F you seek fragrance: grow a male. If you Brugmansia/Datura F dislike—or are allergic to— the anthers’ Brunfelsia F scent or pollen: grow a female. Buddleia F Often, plant fragrance is hidden, re- Bursera leased mostly or only if you touch, rub, Cananga F or crush a leaf. Three genera stand out in Cattleya F this respect. 1) Mint (Mentha), goes way Cestrum F beyond beloved flavoring herbs such as Cinnamomum (Cinnamon) peppermint and spearmint. Some kinds Citrus F are scented ± of apple, banana, candy Clematis F Clerodendrum F Convallaria F Osmanthus F Crinum F Pandanus (Pandan) Curcuma (Turmeric) Pelargonium (Scented Geranium) Cymbopogon (Lemon Grass) Phalænopsis F Daphne F Pittosporum F Dianthus F Plumeria F Diosma (Buchu) Pogostemon (Patchouli) Ehretia F Polianthes F Elæagnus F Primula F Encyclia F Prostanthera (Mint Bush) Epiphyllum F Rosa F Eucalyptus (Gum Tree) Rosmarinus (Rosemary) Eucharis F Sarcococca F Euchile F Salvia (Sage) Fagræa F Stanhopea F Freesia F Stephanotis F Gardenia F Syringa F Gelsemium F Tabernæmontana F Genista F Telosma F Hedychium (Ginger Lily) Thymus (Thyme) Helichrysum (Curry Plant) Trachelospermum F Heliotropium F Tulbaghia (Society Garlic) Hoya F Vanda F Hyacinthus F Vanilla Illicium (Anise Tree) Viola F Iris F Viburnum F Jasminum F Vitex (Chaste Tree) Juniperus (Juniper) Zanthoxylum (Szechwan Pepper) Lantana F Zingiber (Ginger) Lathyrus F Zygopetalum F Laurus (Bay) Entire gardens feature scented plants. Lavandula (Lavender) Note that certain plant fragrances may be Ligustrum F enjoyable outdoors, yet too much inside Lilium F a small room. To grow a garden, inside Lonicera F Magnolia F or out, focused solely on fragrance, or Maxillariella F edibility, or looks, is possible. But most Mentha (Mint) of us prefer a blend of plants offering us Mitriostigma F delight to our eyes, savor to our nostrils, Murraya F and food to sustain us. Carrying this Myrtus (Myrtle) ideal further, we may also seek to have at Narcissus F hand medicinal and psychoactive plants. Nerium F Getting bulk or staple calories from Nicotiana F strongly aromatric plants that thrive in- Nyctanthes F doors is difficult. Most plants we grow Nymphæa F indoors that are scented notably, pack Ocimum (Basil) much flavor/scent intosmall flowers or Oncidium F leaves. Even if you grow your own lem- sources. Poison control institutions have ons, they’re mostly water. So, tantaliz- published many lists of toxic houseplants ing smells are like spices, that feed our and garden plants. Gesneriads are even minds mainly, make us relieved, recall rarer there than in the edible-plant writ- fond memories, and excite us pleasantly. ings ! The thing is, the plants are small A whiff of the right scent can also cause usually, offering scant food, and are of- healthy bodily responses, as demonstrat- ten bitter. Many species are rare withal. ed in the field of Aromatherapy. The most So, a collector of these plants can taste we can ask in a dietary sense of fragrant carefully, and doubtless discover certain plants that we grow is that they pique our Gesneriads whose flowers contain sweet appetite and enhance our starch-based nectar, or whose leaves or berries are no meals. Of earth’s top 10 caloric-source more bitter than dandelion greens. Some plant genera, none are remarkable for are even wintergreen-flavored. fragrance! (A few rice cultivars such as Grasses, rushes and sedges ‘Basmati’ are naturally scented.) Six genera in this book whose flow- Most grasses and their allies are notably ers are ± unpleasant, fetid, stinking: slender. Three plant families are full of what most people will call grasses: GRA- Amorphophallus Aristolochia MINEÆ [aka POACEÆ] (true grasses ; Arum 13 genera in this book), CYPERACEÆ Cotoneaster (sedges ; 9 genera in this book), and JUN- Dracunculus CACEÆ (rushes ; 1 genus in this book). Of these 13 genera, only 1 (Rhynchos- Even these genera can contain certain pora) has not been reported edible even species with sweet or unobjectionable though the genus has about 350 species. floral scents. Just like genera Lilium and Some of Earth’s main human foods are Magnolia have a few species whose flow- grass seeds, such as wheat, rice, corn ers smell bad. Nature is full of surprising, (maize), barley, rye, teff, sorghum, and fascinating inconsistencies. millet. And the number one global ed- ible crop raised each year, measured by Gesneriads weight, is sugarcane. Bamboo shoots The GESNERIACEÆ include many and seeds are also eaten. Lemongrass is beautiful and beloved flowers, such as grown mostly for its zesty flavor. Many African Violets (Saintpaulia). The fam- grasses have a marked photosynthetic ily name commemorates Konrad von edge, called C4 carbon fixation. However, Gesner (1516–1565), accomplished and few grasses, rushes and sedges are worth famous Swiss naturalist. But sadly, of growing indoors for food. Other plants all the larger plant families, none have a yield more. Also, grass or bamboo leaves lower percentage of reported human ed- rustling gently in the breeze outside is ibility of genera. This book includes 32 comforting—but doesn’t happen inside. genera, with only 12 (37.5%) reported And inasmuch as virtually all bamboos edible. Curiously, however, Gesneriads hail from summer-rainfall climates, when are about as rarely encountered in toxic they’re grown in dry-summer regions or plant literature as they are in edible-plant in pots indoors, they are mite prone. So give them a water shower weekly to help sign right next to the name inelegantly: offset the pests. If you desire plump bam- Iris ×germanica ; but I insert a thin space: boo shoots to eat, do not be stingy giving Iris × germanica. water, fertilizer, and light. Most grasses In many cases, whether of food need sun. plants or ornamental plants, hybrids are preferred and grown more than purebred Hallucinogenic plants species. In the case of houseplants, pure- Certain plants can be both edible and hal- bred orchids sold today are outnumbered lucinogenic, hypnotic or otherwise psy- by hybrids—because the hybrids bloom choactive. The 1998 book Plants of the far faster, the flowers last longer, and the Gods features 80 plant genera and 7 fungi plants are easier to keep healthy. Some- genera. Of its 80 plant genera, 47 are also times several genera —not just 2 species included in this edible houseplants book, or genera—are used by plant breeders. 45 (95%) of which are reported edible. This book mentions by name very few Yes, just like the major overlap between hybrid genera, and treats none, being an toxic and edible plants, so it is with hallu- account based solely on genera. cinogenic plants, though this striking fact Whether a plant is purebred or a hy- causes most people naked wonder. An brid ought not make a difference if we are example is Marijuana (Cannabis) which growing it for our eyes or for our stom- can be eaten, used medicinally, or as a achs. But frequently, hybrids are superior . In stark contrast to how to purebred species in ease of propaga- most of us modern urbanites behave, tion, rate of growth, toughness, appear- aboriginal cultures used hallucinogenic ance, or so on. Some are so strong they plants not as recreational drugs but in se- practically swagger with pride. rious magic, medical, and religious ways. Many writers fail to specify whether Since my book is a record of food uses a given plant is a hybrid or not. Some mostly, it supplies little information on writers use the word hybrid sloppily, to medicinal or hallucinogenic plant usage. indicate what is actually a mere selected Hybrids cultivar (cv.). In this book, pains are tak- en to be precise about such things. A hybrid is like a mule, a cross. When two closely related but separate species Indoor bonsai (or even genera) of plants or animals Bonsai (Japanese) / Penjing (Chinese; 盆 interbreed (in nature or in cultivation), 景) practice originated over 2,000 years their progeny is called a hybrid. In many ago in China. Certain plant genera are in written accounts, hybrids are often treat- this book mainly or even only because ed as equal in rank to species and includ- they are reported in books or articles ed in lists of species. Ideally, the parent- that suggested their use as indoor bonsai age is cited with the female parent placed possibilities. A great many more plants first, the male second. Since the direction can be treated as bonsai in pots outside of the cross is often unknown, some au- all summer, then brought indoors during thors prefer always listing the parental freezing winter weather. To do bonsai species alphabetically. The international right, requires knowledge, skill, patience, rules prefer squeezing the multiplication enduring dedication, and the proper equipment and tools. But the results can what is called a pea-like flower that can be among the most beautiful and revered be scentless or supply perfume of heav- potted plants of all. Originally, bonsai enly sweetness. Seeds are borne in pods growers used temperate plants and grew that can be squat or elongate. A great them outside. Indoor bonsai is best with many genera fix nitrogen symbiotically tropical or subtropical plants because underground, giving them a huge advan- most do not require a cold winter rest. tage—in effect, they make their own fer- Because it is a specialist technique, and tilizer. Those Legumes that fix nitrogen, indoor bonsai is even more difficult, I have crappy fall color ; those that don’t tried to limit carefully the genera admit- fix nitrogen, can have glorious yellow fall ted into the book, and if appropriate, I leaf color, or (rare) orange, red, or purple. note whether a given genus is apt to be Most Legumes need much sunlight ; few easy or difficult as indoor bonsai. tolerate shade, and likely none require it. Most are difficult as houseplants ; none Legumes (the Pea Family) are listed in compilations of easy or non- We call the Pea Family LEGUMINOSÆ demanding plants to cultivate inside. or FABACEÆ. (A minority of authors They are light demanding, pest-prone, split the Legumes into several differ- and sulk like erstwhile savage wild lions ent families.) Extremely large, the fam- enraged at being held captive. Give them ily boasts abundant, diverse genera, of much humidity and light, the right soil vast importance both ecologically and mix and temperature, and they are easy economically. Legumes can have edible in a greenhouse. Some will thrive only roots, stems, bark exudates, leaves, flow- if their soil is inoculated. The least rare ers, fruits (pods), or seeds. Compared houseplant Legumes : Mimosa (Sensitive with the opulent domain of the orchid Plant) ; Arachis (Peanut, as a novelty), family, or the bizarre and weird cacti, the Erythrina (Coral Tree), and Acacia. Legumes are a pedestrian and utilitarian clan as a whole. Still, some bear floral Mosses, lichens & algæ splendor the equal of anything on earth. Due to their use in miniature gardens, Grown as crop plants, many Legumes terraria, aquaria, and the like, a few rep- are called pulses. Their fruit and seeds are resentative primitive mosses (4 genera), rich in protein and often eaten as staples. lichens (4 genera), liverworts (2 genera), But some Legumes are toxic, even dead- and algæ (1 genus) are included in this ly. Some are guarded by fierce spines or book. All the included lichens and algæ dense, woolly hairs. Legume flavor var- are reported edible, and none of the in- ies little in my experience ; a common de- cluded mosses and liverworts. Earth’s nominator can be detected, for example, best known edible members of these in beans, peas, soy, peanut greens, clover, plants are the seaweeds, not in this book, kudzu, and so on. Plants vary from deli- but often superb, nutrient-dense wild cate annuals to robust perennials, shrubs, vegetables. Lichens are tough, grow- snakelike vines, or trees that can become ing in nearly every habitat. They can be large and stately. The flowers are small crusty, leaf-like, or lacy ; in any color. usually, and often shaped distinctively They have been described as a partner- with “lips,” wings, keels and banners in ship of algæ and fungi. In technical terms: fungi symbiotic with (mainly) green algæ desire to help native birds, insects, and and/or cyanobacteria. Mosses and liver- other wildlife. Some value seeing land- worts, the scientificbryophytes , are spore scape plantings present a local sense of bearing, and green mainly. Seed-bearing place rather than a boring, interchange- plants called mosses in common usage able palette of common plants. Some are unrelated. Mosses and liverworts are think natives better adapted to local always small, hug the ground, or rocks, growing conditions. Some are caught or tree trunks, usually are astringent with up in the excitement of a cause célèbre. tannins, and offer negligible nutrition. Extreme, zealous advocates have been Algæ can be green, red, or brown ; they accused of “nativitis.” As for growing grow in moist places or water, and vary edible houseplants, it happens that no from microscopic specks to huge kelp plants are “native” to containers grown seaweeds more than 250 feet in length. indoors. Yet if we alter our conception of For all of these plants, knowing their being native to a region to being adapted habitat or substrate is critical if you care to conditions, then plenty of plants thrive, to identify or grow them. Different kinds even weedily, when containerized and grow in water, on soil, or on rocks, some grown indoors. That is why, for example, in brightness, others darkness, and so on. old greenhouses have numerous “wild” ferns, mosses, and the like. Some plants Mushrooms raised indoors appear more attractive, Mushrooms and fungi, being not part healthy, and productive than they do in of the plant kingdom, and being related their outdoor native environment. If you more closely to animals, are excluded desire to try being a localvore as regards from this book. Yes, I know they are sold your plant food, then your edible house- at food markets, eaten in the kitchen with plant “menu” will depend absolutely on vegetables, and included in other books where you live. Below are listed 6 ex- on edible plants. Yes, some edible species ample plants native to the 48 contiguous such as oyster mushroom can be raised USA states, France, and China: indoors easily (I have done so myself), and are tasty, healthy, and so on. Yes, Dudleya spp. USA Echinopsis spp. some pop up as weeds in containerized Graptopetalum spp. indoor plants. But sorry; they are not in- Opuntia spp. cluded in this book. Unlike plants, they Sequoia sempervirens don’t need light to grow. None are grown Tolmiea Menziesii indoors intentionally for ornament, and if the reader desires information on cul- Allium Schœnoprasum France Lysimachia Nummularia tivating edible mushrooms indoors, he Mentha spicata or she can and must find it elsewhere. A Petroselinum crispum book on the subject is DIY Mushroom Primula spp. cultivation by Willloughby Arevalo. Rosmarinus officinalis Native plants Cissus javana China Recent years have seen major interest in Ficus Benjamina preserving, growing, and celebrating na- Œnanthe javanica tive plants. Motives vary. Some people Pilea peperomioides Sedum sarmentosum poor, considering all the care and time Trachelspermum jasminoides needed to raise the crop. An easy way to Aditional lists can be made for, say, Chile grow more native nutritious plant food or Australia, as species grown inside indoors is to gather appropriate native come from (“are native to”) everywhere. seeds, and sprout them. Sprouted seeds Yet if growing plentiful, nutritious food are well known as superb foods. Cru- inside is your goal, then the original na- cially, one must choose the ideal species tivity of the plants chosen to grow is sec- (native or not) to eat. This realm is well ondary. After all, is your regular diet na- worth study, but is not the scope of the tive? Are any pets you own native? Are present book. All manner of edible spe- you even a native? Nativity is a human cies may be used such, regardless of their concept. That is not to say it is invalid or role as cultivated houseplants. a bad thing. But in regards to the ecology Orchids of growing plants indoors for food, it is Some people view orchids as earth’s most an academic, immaterial point. Where precious flowers, and the growing of it is notably otherwise, is if you import them successfully as almost a religious a non-native plant that thrives so much matter. Orchids are roundly admired for its offspring escape your cultivation and curious, intricate floral beauty, and fas- run wild outside. Then you might have cinating diversity. Yet, some orchids are released an invasive weed that can run weedy ; some have no more elegance than riot in your local environment. Certain an urban pigeon zigzagging on bricks ; plants included in this book can repro- many are used much in folk medicine. duce themselves readily while growing Orchids are eaten seldom. Few if any in pots indoors—they can escape. Also, are toxic, yet they tend to be small, or house cats can go feral, pigs run wild, pet rare, or out of reach, or bitter, or slimy, parrots enjoy urban life far from their na- and few offer bulk calories. Their seeds tive haunts, and so on. For my part, I love are so tiny as to be dust-like. So, roman- growing an international garden indoors, tic and mysterious yes ; giving rise to with plants from all over the globe. If I passionate prose, yes ; but a major food desire to see or eat native species I need source, no. The sunflower family, COM- merely look out the window or go out- POSITÆ, and the ORCHIDACEÆ, are side. That said, I’d find it interesting if the world’s largest plant families. This someone was able, somewhere, to grow book includes 80 orchid family genera more than a little food indoors using only that are variously commonly to exceed- his or her native species. In parts of the ingly rarely cultivated in homes. Only 31 tropics and subtropics, it’d be possible of these genera (38.75%) have had species easily. But what’s the point: if your ed- reported eaten by people ; the 2nd lowest ible species grow outside, why bother percentage of any of the larger families growing them inside? If one resides in a included in this book, after the Gesneri- temperate climate, as I expect most of my ads (37.5%). Many hybrid orchid genera readers do, then without a controllable exist and are sold. They are excluded greenhouse, it’d be a difficult challenge. from this book, because it is their paren- Certainly many species can be cultivated, tal genera that have or lack the published but their overall caloric yield is apt to be record of being eaten. Palms AIZOACEÆ (Iceplant family) Palms symbolize the tropics. Whether CACTACEÆ they are dwarf “palmlets” mature at 12" (Cactus family) tall, or trees 200' high, and edible or not, CRASSULACEÆ people cannot resist their elegant fronds. (Stonecrop family) Most are edible : 34 of the 35 genera in XANTHORRHŒACEÆ this book. But some parts of some palms (Alöe family) are poisonous. Best known of the global The term means fleshy, as in plump, edibles are the dates, coconuts, and the water-holding stems or leaves. They are edible palm oils, but palm cabbage or the camels of the plant kingdom. For heart, and many lesser known delica- people poor at timely watering, these are cies, exist also. As a rule, palms trans- your best bets. Many are tough as nails. plant with the utmost ease. Most live, if P.T. Barnes: “… they will survive the not thrive, for years containerized. A few hundred and one accidents and strains are surprisingly frost-tolerant, too. These upon their vitality that would be fatal to remarks refer to genera in the PALMÆ any other living thing.” A succulent will [ARECACEÆ]. Plants in various other be juicy, if bitten, though the texture var- families are often called palms, just like ies from crunchy to slimy. Flavor is all plants outside the CACTACEÆ are over the map. Some taste delicious. Some called cacti. For example: bananas, cy- are salty—many ice plants tolerate very cads, dracena, and tree ferns. Palms are salty soil. A few are deadly. Most grow in all evergreen, with tough, fibrous leaves sun and do poorly with insufficient light, called fronds that are either fan-shaped but a few are shade plants or even aquatic or palmate (shaped like a hand) or pin- plants. Most are herbs but some are trees nate (featherlike). Most are unbranched. (think of giant Baobab trees or a Saguaro The flowers and fruit vary much. Most cactus). Many with CAM (Crassulacean specimens grown indoors seldom or acid metabolism) taste different in the never flower ; they are valued for their morning than in the evening. In general, lush leafage. As houseplants, palms don’t the small succulents are propagated and yield significant food. If one eats their shipped easily, so are collected by many heart or cabbage, the trunk dies. More- people. Just break off a piece of stem, let over, the nutrition is minimal. its wound callus for a few days, then lay Succulents it on the potting mix, or plant it. Some Succulent plants vary much, coming are perfect for vertical or wall gardens. from a multitude of families and genera. One can create artful topiary out of di- “Some resemble carved pieces of white verse edible succulents. Some succu- granite or brightly colored coral. Others lents just “sit there” for months on end, look like perfectly formed flower blos- growing once a year—after rainfall in the soms made of green wax, or covered with wild. Others, such as certain groundcov- spun glass.” The 4 families in this book ers and vines, can grow non-stop in the with the most succulent genera are: right conditions—offering more food to growers. Sunflower Family plants you may well sprout various wild plants or fungi arising from spores or seeds. The Sunflower or Aster family, called ei- Depending on what pops up, this can ther (you get a choice) COMPOSITÆ be good or bad. A terrarium can also be or ASTERACEÆ, comprises over 1,500 home to little frogs or other animals, so genera, and some 25,000 species—Earth’s long as their needs are met. I kept a frog largest plant family. This book includes alive for 7 years in a terrarium. only 37 genera, 26 of which (70%) are reported edible. Most genera grown as Tropical plants ornamentals are valued for their color- Tropical climate zone plants, with few ful flowers ; few are grown for foliage exceptions, never experience frosts. Sub- mainly. The flowers of many do face the tropical climate zone plants are likely to sun, so if you place a pot near a window, experience frost now and then. Temperate people viewing it from outside will see climate zone plants endure frosty winters the flowers more than will those inside. commonly, and hot summers, and need Five of the better known genera: a yearly rest period. These generaliza- Chrysanthemum (Mum) tions can be refined. For example, ultra- Dahlia (Dahlia) tropical plants cease growth even if the Gerbera (one of the African Daisy genera) temperature drops to 50°F whereas cer- Pericallis (Florist’s Cineraria) tain plants that hail from the tropics can Tagetes (Marigold) survive a winter freeze. Factors affecting I think more Sunflower family plants plant survival in cultivation include not would be cited as edible but many taste only temperature (low, high, and night- resinous and unappealing, or are too time), but drainage, soil type, humidity, fuzzy with dense hairs to chew. Sadly, the plant’s age, its genetics, provenance, many that taste good, and are eaten much and so on. in Africa or elsewhere, contain toxic pyr- Vines rolizidine alkaloids. It is likely that the flowers of various small species are ed- Vines, also called climbers or twiners, are ible, and harmless, but have not been re- a varied lot, ranging from small, delicate ported so in the writings that I checked. annual herbs to robust woody species that clamber over 100' into massive trees. Terrarium plants People grow them in hanging baskets, Terraria are for plants similar to what balcony pots, window boxes, or ordinary aquaria are for fishes. Most of both are containers outfitted with structures to small, and suited therefore ideally for wee climb, such as trellises, sturdy wires, or species. A terrarium is enclosed partly or poles. Often, their elongating stems twine totally, so the person controls the humid- clockwise or counterclockwise. Certain ity. Various cute little rainforest plants species first extend their stem rapidly, that need high air moisture to thrive, are afterward expanding their leaves, and the raised easily in a terrarium, while in an grower must be cautious to not break the ordinary pot in a room, they wither away tender growing stem. Some vines climb and perish. Terraria are a natural fit for by aerial roots, some by twining, some mosses, lichens, and liverworts, too. If by tendrils, some by hooks ; some just you do not use 100% sterile soil mixes, flop or hang. Many vines are extraordi- narily productive. Like a houseguest who has overstayed, vines can become aggra- vating and high maintenance. They need much pruning to be controlled. When edible, this is ideal because the pruner can eat the prunings, at least in part. My Hoya grew 9' and hit the ceiling, so I pruned it and ate its young tender leaves in a pasta with olive oil, lentils, cheese, and shiitake mushrooms. This book contains multitudes of vines, scattered among diverse families and genera. Five better known and com- mon houseplant vines: Cissus Hedera (Ivy) Hoya (Wax Flower) Passiflora(Passionvine) Tropæolum (Nasturtium) There are vining aroids, cacti, ferns, figs, orchids, and so forth. The vine of mine that grew faster than any other was a kudzu (Pueraria). I had a cactus vine (Pereskia grandifolia) in a 5-inch pot that reached 8½ feet long.