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Home , Buddhist cuisine, Doubanjiang, Gejang, Hot and sour soup, Japanese cuisine, Jeotgal

Series Soy of 『Asian Soy Sauces in 』 coordinator and culture researcher, Nami Fukutome

Throughout Asia, there are countless varieties of soy bonito flakes I had brought from Kochi. These simple made from and other . Previously yet nostalgic flavors were incredibly comforting. I in this “Soy Sauces of Asia” series, I have reported on remember feeling so grateful that I could buy Japanese my research into local manufacturing and soy sauce even in a small town in a foreign country. usage in South , the , and I spoke to foreign nationals living in Japan, who . For this article, I have switched my viewpoint have strong connections to Asia, to find out which to focus on the usage of Asian soy sauces in Japan. are indispensable to reproducing the flavors As the 2020 Olympic Games approaches, we are of home. Focusing on soy sauce, I wanted to know if witnessing a rise in overseas visitors to Japan, not only there are viable substitutes among Japanese soy sauces, to urban areas, but to rural areas too. A record number and how these foreign nationals satisfy their desire of 24 million people visited Japan in 2016, of which for authentic flavors in their homes and when eating more than 80% came from Asian countries (Fig. 1). out at restaurants. In addition to individuals from There were over 2.3 million foreign national residents in the four countries covered in my previous studies – Japan in 2016 (Fig. 2), with close to 30% of those from , Thailand, Vietnam and the Philippines – , nearly 20% from South Korea, and large numbers I also interviewed people from China, and from the Philippines, Brazil and Vietnam. Trends since , which each have their own distinctive soy 1991 (Fig. 3) show the overall numbers have nearly doubled, sauce varieties. I asked Japanese and foreign national with notable increases in foreign residents from China/ chefs and food researchers, who have introduced Taiwan, the Philippines, and Vietnam, among others. dishes from Asian countries, how they recreated the In July 2008, the relevant Japanese government taste of home in Japan, or if they established a new ministries, including the Ministry of Education, version of their country’s relying solely on Culture, Sports, Science and Technology, established ingredients available in Japan. While my findings in a goal to welcome 300,000 international students to this report are limited to the Tokyo area, I hope they Japan by 2020. In 2015, the number of foreign students may serve as a base for future research in this field. enrolled in Japanese educational institutions exceeded 200,000 for the first time. Clearly there has been a Figure 1. Foreign Visitors to Japan by Country/Region steady increase in foreign nationals living in Japan. (2016) and Annual Trends (2007–2016) Tourists typically try to enjoy a variety of local [Japan National Tourism Organization (JNTO)] Japanese during their short stays. In contrast, Share of Foreign UK 2016 Total foreign nationals living in Japan tend to miss the tastes Visitors to Japan Canada Others 24,039,000 people

of home and want to make dishes using seasonings Australia USA South Vietnam Europe, Korea they are accustomed to. How do these residents, some Philippines Americas, Indonesia who have lived in Japan for years or even decades, 12.3％ Malaysia as well as Japan-born second and third generation and India residents, reproduce the flavors of their homeland? Thailand 11.0％ When I spent a year in in my early twenties, East Asia Hong 72.7％ I missed soy sauce–flavored broths and Japanese Kong pickles. I loved the delicious French sandwiches China at first, but I grew tired of them and yearned for the taste of home. With Japanese soy sauce and soumen Trends in Number of Taiwan from an Asian food shop, I made noodles Foreign Visitors to Japan People 25 47.1 24.04 50.0（％） (millions) with a small amount of and a sprinkling of Total number 40.0 Growth rate (year-on-year) 34.4 19.74 20 29.4 30.0 26.8 24.0 21.8 Nami Fukutome 20.0 15 13.8 Born in Kochi Prefecture, Japan. Ph.D. Food 13.41 coordinator and part-time lecturer at academic 10.0 10.36 institutions including Ochanomizu University 10 0.0 8.35 8.61 8.36 0.0 and Jissen Women’s University. Work includes: 8.35 comparative studies on ingredients, usage in 6.79 6.22 －10.0 cooking, and recipe expressions in Japan and 5 overseas; food culture studies; and tasting －20.0 workshops introducing Japanese food culture. －18.7 －27.3 0 －30.0 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016（year）

14 FOOD CULTURE Figure 2. Number of Foreign National Residents in Japan (medium to long-term residents and special permanent residents) by Nationality/Region, and Proportion by Prefecture [Statistics by Ministry of Justice: Statistics on foreign national residents in Japan, June 2016]

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100（％）

Philippines Brazil Vietnam Others （Unit：people） China South Korea 677,571 456,917 237,103 176,284 175,744 224,357

Total 2,307,388 people Nepal 60,689 India 27,592 USA 53,050 North Korea 33,273 Taiwan 50,908 Indonesia 39,540 【Proportion by Prefecture】 Peru 47,670 Thailand 46,690 （Unit：％） Others 19.1 Tokyo Figure 3. Trends in Number of Foreign 26.8 Shizuoka 1.7 Aichi National Residents in Japan 13.6 Gifu 1.8 Others [Statistics by Ministry of Justice, Statistics on 22.2 Ibaraki 1.8 Tokyo People foreign national residents in Japan, June 2016] Kyoto 1.8 China Nagano 2.0 13.0 (ten thousand) Hiroshima 2.0 Mie 2.6 Philippines Brazil Others 250 Kanagawa Hiroshima 2.8 Kanagawa Fukuoka 2.8 Philippines Peru 8.9 8.6 Gunma 2.8 South Korea and USA 223 Hyogo 3.3 Chiba Osaka 3.0 Saitama North Korea Vietnam 219 Saitama Ibaraki 3.8 Chiba 7.7 208 6.6 Shizuoka China 203 Aichi Osaka 8.5 Gifu 4.6 7.3 6.0 200 38 6.7 8.0 (Note: figures for China 192 include Taiwan) Tokyo 169 15.1 15 Aichi Tokyo 17 8.9 34.2 150 148 Vietnam Saitama 135 Others Taiwan Osaka 7.7 122 23 17.5 Osaka 23.1 Osaka 10 Hiroshima 1.7 7.2 Chiba Kanagawa11.2 Chiba 3.4 6.5 9.3 100 12 49 Fukuoka 3.4 South 6 Korea Tokyo Aichi Saitama 3.4 16.9 12.7 19.8 Chiba 9.6 Kyoto 5.5 69 Thailand 11.5 Indonesia Ibaraki 50 Kanagawa 7.6 Ibaraki Shizuoka 71 6.1 Aichi Hyogo 9.7 5.9 6.9 9.1 Kanagawa 9.0 17 0 1991 1994 1997 2000 2003 2006 2009 2012 2015 （Year）

China and Taiwan

Soy Sauces in China and Taiwan Japan, the major brands of both varieties are available Japan has long been influenced by China, with the online and in Asian grocery stores. transmission of cultivation methods in the late In Taiwan, the Chinese characters for soy sauce are Jomon period (approximately 1,500 BCE), by Japanese the same as in Japan (醤油). The top brand, Kimlan envoys to the Sui and Tang dynasties, by early trade Soy Sauce, has a distinctive yellow label, and is with the Song and Ming dynasties, and later by trade similar to Kanto-style koikuchi soy sauce in taste with the Qing dynasty through . Pastes made and appearance. Japanese soy sauce is an obvious with food preserved and naturally fermented in , substitute for this variety, however, the nostalgic flavor known as hishio, were imported from continental Asia of home the Taiwanese call jiang yo gao (soy ) and already in production in Japan during the 700s. has no such alternative in Japan. Used as a sweet The -based version of this fermented product for dim sum, its starchy consistency was called koku-sho and is considered the prototype has prompted importers to label it in Japanese as for soy sauce and . Japan went on to develop ‘Taiwanese thickened soy sauce’. its own koji mold–based fermentation and brewing In Tokyo and surrounds, Yokohama Chinatown with techniques, resulting in well-established soy sauce its many Chinese grocery stores is a great hub for businesses in both the Kansai and Kanto regions in the shopping and information exchange. The basement of late 1700s, and a uniquely Japanese style of soy sauce Ameyoko Center in Ueno also offers a wide variety of with different aromas and flavors to the soy sauces Chinese and Taiwanese ingredients and seasonings, available in China. and I was told there is a whole building specializing in The two main varieties of Chinese soy sauce are Chinese goods in Ikebukuro, Tokyo. On my visit to the laochuo, referred to in Japan as Chinese tamari latter, I found one floor dedicated to Chinese books, soy sauce, and shunchuo, or Chinese koikuchi soy a floor of Chinese restaurants, and a supermarket at sauce. Laochuo is thick, black in color, and has salty the top selling a large variety of food items. Much flavors with a touch of sweetness and a bitterness like of the seasonings section was taken up by the main caramel. Shunchuo is light in color but has prominent soy sauce brands, but also included sauces and salty flavors, making it most suitable for salting. In sauces. A neighboring shelf displayed

FOOD CULTURE 15 paste (zhima jiang), sweet -based sauce (tian dominates in a led by a from Shandong mian jiang), spicy bean paste (douban jiang), and XO Province with an all-Chinese service team. The menu sauces, showing that China has a much more diverse is written in Chinese (with Japanese translation) but selection of fermented seasonings than Japan. They the food does not contain a single Chinese : are formulated into complex yet coherent flavors that the soy and oyster sauces are all produced in Japan. stand up well to rich fats and oils in the foods. The chef comments that “Chinese soy sauces have At the supermarket, I talked to a woman from Taiwan all sorts of flavors; Japanese soy sauces have great who was examining a bottle of soy sauce, holding it up aromas and are really tasty”. It may be about adjusting to the light and looking at the label. She said she was to Japanese taste preferences, but it seems that even checking the ingredients for unnecessary additives Chinese are satisfied by the tastes created with and looking for sediment. She typically uses Japanese Japanese seasonings. soy sauce at home, but specifically came in search of Chinese soy sauce for some Chinese recipes she found in Japan online. She made the special trip by train as she felt In the 1960s, star chefs of Chinese cuisine began to the seasonings from home would help achieve more appear in Japan, using various media to introduce authentic flavor. Likewise, in a Chinese restaurant on authentic Chinese cuisine throughout the country. the third floor of the building, the native Chinese chef Best known are chef Tomitoku Zhou, and cooks up authentic cuisine pleasing customers with Kenmin Chen of Szechwan Restaurant (opened in flavors based on seasonings which are all imported 1958), who popularized authentic style mabo- from China. It seems that the authentic taste of home dofu in Japan. Chen, who incidentally is the father of is not possible without the right seasonings. Kenichi Chen, created a recipe for mabo- In contrast, many restaurants with native Chinese dofu, which is archived at the NHK TV program chefs only use Japan-made seasonings. At a restaurant “Today’s Cooking” (Kyo no ryori). In the recipe, he in Jimbocho in central Tokyo, Chinese language specifiesdouban jiang and tian mian jiang from China. but includes no details on the and soy sauce, Thus we can probably assume that Chen intended his Japanese audience to use Japanese products as valid substitutes for these seasonings. In the 1990s, a new generation of chefs started gaining attention, including Hikoaki Tan of Canton

Taiwanese woman examining an item Meisai Akasaka Rikyu, who was born in Yokohama Chinatown in 1943, and Turandot Yusenkyo chef, Yuji Wakiya. It is interesting to note that Japanese soy sauce is used in most of the recipes shared publicly by these chefs, who understand well both Japanese taste preferences and authentic Chinese flavors. In , too, such as the 1997 Shin Chugoku Ryori Taizen, a kind of encyclopedia of Chinese cuisine, Chinese grocery store (Ikebukuro, Tokyo) Chinese soy sauces available in Japan most of the recipes use the generic terms for sake

VEGAN Washoku in Japan In different places around the world, people ascribe to -based diets such as , and the known in Japan as shojin ryori. Apparently, it is difficult for such individuals to find appropriate alternatives for Japanese-style dishes. Two popular categories of are and , which center on fish and chicken, respectively. And and soup stocks are often based on dried bonito and sardines, making it hard to avoid fish-based dishes. In addition, whileshojin ryori is available at or restaurants, these are not generally accessible or affordable options for many. At Loving Hut, a vegan restaurant in Jimbocho, Tokyo, over 90% of visitors are resident foreign nationals or tourists from abroad. With the owner, Rie Yoshii, from Taiwan, and the chef from China, the menu contains mostly Chinese-style dishes, but a number of signature dishes were created in response to customer Vegan kabayaki (modoki requests for vegan Japanese food. Vegan Kabayaki, an imitation grilled dish, is made from crushed imitation grilled eel) sushi soybeans, lotus root purée and , with added to look like eel skin. Yoshii invented the recipe after hearing that some Zen temples serve plant-based versions of grilled eel dishes. I was especially amazed at the seaweed rolls containing fried colored with to look like omelet, and the realistic appearance of the ‘squid’ on nigiri sushi. The restaurant uses koikuchi soy sauce made with organic soybeans by a major Japanese manufacturer, but leaves soy sauce out for customers concerned about gluten. There is a theory that fermentation breaks down the gluten in protein thus removing the risk of gluten allergy, however, the restaurant puts the customers’ feelings first and avoids using it altogether. One option would be to use Japanese tamari soy sauce made only with soybeans. Loving Hut owner, Ms. Rie Yoshii

16 FOOD CULTURE Chinese laochuo (left) and Singaporean JASMINE's braised belly Azabu Choko’s Sichuan mabo-dofu Clay pot rice with braised shark's fin shunchuo and laochuo (middle and right) and soy sauce. In the practical and achieving the balance of component of university flavor as well as the brilliant instruction on Chinese cuisine, deep color is only possible teachers tend to specify Chinese with a tamari soy sauce. The varieties of douban jiang, tian laochuo he uses is one of the mian jiang and zhima jiang, but major brands in China, but assume the use of Japanese soy because of its noticeable bitter sauce. Many food researchers Yusuke Yamaguchi, JASMINE aftertaste, the chef prefers a Ryosuke Tamura, Azabu Choko have released cookbooks on the combination of Singapore-made theme of Asian cooking in recent years recipes laochuo and shunchuo for stir-fries and other dishes. for dishes that can be made at home with common While a wide variety of laochuo exists in mainland ingredients and . One suggestion is to China, the limited selection of imported varieties in use Japanese hatcho miso instead of tian mian jiang Japan presented a challenge. Ingenuity in the search when making mabo-dofu, which seems a reasonable for the right flavors means this Japanese chef now substitute in terms of flavor. There are many variations uses Singapore-made Chinese-style soy sauce at his in seasonings and used in Japanese mabo-dofu restaurant of authentic Chinese cuisine in Japan. recipes, but most surprising to many Chinese nationals Chef Ryosuke Tamura takes a world as he in Japan is the almost total lack of the tongue-numbing creates “authentic to be enjoyed in called hua jiao. Japan”. Japanese soy sauce is used if it results in While the second and third generations carry on the the appropriate delicious flavors, but others such as flavors of the original star chefs, younger chefs in the signature ‘Sichuan mabo-dofu’ require Chinese their 30s and 40s are now driving the industry. To laochuo to produce the dark color to contrast with learn their preferences regarding soy sauce, I spoke to bright red Chinese hot pepper oil. Meanwhile, in his two such chefs: Yusuke Yamaguchi of Chuka Kosai Sichuan-style shark’s fin soup, Tamura uses just a JASMINE (Shanghai and Hangzhou cuisine) and dash of Japanese koikuchi soy sauce. The flavor of soy Ryosuke Tamura of Azabu Choko Kofukuen, known sauce is almost unnoticeable in the light beige sauce for Sichuan cuisine. Like Wakiya, these two chefs are that tops the clay pot–cooked shark’s fin steamed rice, in a class of their own, adhering to the framework but the taste is rich and robust, with its combination of of Chinese cuisine but creating new forms of it with flavors and deepumami . Japanese sensibility and Japanese produce. The recipe for braised whole shark's fin differs across Chef Yamaguchi is known for cuisine from Hangzhou, the four major Chinese : Beijing, , south of Shanghai. He said he cannot make his Shanghai, and Sichuan. In Shanghai, the soy sauce signature dongpo rou (braised pork belly) dish without flavor is dominant; in Sichuan, it is subtle. Regional laochuo (Chinese tamari soy sauce), with its distinctive cooking shows quite broad differences in when and reddish tinge. For the Chinese, the deep color is what how soy sauce is used, thus it would be interesting makes it look delicious. Yamaguchi’s exquisite dish to look in more detail at the use of soy sauce as a is not as salty as you imagine from the deep color, seasoning in simmered Chinese dishes.

Korea

In Issue 24 of this magazine, I wrote in detail on South Korea, yangjo ganjang, or Japanese-style soy the use of Korean soy sauce, or ganjang, in South sauce brewed with koji, is common and used in many Korea and Japan. This time I sought to understand recipes from dipping sauces to pickling. what value is placed on Korean-made Korean-style I interviewed three international students from South soy sauce among people strongly connected to South Korea about their personal preferences. Two of the Korea but living in Japan. To state the conclusion first, students use Japanese soy sauce, but the third student it seems that ganjang can be replaced by Japanese soy visits Shin-Okubo, the hub for all things Korean in sauce in many cases. A survey of several Japanese- Tokyo, and buys the same Korean variety her mother language cookbooks on found no uses at home. When I asked them what signifies the recipes specifying ganjang. In addition, even in taste of home, all three said (Korean

FOOD CULTURE 17 ) and (Korean soup), both made with special role in this seaweed soup, but is probably not homemade doenjang (fermented soybean paste), as well enough of a reason to buy this specific variety. as their mother’s handmade . This is because Ganjang (soy these dishes capture the essence of each family and sauce–pickled ) is a mother’s flavors. In contrast, most Korean families use popular dish at a Korean industrially produced varieties such as yangjo ganjang, restaurant in Shin- which is made uniformly in large quantities and tastes Okubo that opened more very similar to Japanese manufactured soy sauces. than 30 years ago. I had There is no longer the idea that soy sauce should be eaten this dish in Seoul handmade. When soy sauce is handmade according previously and found Soy sauce–pickled crab made with to traditional Korean methods and rested in clay pots, the color of the liquid in Japanese soy sauce (Shin-Okubo, Tokyo) known as Chosun ganjang, the resulting flavors are this version pale, only totally different, complex and variable. to discover it was made with Japanese soy sauce. In Korean grocery stores in Shin-Okubo are frequented the absence of ganjang, using the Korean dish name by Korean residents and students, and Japanese fans is not entirely accurate, but suggests that ganjang of Korean drama and pop music and Japanese soy sauce are in fact regarded as valid alike. In one store, I found three substitutes. soy sauce varieties from one Meanwhile, I visited a large manufacturer and I asked Korean restaurant in a Korean clerk which one I Aoyama, Tokyo. It is should use to season the Korean run by a Korean woman miyeok guk (seaweed who came to Japan at soup). She told me age twenty, and her son. that the soup is extracted She proudly makes her original marinade for the Bulgogi in homemade blended from meat and seasoned marinade (Aoyama, Tokyo) with salt alone, and would be bulgogi grilled meat dish Seasonings at a Korean grocery store in Shin-Okubo, Tokyo overwhelmed by regular soy using a combination of Japanese soy sauce, Korean sauce. Thus, in South Korea, ganjang, and grated . For her, this combination just a touch of pale called guk ganjang produces the perfect balance of flavors. This shows is added to balance the flavor. Blended dark-colored a keen awareness of the differences between the two soy sauce (jin ganjang) adds too much color, and sauces, and very particular preferences which can Japanese usukuchi shoyu (light-colored soy sauce) perhaps be attributed to the fact that she is the first changes the taste entirely. Guk ganjang clearly has a generation of her family to live in Japan.

Thailand

Si-iw-khao: an Essential Ingredient in home cooking and is indispensable for Chinese-style The year 1979 marked the opening of the first Thai Thai dishes. Just as Japanese cuisine is not only sushi, restaurant in Japan (Chiang Mai in Yurakucho, and gyudon bowls, Thai food is not limited to Tokyo; now closed), but it was not until the 1990s goong, green and pad thai stir- that started to show a real interest noodles. The cuisine is much more diverse, as is the use in Thai cuisine. One of the best-known restaurants of seasonings. I set out to discover how and where Thai serving authentic Thai food, Keawjai, opened in nationals living in Japan satisfy their taste buds. 1989 in Kotobashi to Tokyo’s east. In 1987, food My first stop was the Thai Education and Culture researcher, Akiko Ujiie began the import and sales Center in Kinshicho (Sumida Ward), Tokyo’s so- of Thai ingredients, and subsequently contributed called racial melting pot. Japanese people gather at to the popularization of Thai cuisine with her 1992 the center to learn Thai language, cooking, massage, publication entitled My Thai Cookery (Shibata and carving, among other skills. I went to interview Shoten). Thus, it is still less than 30 years that my kind, cheerful and beautiful cooking class teacher, restaurants of authentic Thai cuisine, and the Chonsita Damrongtirarat. I asked her about her use ingredients and seasonings to make Thai food at home of seasonings in the Thai cooking classes. She said have been generally accessible in Japan. she uses only imported Thai products to convey I visited Keawjai for the first time as a university the authentic taste of Thailand, and never suggests student and was shocked by the sweet, sour and spicy Japanese soy sauce as an alternative. She finds that the taste of tom yum goong (). I was led students and their Thai friends and acquaintances have to believe that Thai uses instead of soy sauce, no trouble acquiring Thai ingredients and seasonings and while it is true that many Thai dishes are salted through Asian supermarkets and online shopping. and flavored with fish sauce, as I reported in Issue 25 Fundamental to Thai cuisine is the balance of five taste of this magazine, soy sauce also features regularly in elements: sour (prîaw), sweet (wǎan), salty (khem),

18 FOOD CULTURE Thailand Education and Culture Center cooking classes – typical soy sauce–based dishes

Seasonings on sale at Keawjai: one brand Pad si-iw (stir-fried ) each of si-iw-khao and seasoning sauce oily/creamy (man), and spicy (phèt), with the addition Tao huu song krueng (tofu dressed of aromas that tie it all together (hǒom). The element in starchy sauce) that I describe as oily/creamy brings richness to cooking through the addition of oils or fats. In Japan, we have five elements related specifically to taste: sweet, sour, salty, bitter, and umami. Thai cuisine does not recognize umami, nor is bitterness regarded a necessary flavor component. Instead, Thai cuisine Plaa nueng si-iw (steamed fish) Lecturer: Chonsita Damrongtirarat seeks to add rich taste, such as that from coconut oil, and the heat from . The overall evaluation of sauce and salt, with si-iw soy sauce in a supporting role. flavor is in whether the disparate components come In only a few cases si-iw serves as the key seasoning, together for rounded balance, called klomklom. such as Plaa nueng si-iw (steamed fish insi-iw ), and Tao When I asked my teacher about must-have seasonings in huu song krueng (tofu dressed in starchy sauce). Thai cuisine, she named fish sauce, salt, , andsi-iw- I visited several Thai restaurants, including one khao, in that order. Si-iw-khao means ‘white soy sauce’, approved by the Thai and is a non-viscous, pale-colored variety with strong Ministry of Commerce’s salty flavor. Some Thai dishes require paste or certification system, fermented soybean seasoning, but Damrongtirarat’s looking for si-iw cuisine placement of si-iw-khao soy sauce in the top four on the menu. Pad si-iw essential items for Thai home cooking shows us the (stir-fried rice noodles fundamental nature of soy sauce flavor in Thai cuisine. in soy sauce) is typically When formulating dishes, she first establishes the salty available, especially for Thai Ministry of Commerce restaurant taste with fish sauce and salt; next she adds sweet and children and people who certification system sign sour elements with sugar and lime juice, for example; cannot handle spice. and finally, she addssi-iw-khao to round out the aroma, Rich si-iw sauce coats the chewy, sticky noodles in color, and saltiness. In Japan, we talk about adding soy this well-seasoned and delicious dish. However, after sauce for aroma and umami, but this is simply referred learning about the concept in Thai cuisine of finding to as aroma in Thailand, where the concept of umami the perfect balance from complex flavors klomklom( ), does not exist. The framework of flavor comes from fish I found the si-iw flavor somewhat one-note.

Familiarity with and Usage Frequency of Asian Fermented Seasonings Survey of female college students in Tokyo (January 2017) I conducted a questionnaire survey with Japanese 1) shoyu n=184 female college students to ascertain their familiarity with 2) miso and usage of the Asian soy sauces and other fermented Use on daily basis. seasonings covered in this paper. For each seasoning, 3) Used before. students were asked to choose from a scale of 1~7, 4) Tasted but never used.

where 1 indicated ‘Never heard of it’ and 7 equated to 5) kaki-shoyu Heard of but never tasted it. ‘Use on daily basis’, with options in between for whether 6) gyosho Don’t know name, but know they have tasted it or used it in cooking. I found that something about it. 7) tianmianjiang the students are familiar with ten of the seasonings Heard of it, but don’t know named, but 80~100% of students have never heard of 8) nam pla anything about it. the remaining items. [Note: the students were asked 9) doenjang Never heard of it.

according to the commonly used Japanese terms for 10) ganjang

the items; English translation below.] Students were also 0 20 40 60 80 100 （％） asked to assign points from seven to one, to rank which 1) soy sauce、2) fermented soybean paste、3) spicy bean paste、4) Korean red chili paste、 of the seven relevant countries/regions’ food cultures 5) oyster soy sauce、6) Japanese fish sauce、7) sweet soybean-based sauce、 (including Japan) they most wanted to learn more about. 8) Thai fish sauce、9) Korean miso、10) Korean soy sauce The averages showed most people interested in Japan Other fermented seasonings with low recognition or frequency of use: (5.2) and Korea (5.0), followed by China/Taiwan (4.4), kecap ikan, xi dau, nuoc tuong, kapi, , tahure, tausi, , si-iw, petis, mam, Thailand (3.7), Vietnam (3.2), and ended in a tie between toyo, dau hao, chao, tuong, patis, tao chiau, nam mun hoi, nuoc mam, kecap asin, Indonesia and the Philippines (2.3 points). kecap manis, aekjeot, yulu, , haoyou, laochuo/shunchuo

FOOD CULTURE 19 I also asked my teacher about married a Japanese man and taking up residence in the tabletop condiments usually Japan, she went to the Thai Education and Cultural served with pad thai. She told Center to learn authentic Thai cuisine. At home, she uses me that Thai people use the Japanese kombu shoyu (kelp-flavored soy sauce), which seasonings anytime they feel she finds resembles the green cap seasoning sauce made the flavor is insufficient, even by Golden Mountain that is sold at her restaurant. She on a soy sauce–based dish like said either sauce works well to finish off fried rice. pad si-iw. The choices include a At a store in Kinshicho, Tokyo, which as a bottle of plain fish sauce and a Thai restaurant and grocery store, I found si-

jar of fish sauce with condiments Tabletop condiments for iw-khao, si-iw-dam (black soy sauce), and seasoning mixed through, as well as pad thai sauces, and was struck by the Thai oyster sauces, -pickled red chili peppers, which were much brighter granulated sugar, and chopped red chili peppers. In in color than typical Japan, it is not common to blend different kinds of Chinese ones. A female fermented seasonings like miso and soy sauce or fish Thai clerk at the store sauce and soy sauce, but in Thailand, fish sauce is often told me that even though combined with si-iw soy sauce to achieve balanced flavor. she eats Thai food at the Seasoning sauce is a Thai ingredient we are not so restaurant, at home she familiar with in Japan. It is a soy sauce–flavored liquid makes Japanese-style with added liquid, and is commonly found food, and can therefore on the dining table in homes and restaurants. A dash make do with just Thai ramen restaurant and grocery in cooking is said to enhance the unique fragrance of Japanese soy sauce. store the sauce and bring balance to a dish. In a Thai chef 's Thai national residents I referenced, most recipes called for a in Japan, it appears, use authentic Thai seasonings combination of fish sauce, si-iw and , but when making Thai food, but switch easily to Japanese the stir-fry recipes typically suggested the addition of seasonings for other dishes. This flexibility and choice is a small amount of seasoning sauce. available to them thanks to a well-established distribution I spoke to one Thai woman working at Keawjai. Having system for Thai produce and seasonings in Japan.

Vietnam

For many Japanese people who hear the phrase desire for the taste of home. The other student brings ‘ethnic cuisine’, the first cuisines that come to mind back seasonings and ingredients such as nuoc tuong are Thai and Vietnamese. Slightly greater distance from her visits home to Ho Chi Minh once or twice a to these countries seems to heighten the sense of year. She uses them sparingly until they run out, and ethnic differences, compared to neighboring Chinese then makes do with Japanese soy sauce until her next or Korean cuisine. Despite being in the same region trip. In the process of making do, it seems you can get and having rice as the staple in common, differences used to something and your attitudes to certain flavors emerge, according to Naomichi Ishige*1), because change. While she hated the flavors of Japanese Thailand and Vietnam primarily belong to the fish seasonings at first, she does not mind them anymore, sauce cultural sphere, where fish sauces such as nam even seasoning her fried rice with Japanese soy sauce. pla or nuoc mam are used more frequently than - It seems that adapting to life in Japan goes hand in based sauces. However, we do know that grain-based hand with adjusting to the tastes of Japan. soy sauce is consumed daily in both countries and that An internet search revealed food cultures around soy sauce and fish sauce vary many Vietnamese grocery even within a country, as with South versus North/ stores spread across Tokyo. Central Vietnam (see Issue 25). I visited the first one on the *1) Ishige, N. (1993) Cultural Aspects of Products list and found a lot of rice in Asia. In: Lee, C., Steinkraus, K.H., and Reilly, P.J.A. eds., Fish flour noodles and wrappers Fermentation Technology, pp 13-32. for fresh spring rolls at I interviewed two international students from the front, and nuoc tuong Vietnam. Our discussions revealed two distinct Vietnamese soy sauce, also patterns in terms of familiarity and satisfaction sold under the alternative with the Japanese , which seem to be typical of name of xi dau, at the back. Vietnamese grocery store in a station-front shopping street (Otaku, Tokyo). Chinese international students. Asked about which nuoc and Thai ingredients are also available One student works part-time at a Vietnamese tuong he uses the most, restaurant, regularly enjoys Vietnamese staff , the shop owner responded hao vi (thick soy sauce). Non- and buys seasonings and ingredients at specialty viscous, with strong soy sauce flavor and intense umami, Vietnamese stores so she can cook Vietnamese at it is suitable for cooking and in dipping sauces too. The home. She has a strong need for and satisfies her store also stocks large bottles of Chin Su, a seasoning

20 FOOD CULTURE sauce with high market share in Vietnam. I felt that both in Vietnam and usually made with nuoc tuong, is sauces had balanced, savory flavor that could create the flavored at this restaurant withnuoc mam. It results in right flavor profile in fried rice or soup without the help a transparent but salty broth, to which sugar is added of any other seasoning. for sweetness, flavoring the pork throughout. With a In a Vietnamese restaurant in Takadanobaba, Tokyo, broth delicious enough to drink, this dish is perfect all but one of the nearly 30 items are seasoned with rice. Nuoc mam does not have a fishy smell, with nuoc mam. The only one made with nuoc tuong rather just a subtle aroma in the aftertaste, which may is fried rice, cooked with Maggie brand thanh vi (light lead you to believe the pork had been simmered in soy sauce). A generous amount is poured into the rice, Japanese usukuchi shoyu (light-colored soy sauce). which contains chicken fried with , , Vietnamese nuoc mam tastes milder , and a small amount of soup. The flavor differs than Thai nam pla, and the two cannot from Japanese soy sauce, but the rice and soy sauce be substituted for each other. However, combination is certainly familiar. The international some Thai sauces can substitute for students I spoke to said they sometimes make fried Vietnamese nuoc tuong. In fact, when rice with nuoc tuong, looking for that nostalgic flavor, I asked the restaurant which nuoc just like when Japanese tuong they use in the dipping sauce, living overseas seek they showed me seasoning sauce made the comforting flavor by the Thai Golden Mountain brand. of tori- They buy it at an Asian grocery store Thai seasoning sauce (pot-cooked chicken less than a minute away in Kinshicho. in a Vietnamese rice). The three most When I asked the chef in Takadanobaba restaurant important components what he thought, he agreed that the above seasoning of any cuisine are clearly Com · ga · tay · cam (clay pot chicken sauce tastes similar and could be used as a substitute. ingredients, cooking and rice with ginger) Seasoning sauce, commonly used in Thailand, method, and seasoning. Vietnam and the Philippines, is a mixed type sauce At the Vietnamese made by adding brewed soy sauce to an amino acid restaurant in Kinshicho, solution. It corresponds to mixed soy sauce in Japan. the chef from Ho Chi With very little flavor difference, the sauces can Minh does not cook any seemingly be used interchangeably, as with Thai and dishes with nuoc tuong. Vietnamese oyster-flavored sauces. Chinese oyster Simmered pork, typical sauces, on the other hand, do not substitute well. of Chinese-style cuisine Boiled pork with eggs

Indonesia

Home to approximately 260 million people (2016), the spread of in Japan and the use of Republic of Indonesia has the fourth largest population soy sauce. in the world, following China, India and the United The selection of Indonesian ingredients at generalist States. Many Japanese know that the etymology Asian grocery stores is limited, thus many Indonesians of jagaimo, the word for in Japanese, is in living in the Kanto region shop at Toko Indonesia in jagatara-imo, brought to Japan via by the Shin-Okubo, Tokyo. Customers can also buy through Dutch in the 16th century. Japan had occupied the online store, an essential service for Indonesians Indonesia during World War II, but the two countries living all around Japan. established diplomatic relations in 1958, and since Indonesian soy sauce includes kecap asin (dry) and the 1970s many Japanese companies have entered the kecap manis (sweet). The latter is highly viscous with Indonesian market. Economic a shiny black color and a strong sweetness peculiar exchange is flourishing, and to palm sugar. Mostly sweet and a touch salty, the yet there is much more room balance of flavor reminded me of for development in terms of used on mitarashi dumplings, a traditional Japanese cultural exchange through food. sweet, although the color is considerably darker and When thinking of Indonesian the taste richer. cuisine, and Kecap manis is often confused with Thai sweet come to mind immediately, soy sauce, even though the flavor is very different. but beyond that I am not sure. Ms. Widani, an official of the Indonesian Embassy, And because I have no real was quite resentful that the Thai variety had been experience with Indonesian incorrectly used in soup served at an Indonesian soy sauce, I don’t know much culinary fair in Japan. Tasted side by side, the flavor about it. I visited the Indonesian Ms. Widani (left) and Ms. difference is obvious, thus the mix-up is a clear Prasanti (right), Social and Embassy in Higashi Gotanda, Cultural Department, Embassy indication that Japanese people are far from familiar Tokyo, to find out about the of Indonesia in Japan with Indonesian cuisine and seasonings.

FOOD CULTURE 21 Kecap manis is used in cooking and as a tabletop part of a food education information program I was seasoning. Rice topped with a fried egg and plenty involved in. Dewi L Ihza Mahendra, the former of kecap manis is apparently a popular daily dish ambassadress of Indonesia to Japan, is well known in Indonesia. The same combination is also often for cooking and has published a Japanese-English found in the Philippines and Thailand, where Maggie bilingual cookbook on Indonesian cuisine. To gain seasoning sauce is the go-to topping, resulting in an deeper understanding, Mahendra recommends a entirely different flavor. cookbook by a chef of Indonesian cuisine, William I had lunch with the embassy officials at an Indonesian Wanso. In addition, I found a website, produced by restaurant near the embassy. The sound of the local the Indonesian government and containing beautiful language and the writing on the blackboard built my videos on thirty dishes representative of Indonesian expectation for an authentic . Many customers food culture, to be very easy to follow. *2) were solo Japanese men, who may have been seeking Despite these resources, information on Indonesian the nostalgic flavors they experienced during a stay cuisine is still limited. Cooking and food culture is in Indonesia, contrasting with scenes at Thai and often introduced in a new market by chefs cooking Vietnamese restaurants, where a significant proportion formal cuisine in restaurants, and by food researchers of customers are groups of women. Customers pour who provide classes or cookbooks so people can kecap manis from a bottle on the table onto their prepare casual dishes at home. Although many food researchers specialize in Thai or , there are few active researchers specializing in Indonesian cuisine in Japan.

Indonesian restaurant near Nasi goreng (right) and satay (left back) the embassy

food. My order of nasi goreng (Indonesian fried rice) came with a side of satay chicken. Already in a rich,

thick butter sauce, the chicken was also topped Cookbooks by William Wongso (left) and Dewi L Ihza Mahendra (right) with kecap manis. The rich sweetness from generous amounts of palm sugar is balanced by underlying salty *1) Semur daging, recipe from episode 475 on the Oyako de cooking flavors to create the distinctive flavor of Indonesian food education site cuisine. https://www.kids-station.com/minisite/cooking/recipe/detail/475.html One dish in which kecap manis is indispensable is *2) The 30 Indonesian Traditional Culinary Icons, Embassy of The semur daging (Indonesian-style beef stew). I include Republic of Indonesia HP, http://www.embajadaindonesia.pe/the-30- *1) the reference here for the recipe I was taught as indonesian-traditional-culinary-icons/

Philippines

Philippine Sari-sari Store and Community selling canned goods, seasonings, and daily Philippine soy sauce, called toyo, has long been necessities. Many also have adjoining restaurants. The produced according to Japanese brewing technology. largest populations of Filipino residents in Japan are Although it has a different flavor, it is closer to Japanese found in Aichi and Tokyo, followed by Kanagawa, soy sauce than the viscous Chinese-style soy sauces of Saitama, and Chiba. There is no single ‘Filipino town’ Thailand. Many Filipino people use Japanese soy sauce in Tokyo, unlike Shin-Okubo for all things Korean, regularly, having been exposed to the leading Japanese but at least in the Kanto area, wherever the Filipino manufacturers through a booming sushi culture. community exists, you can always find asari-sari store. However, some households still use Philippine-made While Thai, Vietnamese and other Asian foodstuffs seasonings on a daily basis, and some restaurants place are typically sold at generalist Asian grocery stores, their focus on reproducing traditional Philippines tastes. the existence of specialty stores in Japan selling only In the Philippines, local shops called sari-sari stores products made in the Philippines is probably owing to are the Philippine version of a convenience store, this sari-sari store business category.

22 FOOD CULTURE I visited a sari-sari located on a prefectural road in until 7:30pm, costing 1500 yen for 90 minutes. I was southern Saitama Prefecture, home to many major told that a shop in Chiba also offers a Filipino buffet corporate distribution centers. Families arrived by once a month, attracting many from the Filipino car for their weekend shopping, and a small girl community. Many Filipinos are Catholics, and Sundays exclaimed at the sight of large green bananas from the are reserved for gathering at church and catching up Philippines, prompting her Filipino mother to explain with family and friends. Once a week, they can taste how to prepare them. A woman working in the shop the nostalgic flavors of Philippine cuisine, exchange told me she uses toyo instead of Japanese soy sauce at information, and do some shopping at the sari-sari home simply because the taste is different. The store store before going home. Filipino communities such seems to really make Filipinos feel at home, with its as these are typically found around sari-sari stores and extensive collection of the tastes of the Philippines. Filipino restaurants. The pork I ate at the adjoining restaurant The store I visited also provides a delivery service, was made with toyo from the Philippines’ leading including a broad range manufacturer. Adobo is a typical toyo-based dish, but of goods from fresh each family has its own recipe, changing the protein papaya and frozen or adding vinegar. The adobo I enjoyed that day to prepared dishes and had the perfect flavor seasonings by the case. combination – a touch The store services a of sweetness, generous Filipino-managed food acidity from the vinegar, town several kilometers and salty soy sauce flavor away, as well as – and it was simply individual customers delicious with . working in that area, On Sundays, the meeting the demand restaurant provides a Pork adobo from both business and Sari-sari store mail order catalog buffet from 11:30am Made with toyo from a major Philippines retail sectors. Prepared foods, fresh and frozen manufacturer sold at the sari-sari store products, and seasonings by the case

◇ Summary The countries of Asia have a number of casual young people today talk passionately about dishes in common. With similar ingredient their preferences for local soy sauce with their combinations, the primary difference is in the , or their favorite or miso soup seasoning. One example is simmered pork belly flavors? I believe that being able to speak about seasoned with koikuchi shoyu (dark-colored soy the food culture of one’s own country is an sauce) in Japan, laochuo in China, either nuoc important part of someone’s charm and identity. tuong or nuoc mam in Vietnam, and toyo in the In this paper, I have reported on how the soy Philippines. The seasoning is really what makes sauces of Asia are used in Japan, and cases the dish and tells the story of the flavors of each where Japanese soy sauce can be substituted, country. based on interviews with a variety of people The question then is, how can you achieve the from the relevant countries living in Japan. flavor of home in the absence of your home While similarities exist in soy sauce–based country’s seasoning sauces? In the search for , there are certainly more substitutes for Asian seasonings, it becomes differences. Focusing on the similarities and clearer which items are similar and which are differences and comparing Japanese soy sauce totally different. In a rapidly globalizing world, with the soy sauces of Asia enabled me to look at this discussion may seem trivial, but I feel that the big picture, so I could compare and contrast the blurring of borders is also affecting our tastes Japanese food within the broader context of Asia and preferences. In terms of raising individuals and Asian cuisine. capable of playing an active role anywhere There is no mistaking that shoyu, Japanese in the world, it is just as challenging to have soy sauce brewed with koji, is different to someone with no clear identity or preferences as Indonesian kecap manis soy sauce sweetened it is to have someone who cannot live without with palm sugar. I can hardly wait for the day and miso soup. As rice and fish when people around the world use words from consumption decreases, there is grave concern the original language to name the soy sauces for the protection and transmission of washoku of Asia, showing respect for and a deeper traditional Japanese food culture. How many understanding of those differences.

FOOD CULTURE 23