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Ending the Pacific War: the New History
CHAPTER TWENTY-THREE Ending the Pacific War: The New History RICHARD B. FRANK In 1945, and for approximately two decades thereafter, no significant American controversy attended the use of atomic weapons to end the Pacific War. A national consensus assembled around three basic premises: (a) the use of the weapons was justified; (b) the weapons ended the war; and (c) that in at least a rough utilitarian sense, employment of the weapons was morally justified as saving more lives than they cost (Walker 1990 , 2005 ; Bernstein 1995 ). The historian Michael Sherry branded this as “The Patriotic Orthodoxy” (Sherry 1996 ). Beginning in the mid-1960s challenges appeared to “The Patriotic Orthodoxy.” The pejorative label “revisionists” was sometimes pelted at these challengers, but a more accurate term is just critics. The critics developed a canon of tenets that, in their purest incarnation, likewise formed a trio: (a) Japan’ s strategic situation in the summer of 1945 was catastrophically hopeless; (b) Japan ’ s leaders recognized their hopeless situation and were seeking to surrender; and (c) American leaders, thanks to the breaking of Japanese diplomatic codes, knew Japan hovered on the verge of surrender when they unleashed needless nuclear devastation. The critics mustered a number of reasons for the unwarranted use of atomic weapons, but the most provocative by far marches under the banner “atomic diplomacy”: the real target of the weapons was not Japan, but the Soviet Union (Walker 1990 , 2005 ; Bernstein 1995 ). These two rival narratives clashed along a cultural fault line most spectacularly in the “Enola Gay” controversy in 1995 over the proposed text of a Smithsonian Institution exhibit of the fuselage of the plane that dropped the first atomic bomb. -
The Debate Over Japan's Rising Sun Flag
NIDS コメンタリー第 89 号 The Debate over Japan’s Rising Sun Flag SHOJI Junichiro, Vice President for Academic Affairs No. 89, November 26, 2019 Introduction Korea, just as Germany proscribed the Nazi’s In October 2018, South Korea hosted an international predominant symbol, the swastika (known in German as fleet review off the coast of Jeju Island. Their navy the Hakenkreuz, or “hooked cross”). requested that the vessels of participating countries only In this article, I set aside the Japanese Government’s fly their national flag and the South Korean flag at the legal justifications for displaying the Kyokujitsuki. event. This request was chiefly targeted at Japan because Instead, I analyze a key narrative behind the controversy, South Korea wanted Japanese vessels to refrain from which equates the symbol to the Nazi swastika and flying the Kyokujitsuki, or “Rising Sun Flag,” which is identifies it as a “war crime flag.” the naval ensign of the Japan Maritime Self-Defense Force (JMSDF). 1 The Nazi Swastika: Symbolizing a Regime and its Ideology Japan refused to comply with the request. The Minister of Defense, Itsunori Onodera, replied, “Our naval vessels The swastika is an ancient Sanskrit symbol that can be must display the ensign under domestic laws, according traced back millennia. It has been prominently featured to the Self-Defense Forces Act. Moreover, the United in religions that originated in India, such as Hinduism Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea mandates that and Buddhism. However, in the late nineteenth and early warships must bear an external mark distinguishing the twentieth century, the swastika became entwined with ship’s nationality, and that’s exactly what the flag in nationalist movements, especially in Germany, where it question is.” Since South Korea was unconvinced by this symbolized the Aryan “master race.”1 In the 1920s, the argument, the succeeding Minister of Defense in Japan, Nazi Party adopted the swastika as its official flag. -
A Adler, Cyrus, 7 Akira, Kitade, 121 Akira, Yamaji, 65 Akirev Family, 107 Alaungpaya, King, 94 Allon, Yigal, 2 Almeida, Dr. Luis
Index A Bangkok Jews, 109–110 Adler, Cyrus, 7 Barak, Ehud, 175 Akira, Kitade, 121 Baruch family, 107 Akira, Yamaji, 65 Bataan Death March, 81 Akirev family, 107 Begin, Menachem, 119 Alaungpaya, King, 94 Beijing Jewish community, 62–63 Allon, Yigal, 2 Beitar Youth Movement, 52, 57 Almeida, Dr. Luis, 1 B’nai B’rith Anti-Defamation League, American Columbia Records, 131 164, 170 American immigration law of 1924, 25 Bolshevik Revolution of 1917, 4, 9, 15, 18, American-Jewish capitalists, 6–8 33, 40, 49, 72, 95 American Jewish Congress, 53, 58 Borodin-Gruzenberg, Michail, 23 American Jews, 33, 36, 46, 54, 57–59, 67, bubble economy, 173 69, 74–75, 80, 96, 104–105, 129, 148 Buddhism, 24 American Joint Distribution Committee, Bulgarian Jews, ix 60, 94, 96, 121, 123 Burmese Jews, 93–95 American occupation of Japan, 157–162 Bush, George W., 162 American Union of Orthodox Rabbis, 127 Anglo-Japanese Alliance in 1902, 44 C Anti-Comintern Pact of 1936, 48, 53, Camp Changi, 111 55, 67, 139 Camp Kanchanburi, 111 antisemitic publications, 24, 134. see also Caribbean Island of Curacao, ix The Protocols of the Elders of Zion Catholicism, 105 antisemitism, 20–21, 68, 81–83, 103, Chang Tso Lin, 50 105–106. see also Japanese Checkbook Diplomacy, 174 antisemitism; Russian antisemitism Chiang Kai-Shek, 23, 29, 48, 82, 135 Arab- Israel War, 168 Chicherin, Grigori, 20 Arab world, Japan’s attitude, 156–157 Chinese nationalism, 23, 30 Arafat, Yasser, 173 Chiune, Sugihara, 21, 70, 75, ix Arens, Moshe, 173 actions in saving Jews, 117–128 Asahi Shimbun, 134 Christianity in Japan, 11–12, 14 Ashkenazi, Rabbi Meir, 72 Chuo Koron, 21 Ashkenazi community, 99 A Citizen’s Guide to Assured Victory, 133 Aso, Taro, 175 Clinton, Bill, 174 Axis Alliance, 88, 169, ix Cohen, Dr. -
Unconditional Surrender, the Emperor and the Tokyo Trial 59
View metadata, citation and similar papers at core.ac.uk brought to you by CORE Unconditional Surrender, the Emperor and the Tokyo Trial 59 Unconditional Surrender, the Emperor and the Tokyo Trial: Implications for the Present-Day Japan-US Alliance Kazuhiko TOGO 無条件降伏・天皇・東京裁判: 現在の日米同盟に対して有する意味合い 東 郷 和 彦 <Abstract> In August 1945, when Japan was on the brink of total defeat, opinions among Japanese top leaders on when and how to surrender were divided, although everyone agreed that one condition would have to be met before any surrender: the preservation of the Imperial House. The Potsdam Declaration had been formulated in such a manner that this issue was left ambiguous. The final US reply, however, allowed sufficient room for the interpre- tation that the Imperial House would be preserved. So the Japanese Government surrendered. Since the surrender was only based on this interpretation, the defeated Government’s immediate efforts were concentrated on realiz- ing this condition through the establishment of a new Constitution (Article One) and the Tokyo Trial (not indicting the Emperor). Thus the final and only condition of the falling Empire was met. However, the crucial aspect of “honoring the commitment” was forgotten through a prevailing notion that Japan had made an unconditional surrender and that the US occupation was using the Emperor for the expediency of its occupation policy. After the signing of the San Francisco Peace Treaty even the Japanese Government itself began to acknowledge that Japan had indeed made an unconditional surrender. It is time to go back into history and recall this forgotten commit- ment in order to consolidate the contemporary Japan-US alliance. -
The Last Eight Days of Japan's Militarists
1 THE LAST EIGHT DAYS OF WWII: HIROSHIMA TO SURRENDER 1 William J. (Bill) Wilcox Jr., Oak Ridge City Historian Retired Technical Director for the Oak Ridge Y-12 & K-25 Plants [During the Manhattan Project (from May 25, 1943) a Jr. Chemist, Tennessee Eastman Corp., Y-12 Plant] A Paper for ORHPA, April 11, 2013. A couple of months ago I ran across an old book 2I had flipped through but not read called “The Fall of Japan” by William Craig. What I read there inspired me to go dig out another nicely detailed account of those last days researched and published by a K-25 chemical colleague, Dr. Gene Rutledge, who in the 1990s, long after retiring, got so interested in this story that he went to Japan and researched the story there making lots of Japanese friends and telling the story of Japan’s two nuclear bomb efforts in more detail than I have seen in any other sources – researched in more detail than have others because of his uranium enrichment expertise at K-25. I also dug out a very contemporary account of those days in TIME magazine’s issue of the week after surrender, an issue that my friend Dunc Lang kindly gave me years ago. I thought you might enjoy hearing a brief summary of those fateful days from these sources. The greatest issue for Japan’s rulers throughout these end-days was the Potsdam Ultimatum or Declaration of July 26, 1945 to which they had officially responded the very next day with words that to them meant “no comment at present” but which most news services overseas mistranslated as a huffy “not worthy of comment.” Although at the “top”, the Japanese government had some semblance to a democracy, it was decidedly not one. -
Gwi Lafa!NE'+IDBERIDN ..,.
THE JAPANESE IMPERIAL INSTITUTION AND THE ALLIED OCCUPATION OF JAPAN By GWi lafA!NE'+IDBERIDN ..,._..- . // '/ Bachelor of Arts Northwestern State College Alva, Oklahoma 1968 Submitted to the Faculty of the Graduate College of the Oklahoma State University in partial fulfillment of the requiremen,ts for the Degree of MASTER OF ARTS May, 1972 OKLAHOMA STATE UNtVERSIJI 'IRJ?ARY SEP 1 1972 . .. .... .... ................. ~ ...... , ....... ... THE JAPANESE IMPERIAL INSTITUTION AND THE ALLIED OCCUPATION OF·JAPAN Tnesis Approved: 824828 ii PREFACE Historians have written many volumes studying the Allied Occupa, tion of Japan.. In-depth. studies of political, educational, and. agrarian refo:nns have greatly contributed to the search for a better under standing of post-war Japan. However, there has been no substantial study of the role played by the Imperial Ir;i.stitution during the occupation. Many American officials of the day maintain that no policy was more successful than that concerning the Emperor. The purpose of this thesis will be to determine the reasons the Emperor institution was not abolished, and what purpose the institution served under the occupation. Another purpose of this study will be to examine the changes in the Imperial Institution in post-war Japan. I wish to express my appreciation to Dr, Sidney D. Brown who served as my adviser and channeled lilf interests in East Asian Studies. Dr., Odie B. Faulk as a reader and critic o:f this thesis made numerous suggestions which improved my literary style. Finally, to my parents, Mr. and Mrs, Forrest Roberson, I wish to make a special dedication of gratitude for all the love they have given to me. -
Japanese Strategy in the Final Phase of the Pacific War
Japanese Strategy in the Final Phase of the Pacific War Junichiro Shoji Introduction The Pacific War broke out on December 8, 1941 with the Japanese Attack on Pearl Harbor. Three days later, on December 11, Japan’s two allies, Germany and Italy, declared war on the United States. Meanwhile, as the Soviet Union was fighting on the German-Soviet front, it joined in via the Declaration by the United Nations in January 1942. As a result, Japan and the Soviet Union were affiliated with the Axis Powers and United Nations respectively, in opposition to each other, but as both countries had concluded a neutrality pact maintaining official diplomatic relations, this formed an extremely ambiguous relationship, described as “strange neutrality” by the American historian, Alexander Lensen.1 Furthermore, although the Soviet Union joined in the Declaration by the United Nations, its posture as being completely allied on the side of the United States and Great Britain was not clear. Whether the huge Soviet Union would participate in the war in either camp would be decisively significant to the balance of power. On the other hand, Japan recognized that it was impossible to win against the United States and Great Britain with military power alone, and since victory through military power would be difficult, a good command of diplomacy for after the end of the war would be needed. Therefore, diplomacy with the Soviet Union would hold an important position in Japanese strategies during the war. The Minister of Foreign Affairs when the war began, Shigenori Togo, pointed out, “The politics of the war at this time are in a contest for the Soviet Union. -
The Japanese Navy in 1941
THE PACIFIC WAR PAPERS .......................... 10771$ $$FM 02-08-05 09:29:45 PS PAGE i ALSO BY THE AUTHORS By Donald M. Goldstein and Katherine V. Dillon: The Williwaw War (1992) The Pearl Harbor Papers: Inside the Japanese Plans (1993) Amelia: The Centennial Biography of an Aviation Pioneer (1997) By Donald M. Goldstein and Katherine V. Dillon, with J. Michael Wenger: The Way It Was: Pearl Harbor: The Original Photographs (1991) D-Day Normandy: The Story and Photographs (1993) ‘‘Nuts!’’ The Battle of the Bulge: The Story and Photographs (1994) Rain of Ruin: The Hiroshima and Nagasaki Atomic Bombs (1995) The Vietnam War: The Story and Photographs (1997) The Spanish-American War: The Story and Photographs (1998) By Donald M. Goldstein and Katherine V. Dillon, with Gordon W. Prange: At Dawn We Slept: The Untold Story of Pearl Harbor (1981) Miracle at Midway (1982) Target Tokyo: The Story of the Sorge Spy Ring (1984) Pearl Harbor: The Verdict of History (1987) December 7, 1941: The Day the Japanese Attacked Pearl Harbor (1988) God’s Samurai: Lead Pilot at Pearl Harbor (1990) By Donald M. Goldstein and Katherine V. Dillon, with Masataka Chihaya: Fading Victory: The Diary of Admiral Matome Ugaki (1991) By Donald M. Goldstein and Harry J. Maihafer: The Korean War: The Story and Photographs (2000) America in World War I: The Story and Photographs (2003) By Donald M. Goldstein, Phil Williams, and J. M. Shafritz: Classic Readings of International Relations (1998) By Donald M. Goldstein, Phil Williams, and Hank Andrews: Security in Korea: War, Stalemate and Negation (1994) ......................... -
Surrender of Japan 1 Surrender of Japan
Surrender of Japan 1 Surrender of Japan The surrender of Japan brought hostilities in World War II to a close. By the end of July 1945, the Imperial Japanese Navy was incapable of conducting operations and an Allied invasion of Japan was imminent. While publicly stating their intent to fight on to the bitter end, Japan's leaders at the Supreme Council for the Direction of the War (the "Big Six") were privately making entreaties to the neutral Soviet Union, to mediate peace on terms favorable to the Japanese. The Soviets, meanwhile, were preparing to attack the Japanese, in fulfillment of their promises to the Americans and the British made at the Tehran and Yalta Conferences. Japanese foreign affairs minister Mamoru Shigemitsu signs the Japanese Instrument of Surrender on board USS Missouri as General Richard K. Sutherland On August 6, the Americans dropped an watches, September 2, 1945 atomic bomb on Hiroshima. Late in the evening of August 8, in accordance with Yalta agreements but in violation of the Soviet–Japanese Neutrality Pact, the Soviet Union declared war on Japan, and soon after midnight on August 9, it invaded the Japanese puppet state of Manchukuo. Later that day the Americans dropped an atomic bomb on Nagasaki. The combined shock of these events caused Emperor Hirohito to intervene and order the Big Six to accept the terms for ending the war that the Allies had set down in the Potsdam Declaration. After several more days of behind-the-scenes negotiations and a failed coup d'état, Hirohito gave a recorded radio address to the nation on August 15. -
INSTRUMENT of SURRENDER We, Acting by Command of and in Behalf
INSTRUMENT OF SURRENDER We, acting by command of and in behalf of the Emperor of Japan, the Japanese Government and the Japanese Imperial General Headquarters, hereby accept the provisions set forth in the declaration issued by the heads of the Governments of the United States, China, and Great Britain on 26 July 1945 at Potsdam, and subsequently adhered to by the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, which four powers are hereafter referred to as the Allied Powers. We hereby proclaim the unconditional surrender to the Allied Powers of the Japanese Imperial General Headquarters and of all Japanese armed forces and all armed forces under the Japanese control wherever situated. We hereby command all Japanese forces wherever situated and the Japanese people to cease hostilities forthwith, to preserve and save from damage all ships, aircraft, and military and civil property and to comply with all requirements which my be imposed by the Supreme Commander for the Allied Powers or by agencies of the Japanese Government at his direction. We hereby command the Japanese Imperial Headquarters to issue at once orders to the Commanders of all Japanese forces and all forces under Japanese control wherever situated to surrender unconditionally themselves and all forces under their control. We hereby command all civil, military and naval officials to obey and enforce all proclamations, and orders and directives deemed by the Supreme Commander for the Allied Powers to be proper to effectuate this surrender and issued by him or under his authority and we direct all such officials to remain at their posts and to continue to perform their non-combatant duties unless specifically relieved by him or under his authority. -
The Atomic Bomb, War Room Intrigue and Emperor Hirohito's Decision to Surrender Breaking News Historians DC
ABOUT US Join our mailing list SUBSCRIBE Departments Home News U.S. World History Features Books Roundup Blogs Job Board Custom Search ; 4/5/2020 NEWS The Atomic Bomb, War Room Intrigue and Emperor Hirohito's Decision to Surrender Breaking News Historians DC News Abroad From Afar, Congress Moves to Oversee tags: Hiroshima, Japan, atomic bomb, Emperor Hirohito, Nagasaki, World War 2 Trump Coronavirus Response A 200-Foot Section of the Berlin Wall Has Been Torn Down to Make Way for 13 Condos, Leaving Historians Appalled Shares The Military Knew Years Ago That a Coronavirus Was Coming "Be Nice" Is Not Needed During Crisis — by David Dean Barrett But A Free Press Is The Prep-School Nazi David Dean Barrett is a military historian, specializing in World War II. He has published work in WWII Quarterly Magazine, U.S. Military History Review, and Global War Studies. He is the Consulting/Producer for Lou Reda Productions' two-hour documentary, " Heroes of the Sky: The Real Mighty Eighth," which will air as a primetime global event on National Geographic in May of 2020. Please visit Mr. Barrett's website at www.onewithhistory.com for more information. TRENDING NOW Trending on HNN The Election of 1940 and the Might- th As the world observes the 75 anniversaries of the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Have-Been that Makes One Shudder Nagasaki later this year, Americans have still not reached a consensus about the role of the Getting Medieval on COVID? The Risks of Periodizing Public Health atomic bomb in Japan’s surrender. Was Japan ready to surrender without the bomb? Some The Ruthless Litigant in Chief: James of us believe so, in particular if the Allies would have simply guaranteed the preservation of Zirin Paints a Portrait of Trump Through the Imperial System (with the divine Emperor as the embodiment of all sovereign power in 3,500 Lawsuits the realm). -
Downloadable Index of Rejected Defense Documents
International Military Tribunal for the Far East records, Hoover Institution Library & Archives, Stanford University G.P. INDEX OF REJECTED DEFENSE DOCUMENTS Doc. -No. Description 54 Address by Foreign Minister Arita Hacbiro delivered J'Ulle 29, 1940, "The International. Situation and Japan's Position". 60 Statement of the Japanese Government, November 3, 1938. 61 Draft of the U.S.-Japanese.Understanding dated.April 16, 1941. 65 Statement of the Japanese Government dated August 15, 1937. 66 Statement by Foreign Minister Matsuoka Yosuke, August l, 1940. 70 Agreement between MailcgQµlj:uo and the USSR concerning cession of Soviet railroad righj1s to Manchoukuo, signed March 23, 1935. 77 Joint Declaration by Greater East Asia Conference, November 6, 1943. 83 Imperial Economic Conference at Ottawa, 1932. 86 Excerpt from New York Times re: Vichy's Attitude Concerning Indo-China, July 24, 1941. 128 "The Principle of Greater East Asia" - a lecture by Sun Yat-sen, de1ivered November 28, 1924. 131 Excerpt from col1ection of documents relating to League of Nations, pp. 29-50, December 1932, concerning Japanese observations on the League's Commission of Enquiry. 138 Excerpt f;-om "Japan Year Book, 1943-4411 , PP• 280-281.. 141 Excerpt from the 11Nihon Shoki". J.42. Ditto, Vol. III, p. 95. "Jimmu Tenno, conceming Imperial Rescript. l.4? "Why Do we Attack Hankow? 11 , by ShujitsuOzaki article published in Tai.riku. 150 Treaty of mutual assistance between France, the United Kingdom and Turkey, signed October 19, 1939. 151 Agreement of mutual assistance between the United Kingdom and Poland, signed August 25, 1939· 153 The· Official Gazette, Extra Number, September 27, 1940, trThe Imperial Rescript".