BULLETIN

QUARTERLY PUBLICATION OF THE SOUTH PACIFIC COMMISSIOl FIRST QUARTER 1977 Every day of the week, a whole flock From Nadi. of Qantastic Pacific birds take off from 3 flights a week to Honolulu and San Francisco. 3 flights a week to Bombay. Nadi, Noumea and Auckland. 5 flights a week to Sydney. Check out their flight patterns, see how they fit in with your plans and find From Noumea. l ake Air Pacific to Noumea from where you can take yourself on board one of our 747B long a Qantas flight to Sydney every Wednesday. distance comfort birds or aboard the world-famed 707. From Auekland. lake Air Pacific to Auckland from where there When the time comes for you to spread are daily flights to Sydney and regular your wings, fly out in Qantastic stvle. Qantas flights to Brisbane and Melbourne.

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LB1 3153 Please print I wish to subscribe the to r Years: e hre T address...... name e □ Rnwl pes tc aporae box) appropriate tick (please U C Renewal □ New r o f remittance My Year: ne O i mi otlrts upid n application on supplied rates postal mail Air RALI . IA L A TR S U A V ...... o 36 Hyakt Sde, S, 2000. NSW, Sydney, Haymarket, 306, Box ' ot Pcfc omsin ulctos Bureau Publications Commission Pacific South AII ISLANDS PACIFIC ot Pcfc Bulletin Pacific South $A 10.50 $A SA3.80 ...... usrpin Form Subscription South Pacific Bulletin Pacific South s attached.is $11.00 $4.00 AUST. $13.50 by surface mail: $4.80 NZ £6.75 £2.40 UK $US 14.00 $US $US5.00 USA Exotic Plant Pests and Diseases

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Pags 2 SOUTH PACIFIC BULLETIN. FIRST QUARTER, 1977 $A0.95c within SPC area south pacific $A1 Australia BULLETIN $NZ1.20 New Zealand Vol. 27 No. 1:1st Quarter, 1977 OFFICIAL JOURNAL OF THE SOUTH PACIFIC COMMISSION

► Tearaka, village change on Bougainville: Part 1 Tearaka 7 Joseph Monsen background

^ Observations on the generation of methane 12 M. Isman and C. Richard

^ Disaster preparedness in the South Pacific 14 James Lewis

^ The Museum of Tahiti and the Islands 22 Anne Lavondes

^ Virus against coconut rhinoceros beetles in Fiji 27 Dr G.O. Bedford

^ Alternative energy sources in the South Pacific 35 J. Guillou

^ Village water supply in Papua New Guinea 37 Christopher Kidd

^ Pacific Reading 44

^ Theses and Dissertations: Niue 47 Dr W. Coppell

(The original text of all articles is English unless otherwise indicated.)

Arabica coffee is grown in New Caledonia, the PNG Highlands and is the only type produced on the island of Tanna. New Hebrides. The Condominium authorities asked the SPC to organise a training course in arabica production: this was done in C o v er mid-1974 and a report issued. With the help of the French Coffee and Institute, this report has been published as SPC Hand­ book Number 16. now available on request (price $ A 1.30). Our cover shows course members demonstrating correct seed plan­ ting methods. (Registered at the Post Office, Suva for transmission by Post as a Newspaper).

The South Pacific Bulletin, first published in January 1951, The Commission does not accept responsibility for statements features articles on activities in the South Pacific Commission's made in contributed articles. three main fields of operation: economic, health and social All enquiries concerning the South Pacific Bulletin should be development. Articles are contributed by specialists working directed either to the Secretary-General, South Pacific Com­ in these and related fields in the SPC area. The Bulletin mission, BPD5, Noumea CEDEX, New Caledonia; or The has a selective, world distribution among people and institu­ Editor, SPC Publications Bureau, Box 306, Haymarket, NSW, tions in widely differing fields sharing a common interest in 2000, Australia. Subscription rates: within SPC area— $A3.80 the purposes and work of the Commission. (1 y r.), $A10.50 (3 y rs .); elsewhere— see subscription form Unless otherwise stated, all material appearing in the South inside. Map inside shows SPC area. Pacific Bulletin may be reproduced without prior reference Editor of Commission Publications: C. E. BIRCHMEIER. provided acknowledgement is made to both source and author. Advertising Manager: FRANK O’CONNELL (Phone: 212 2344).

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Pag© 4 SOUTH PACIFIC BULLETIN. FIRST QUARTER. 197? THE SOUTH PACIFIC COMMISSION

The South Pacific Commission is a consultative data analysis. The Commission’s headquarters are and advisory body which was set up in 1947 by the in Noumea, New Caledonia. six Governments then responsible for the adminis­ tration of island territories in the South Pacific Until 1974, Commissioners from the participating region. These were Australia, France, the Nether­ Governments met in annual Session. The South lands, New Zealand, the United Kingdom, and the Pacific Conference first met in 1950, and became an United States of America. Participation by the annual event in 1967. It was attended by delegates Netherlands Government ceased at the end of 1962. from countries and territories within the Com­ The Independent State of Western Samoa was mission’s area of action, and met immediately before admitted as a participating Government in October the Session. 1964, the Republic of Nauru was admitted in July In October 1974, in Rarotonga, Cook Islands, 1969, the Dominion of Fiji in May 1971 and Papua representatives of the participating Governments New Guinea in September 1975. signed a Memorandum of Understanding which pro­ vides for the Commission and the Conference to The Commission’s purpose is to advise the par­ meet annually in a joint session known as the South ticipating Governments on ways of improving the Pacific Conference. well-being of the people of the Pacific island terri­ tories. The Commission’s work programme provides The Principal Officers of the Commission are: the for activities in the fields of food and materials, Secretary-General, Dr E. Macu Salato; the Director of marine resources, rural management and technology, Administration, Dr Frank Mahony; and the Director of community services and information services and Programmes, Dr Guy Motha.

SOUTH PACIFIC BULLETIN. FIRST QUARTER, 1977 Provisional Calendar of SPC Meetings for 1977

JANUARY Regional Home Economics Course for Community Workers Suva Jan-Nov 24 - 28 Ninth Regional Technical Meeting on Fisheries S* Noumea

FEBRUARY 16 - 18 Expert Committee on Fish Poisoning Papeete 23 - 25 Comprehensive Environment Management Programme Planning Meeting Noumea

MARCH Fifth Regional Conference of Permanent Heads of Agricultural, Livestock 21 - 26 Production and Fisheries Services S* Noumea 28 - 7 April Sub-Regional Training Course on Food Hygiene and Control Tonga APRIL 12 - 26 Sub-Regional Training Course in Beef Cattle Production Honiara 18 - 29 Sub-Regional Training Course on Food Hygiene and Control Honiara 18 - 29 Sub-Regional Training Course in Farm Management and Economics Tonga 25 - 6 May Sub-Regional Training Course for Community Development and Social Services Officers (10 working days) Madang (PNG) MAY 16 - 27 Sub-Regional Course on Weeds and Weed Control Guam 23 - 27 Committee of Representatives of Participating Governments S* Noumea 23 - 27 Planning and Evaluation Committee S* Noumea JUNE 6 - 10 Regional Seminar for Heads of Customs S* Suva 6 - 17 Sub-Regional Training Course on Atoll Cultivation Tarawa ? Sub-Regional Training Seminar: Epidemiology, Prevention and Treatment of Acute Respiratory Diseases other than Tuberculous (5 working days) Niue JULY AUGUST 1 - 5 Regional Seminar pn Medical and Surgical Treatment of Leprosy S* Apia 1 - 12 Sub-Regional Training Course on Project Analysis and Evaluation Suva 15 - 26 Sub-Regional Training Course in Farm Management and Economics Apia SEPTEMBER 21 - 23 Committee of Representatives of Participating Governments S* Pago Pago 26 - 30 Seventeenth South Pacific Conference S* Pago Pago OCTOBER 1 7 - 21 Sub-Regional Training Course in Plant Protection Suva S* Port Moresby 24 - 28 Regional Conference on Economic Development Planning NOVEMBER 14 - 18 Regional Technical Meeting on Environmental Planning and Management S* Noumea ? Sub-Regional Training Course on Meat Inspection (10 working days) Suva ? Sub-Regional Training Course on Dairy Cattle and Milk Production (7 working days) Apia DECEMBER 8 - 9 Third Expert Committee on Tropical S_kipjack S Noumea 12 - 16 Tenth Regional Technical Meeting on Fisheries S* Noumea NOTE: S - Secretarial Services; * - Interpretation/Translation Services.

DATES OF MEETING ARE SUBJECT TO CHANGES The following meetings will be held during 1977 at a date yet to Sub-Regional Training Course in Environmental be determined: Impact Assessment (10 weeks, Papua New Guinea) • Arts Festival Council Meeting (S*) Sub-Regional Training Course in Statistics (10 working days) JANUARY 1 7 -2 7 Feb. Fifth FAO/SIDA Workshop on Aquatic Pollution in Relation to Protec­ tion of Living Resources. Manila, Philippines 28 - Feb. East-West Population Institute — Fifth Population Census Conference Honolulu, Hawaii Conference on Language Planning for Multilingual Society Vila, New Hebrides APRIL 5 - 9 Conference on Island and Archipelago Sea Law Agana, Guam ? TTPI Annual Dental Conference and Seminar Majuro, Marshall Islands MAY 16 - 21 Sixth Conference of Principals of Regional Teachers’ College. Rarotonga, Cook Islands JUNE 13 - 15 July East-West Population Institute — Eighth Summer Seminar on Population “ Demographic Analysis for Population Policy in Asia and the Pacific” Honolulu, Hawaii JULY 11 - 17 Sixth Asian/pacific Weed Science Society Conference and Workshop on Jakarta, Indonesia Weed Control in Small Scale Farms. AUGUST 16 - 20 Pacific Regional Science Conference Vancouver, Canada

Page 6 SOUTH PACIFIC BULLETIN. FIRST QUARTER. 1977 PART I: Tearaka Background

To the newer generation of Rotokas and lEflRRKfl Aita people of Wakunai, Tearaka is just one of the coastal villages but to the older VILLAGE CHANGE ON people it is the gateway to what many people call civilization. It is the village in BOUGAINVILLE which the first missionaries and ad­ ministrators to the area made their posts somewhere before or after 1900. After the first District Government was formed in Bougainville (1974), there was heated argument about the location of the Village Government Centre in the area.

During this debate a question was posed: “ Gentlemen, I want to know where did the first missionaries and administrators settle when they first came into our area?” The young councillors (some educated) scrat­ ched their heads; the older ones told them it was Tearaka. Tearaka was their main port. A few weeks later work went underway at Tearaka to establish the Village Govern­ ment Centre for the area (Rotokas & Aita Census Division).

Tearaka village is in Wakunai Sub-District of central Bougainville. It is located four to five miles away from Wakunai government station. Accessibility can be by motor vehicle, canoe or boat and on foot. A mission Primary School (Iagama) is about half a mile from the village and the Catholic Mission Station (Asitavi) which also has the Girls’ High School (Boarding) is about two to three miles away. The village, of course, comes under Wakunai Local Government Council. The Tearaka people are a bit dif­ ferent physically from Rotokas and Aita people, being more like the Teop and Buka people in the north. The 1971 census shows that there were 120 people altogether living in Tearaka at the time the census was carried out; adult males 40, female 33; children male 24, female 23; and the total absentees, children male 7, female 6 , adult male 21, female 11. The average size of the family was 2.9. The birth rate for the Rotokas Census Division in which Tearaka lies is under 4.6 and death rate 1.0 with a natural increase of 3.6 per 100.

ENVIRONMENT By JOSEPH MONSEN, student, Department of Within the vicinity of the village the major Geography, University of Papua New Guinea. vegetation is of mixed coconut and cocoa trees (interplanted). The undergrowth con­ sists of long weeds and stunted grass; in As far as this work is concerned, I would like to thank some areas, only bare ground with litter. the following people who have done so much in Along the coastal margin clusters of tall assisting and in making it possible for me to carry out trees (forest type) can be found while half a this research in the way that I wanted to: mile inland, where the plantation of coconut and cocoa trees end, the vegetation changes Cr. Karabus (Tearaka village); John Wanawande to Vitex - Pomia tall forest and Artocar- (Tearaka) and his wife, Uvuvu; Vuavu (Tearaka); pus - Albizia secondary forest. The land is A.P.O.(Wakunai Station); Tearaka boys and other flat, reasonably well drained lowlands whose members o f the village; Richard Jackson, UPNG. soil varies from sandy loam to brown forest loam as altitude increases. The geology of

SOUTH PACIFIC BULLETIN. FIRST QUARTER. 1977 Page 7 FIGURE la LOCATION

the area is recent alluvium and coral as the German era, the Tearaka people used to classified by J.G. Speight (CSIRO). make war on the Teop people and also face continuous attacks from the inland people HISTORY (Rotokas and Aitas.)

It is believed that the Tearaka people Tearaka was once under the leadership of originally came from Teop because they are a very powerful warrior named Peai from more like the Teop, quite distinct from Nautahi clan. He was so powerful that he Rotokas and Aita people. Their mother brought villages formerly known as tongue (at the present time) is Teop, Temogiono, Teotarina, Teonavanava, although they can speak Rotokas and some Teovago, Teovao and Teokaui together to can speak Aita and Papapana. Aita is a come under his leadership. These villages language from the Rotokas family and of formed Tearaka. After Peai’s death his son, northern stock. It is spoken by the mountain Dedea, I, succeeded his father and also people of Rotokas who are also called the ruled with great honour and pride. He had a Aitas. Papapana is spoken (at present) by son, Omao, of a wife from the Naboin clan Teperoi people (a village about 7-8 miles whom he named after his father. Dedea II from Tearaka). It was once spoken as a succeeded his father and his leadership con­ major language among the coastal villages tinued until the German era. of Wakunai. The G erm ans crowned Dedea II as The Tearaka elders claimed it is not true Kukurai and ordered him not to make war that they originally came from Teop; they anymore; his duty was to help their officers said their ancestors have always lived there. and missionaries to establish peace in the This can be proved by their ancestral area. His leadership continued until the language which was once spoken in the area Second World War and he died just after the called Pavava but was wiped out by the war from unknown causes. This was the end Teop language. Pavava language is still of the hereditary leadership form. From known by some older people. To illustrate Peai to his great grandson, Dedea II, they the differences between Teop and Pavava, were all charismatic leaders, believed to in Teop a dog is called Kahi, in Pavava it is have possessed supernatural powers. These Ba’au. powers were passed from father to son. However, the government and mission in­ Teop language has now claimed fluences had undermined this hereditary dominancy over coastal villages stretching form of leadership. The leadership then in a northerly direction from Tearaka right derived from such qualities as good oratory, to Teop, Tinputz and beyond. It is also influence, wealth (traditional or modern), widely spoken in some of the inland villages experience of being with a white man or out­ like Pusupa. The reason why Teop is now a side the village. In Tearaka today there is a mother tongue in Tearaka is because of in­ youth (17) who is named after Dedea II, he ter-marriages and migration that have and is the third of the name, but cannot attain are taking place between these two groups such office as the headman of the village or of people. In actual fact, the Tearaka people a clan; his clan is no longer powerful, and have few ties with Rotokas or Aita people, his position in the present social structure of and at the present time they are labelled as the village is questioned. Teop, because they have more social SOCIAL STRUCTURE relations with Teop. The village consisted of five clans, It is very interesting to note that the Nautahi, Naboin, Naunanata, Naumutana Tearaka people and the Teops were once and Nakaripa Namahe. These clans are all tribal enemies, it was only after the German matrilineal and have members outside the penetration that peaceful relationship was village in Rotokas, Aita and Teop. Their created between these two enemies. Before members would come together when cir­

Page 8 SOUTH PACIFIC BULLETIN. FIRST QUARTER. 1977 cumstances arose, like paying ol ondepnce the present head of the clan is still alive he or for funeral ceremonies. Marriage within has no power of any sort over the clan. a clan is prohibited but between clans is en­ couraged. This is based on a belief that A church leader, who is usually a pastor marriage within the clan would bring or a missionary, is only a recognised leader serious illness called Paruparura and also the in the work of the church and also for his offspring would be deformed. Paruparura supervision of any church activities, like refers to a sort of disease which make raising money for the church or building a people grow thin and have loose joints. church house. The most influential and best orator of all Within the present social structure of the the clan leaders is usually looked upon as village there are three distinct forms of the head of the village, although his leader­ leadership; a clan leader, a local govern­ ship role and his power are not distinct or ment leader (councillor) and a church concrete but are often shared by other clan leader (minister or pastor). They all have leaders. He acts merely as spokesman of different leadership roles. the village on any social issues related to the village as a whole, he has no power over Although clan leader, church leader and other clan leaders, because they have equal councillor play different leadership roles, powers, though the present head of the they co-operate to see that there is good village who is the head of Naboin clan is so social relationship in the village. Any outspoken and influential that other clan problems and disputes are solved on a co­ members look upon him as the chief and operative basis. The overall organizational take advice from him. structure of Tearaka village looks something like this: Next in status are village elders, though they have no power of any sort; however, most of their thoughts and suggestions are shared with the clan leaders. The clan leaders should listen to their thoughts and suggestions as they are the backbone of the clans. Women have much lower status than men, and at one stage were not permitted to walk in front of men. In spite of this, the women have lots of power over the land holdings. As the society is matrilineal, only a mother can distribute lands to her sons and daughters.

TRADE A ND EXCHANGE

The Tearaka people have always traded Village authority with the inland people and also with other neighbouring coastal villages for food items A clan leader is a person who speaks on and other valuables, for example, the ex­ behalf of his clan; in actual fact, he is the change of taro for fish. This form of trade traditional leader and has full control over and exchange is still practised. The Tearaka any traditional activities that take place people also have shell money of three dif- within the village or outside the village, such as marriage ceremonies, feasting, initiation ceremonies and funerals. Almost every aspect of traditional politics and land tenure is also handled by clan leaders. At­ tainment of office is matrilineal, that is, the first born son of a woman who is the oldest sister of the head of the clan would succeed his uncle. The local government leader, or coun­ cillor, is the person who acts between the government and the people. He is a representative of the village in discussion of government, economic, political and social issues. As a councillor, he is recognised as a leader in the work of the local government council but not in traditional issues. He holds no office or title in the traditional sec­ tor. The present council representative of the village is a member of the Nautahi clan (very powerful in the early tribal wars). He is also a legitimate successor to the present headman of the Nautahi clan, but as long as The village

SOUTH PACIFIC BULLETIN. FIRST QUARTER. 1977 Page 9 FIGURE 3 (above) PAST LAND USE not to scale (below)PRESENT LAND USE

m m m m

, « v WuV.Vv Vy • ^ V * v V v v , v „ v w .2 * V V V v Y , -"V v V v COCctn UT« Atie COCOA

Past and present land use ferent sorts and values. All three of them are used for payment of brideprice, pigs and brideprice. These same shell monies have land. been passed from one generation to another; the present Tearaka elders didn’t even know The most val-able shell money is called how these shell monies that they are using /ceha; it is curveu and shaped from the clam today were made. If asked to make them shell. The second, and next in value, is they would not know the technology in­ mago, and was made from bat’s or dog’s volved. teeth. The third kind is called karukuri (beads) and made from a special kind of In the past, trading and exchange took shell found on the coral reefs. These shell place when peace was established between monies are not used as payments for goods two tribal enemies, for example, Tearaka and other food items (pigs are the excep­ and Teop islanders. This would only last for tion) as they are the wealth of a clan. A a certain period say one to three months, af­ clan which possesses a lot of shell money ter that the situation would go back to nor­ enjoys a lot of prestige and pride from other mal. Peace is established when the chiefs clans. It is the shell money which attracts meet, break their arrows and chew their women from other clans to marry inside betelnuts together. This ceremony marks that particular clan. the period of peace between two particular tribes, who can now go ahead with feasting, Shell money is still used today, mainly for dancing and trading and exchange.

SOUTH PACIFIC BULLETIN. FIRST QUARTER. 1977 AGRICULTURE example: sugar cane or pitpit by stalk, The Tearaka people have always lived on banana by young shoots and cucumber by a subsistence economy, from food crops seeds. Digging sticks (traditional tool) are grown in their gardens; being a coastal used for digging holes to plant crops like village they exploited sea resources: fish, taro,while sweet potato is planted on mounds. shells and other sea food. Apart from that, Mounds are made by hoes and spades, they also hunted possums, wild fowls, pigs bought from trade stores. and birds and gathered wild fruits and nuts, In all gardens, crops are interplanted. As a result of continuous exploitation of sea That means .that in a single garden you’ll and land, the village is experiencing scar­ find more than a dozen different types of city of some valuable food resources like crops grown together, ranging from root to wild pigs, birds, possums, wild fowls. In fruit crops. The variety of food crops you’ll regard to sea food they have to travel (by find at the present time in a typical Tearaka canoe) to an island about three miles away garden are: sweet potato, taro (two from their village to do their fishing. The varieties) yam, banana, tapioca, pitpit, island Casuarina (see Figure 4) is owned by sugar cane, cucumber, water melon, corn, them and is one of the famous fishing aibika and other greens, tomato, spring grounds in the area. onions and tobacco. The staple food crops, The village gardens range from 20 square sweet potato and other crops which take less feet to one square chain and each family time to grow and less time before they are has its own food garden. Some families ready for harvesting occupy more than half may have more than one garden, depending of the garden area. on the size of the family, and in most cases Note that taro was once the staple food in you will find that this is so among men who the area before sweet potato was in­ have more than one wife. The wives provide troduced. The reasons why taro was drop­ the necessary labour. ped as the staple food crop were first Before the introduction of major cash because it takes a much longer period crops, namely, coconuts and cocoa, the before it is ready for harvesting; secondly, virgin forest occupied 87 per cent of total taro grows best only on virgin land. Further­ village land, ten per cent was used for food more, taro grows best on loamy soils and gardens, two per cent for pigs and one per coastal villages like Tearaka, if they want to cent for the village settlement. Even though grow taro, they have to move about a mile the village land was made up of different inland to make their taro gardens. Some, of land-ownership, each family, individuals or course, make their taro gardens quite near a group had its own choice of where to the village but the results have always been make the food gardens. However, a garden poor. In Wakunai region the mountain and could be made on somebody’s land only if hill people grow the best taro. permission were granted by the owner. (continued on page 48) Gardens which were made on somedody’s land without the owner’s approval might be disputed and payment of compensation would be made. There were some occasions when the village people would combine to make big gardens. This was done specially as preparation for a feast or other ceremonial activities. Different clans would come together for that purpose. The head­ men of each clan in the village would meet and decide about the location of these gar­ dens, then the young men of each clan would be summoned and told where to make these new gardens. Their work would be to clear the bush and leave it to dry; after it was burnt and cultivated, the women would then do the necessary planting. The heads, because of their positions in the village, do not have to do any physical work at all. They only sit back in the village, chat, chew betelnut and advise the young men and women of what they have to do.

CULTIVATION METHODS The methods used are the same as many areas of Papua New Guinea and are largely swidden or shifting cultivation. This involves cleaning of forest or bush, which is then left to dry and then burnt. Then it is ready for planting; however, planting methods differ from one crop to another. Some are propagated by seeds and others by stalk, for

SOUTH PACIFIC BULLETIN. FIRST QUARTER. 1977 Page 11 Observations On The Generation Of Methane

By M. ISMAN, Lecturer in Rural Engineering at the institute National Agronomique, Paris and C. RICHARD, SPC Public Health Engineer.

This article first appeared as SPC Information dition, when the substance thus formed is sub­ Circular No. 75, published in September 1976, and sequently flooded with liquid manure containing is reprinted here because of its widespread in­ methane bacteria, and the tank closed, aerobic terest to the area. fermentation can start with highly active ther- mophlic bacteria at a temperature of around 55°C. Maintaining a temperature of this order is Shortly after the publication of SPC Handbook no doubt difficult in Europe, but can be achieved No. 13 on the recycling of animal wastes fairly easy in most tropical areas. (available in French only) the author of the Hand­ book was invited to take part in an International Daily gas output increases sharply at the begin­ Conference on Science and Technology in the ning, then decreases gradually after reaching a Service of Developing Countries held at the peak. The duration of the complete cycle varies UNESCO Building, Paris, in May 1976. according to the temperature at which anaerobic fermentation occurs. It has often proved, in prac­ The Conference was the forum for a broad ex­ tice, to be approximately one-and-a-half months. change of views between developing countries, (17 Prolonged trials conducted by KOVACS at African countries, and 16 from Asia, South Godollo University of Budapest (Hungary) showed America etc.) and those providing technical that optimum results were achieved with three to assistance (22 European and North American four days of aerobic pre-fermentation, im­ countries). Energy production and the control of mediately followed by four weeks of anaerobic all forms of pollution were among the main fermentation (in this case at a temperature of 35° topics. A particularly interesting technical with mesophilic bacteria). discussion concerned the use, in developing coun­ tries, of solar energy based on photosynthesis and For the purpose of the trials, a series of eight methane fermentation. This subject, presented by concrete tanks, each of a capacity of ten m3 was Mr Isman, coincides with the areas of interest of used to process the manure produced by 60 to 70 the Public Health Engineer and Waste Digester head of large cattle. Production ranged from 1 to Specialist of the Commission. 1.5 m3 per animal a day, and amounted to more than 400 m3 per cubic metre of tank capacity per Consultation between the two authors of this year. Circular at the conference has shed new light on differences in methods, and enabled a number of The liquid manure recovered after fermentation details to be clarified. It should be mentioned that- is used as a leavening agent to activate a further research in France has thus far focussed on a dif­ tank-load, and the remaining drained solid matter ferent procedure from that developed by the as a normal fertilizing additive. Thus, the entire South Pacific Commission. The French method fermentation cycle can occur in a single tank; was designed for processing of strawy: stable-litter however, to accommodate farm effluent ar­ steeped in excrement. Periodically, the digester is riving in a continuous stream, and to stabilize completely emptied and refilled, both operations gas output, a series of tanks loaded by rotation being conducted with forks or claws; whereas, in must be used. Though this may at first sight ap­ digesters in the Pacific, the effluent — obtained pear to be a drawback, the system is in fact far from the cleaning of piggeries and poultry farms more reliable than a single digester. Thus, two — flows in and out continuously. distinct systems are available to date; their ap­ plicability and advantages differ. The wet strawy manure is first placed in an open tank for aerobic fermentation lasting about The system used in the Pacific can be made to one week. This duration can be considerably operate with relatively inexpensive neoprene bag- reduced (to less than 48 hours in some cases) by type digesters, and with a continuous input. On providing a system which blows air into the bot­ the other hand, it involves risks of fermentation tom of the tank. failure, formation of clots, scums, crusts, and deposits, and in addition only sludgy liquid can be The main purpose of pre-fermentation is to processed. eliminate the risk of acidification imparing the subsequent methane-producing fermentation. A The second method requires greater initial further advantage is that the contents of the tank outlay, but this is offset by its ability to process a can quickly be heated to 70° or 75° C: at this very wide range of organic vegetal wastes (a temperature, many parasite and pathogenic germs feature often recommended by the Waste Digester are killed, reducing the risk of pollution. In ad­ Specialist and the Public Health Engineer of the

SOUTH PACIFIC BULLETIN. FIRST QUARTER. 1977 Commission), without incurring any of the risks mentioned above. Though cereal mulch or hay may not necessarily be available it is generally possible, in most of the Pacific Islands, to find mown grass, fallen leaves, kunai (wild straw), water hyacinths, vegetable peelings, etc. AGENTS A further point worth mentioning is that aerobic fermentation is odourless, does not attract flies and can, if necessary, be conducted under a protective wire-mesh cover, or even in a closed tank provided that it is suitably ventilated. For the WANTED moment, each of the two methods meets distinct needs. It is however possible that by combining Leading Australian Manufacturer features of both a system responding adequately to all requirements will be found. of veterinary products and Animal Feed Supplements Concerning the use of the gas, if was pointed out at the Paris Conference that biogas is requires Agents throughout relatively easy to purify, and can in addition be used directly in conventional appliances running Pacific Islands and Papua New on natural gas. Larger consumers would be Guinea. justified in compressing the gas for storage in cylinders. Purification concerns only CCL. (generally 30 to 35 per cent of biogas). It is im­ portant to note that there is no H 2 S, provided prefermentation is sufficently thorough; it is, in any case, even more soluble than CO2 and would therefor be eliminated during washing of the gas. Write to: RURAL CHEMICAL INDUSTRIES PTY. LTD., The conclusion to these remarks on the produc­ “BILBIMBIE”, Harrison’s Lane, Glenorie, tion of methane from organic matter which, in its NSW 2157, Australia. Telephone: (02)652-1171. raw state, is an undesirable polluter of nature, is that the experimental phase is to continue in a Cables: RUEX, Sydney. Telex: 22319. great number of countries, without, however, being divorced from practical aspects which have already been put to widespread use in certain parts of the world — Asia and Africa in par­ ticular. It is encouraging to note that farmers on The role of the officers of the Commission, in all levels are putting Findings into practical ap­ collaboration with research workers and plication without waiting for the inevitably technicians from the territories and countries in delayed official publication of results. A fine the area, will be to work towards improvements example is a small-scale rabbit breeder near Paris, in the various systems, adapting them to con­ who already has a fully operating installation. ditions in the South Pacific.

Cap.: 15 m3

material Neoprene

K~ 4,20m -1 BAG-DIGESTER

SOUTH PACIFIC BULLETIN. FIRST QUARTER. 1977 Page 13 Disaster preparedness the South Pacific

A Paper presented at the South Pacific Disaster Preparedness and Relief Seminar, Suva, Fiji, in September, 1976.

By JAM ES LEWIS, Dister Research Unit University of Bradford/Commonwealth Secretariat.

created a 15-foot wave at Kadavu, killed two EARTHQUAKES people and wrecked many boats.

In June 1917, an earthquake on Upolu, The earthquake which occured in Novem­ W estern Samoa, registered 8.3 on the ber 1970 at Madang in what was then Nor­ Richter Scale and caused considerable thern New Guinea, was recorded at a mag­ damage to buildings in Apia, causing fires, nitude of 7.1 on the Richter Scale, and ef­ creating landslides and initiating a tsunami fects of it were felt over an area of 10,000 which demolished a sea wall at Lotofaga square kilometres. Its damage was assessed and flooded houses and plantations. at the time at almost $A1,750,000. Taking ac­ count of inflation that sum would now be SA2V2 million. Many landslides caused TSUNAMIS damage to buildings, services and crops and a submarine cable was broken; 15 people lost their lives. A tsunami initiated by a Chilean earth quake in 1960 created sea waves of bet­ On September 14, 1953, Suva and South­ ween one and two metres in height along the East Viti Levu of Fiji experienced an ear­ coast of Bouganiville, New Britain and thquake which was followed by a tsunami. mainland coastlines of Papua New Guinea. The earthquake was felt over an area of 340 Another tsunami to affect San Christobal square miles and registered 6.75 on the Richter Scale. There was much damage to had a recorded wave height of between four property and 60 miles of trans-Pacific sub­ and 20 metres and destroyed 18 villages marine cable were carried away by a giant killing 50 people. slide of the ocean floor. Suva wharf, badly damaged by hurricane in 1952 was severely A tsunami in 1930 in the Ninigo Island damaged for a second time; the accom­ group of Papua New Guinea caused waves panying tsunami, 50 feet high at the reef up to ten metres high, wrecked villages and and generally six feet high thereafter, killed 11 people.

SOUTH PACIFIC BULLETIN, FIRST QUARTER. 1977 Page 14 In 1895, a wave two metres high struck Earthquake, volcanic eruption and tsunami belong to a Buna Bay in what was then East Papua and group o f seimically generated or tectonic disturbances killed 26 people. . which result in disaster. A second and equally significant group are those disasters caused by atmospheric distur­ But what is said to have been the most bance. disastrous tsunami yet known in Papua New Guinea resulted from the volcanic explosion of Ritter Island in 1888 and has been com­ pared to the overwhelming tsunami which HURRICANES followed the Krakatoa (Indonesia) eruption of 1883, one of the world’s worst disaster One of the earliest records of serious ef­ events: waves up to 12 metres high resulted. fects of hurricane comes from the Cook Islands where a coasting schooner was In the Cook Islands, a tsunami in 1926 picked up and carried inland over coconut swept right over the island of Palmerston. palms at Rarotonga in 1846.

In 1883, it is recorded that a hurricane at ACTIVE VOLCANOES Apia, Western Samoa, carried seven ships on to the shore and that a ‘slight’ In the Solomon Islands in 1971, the earthquake occurred at the same time. volcanic island of Tinakula erupted and lava poured down from the peak for two months; One of the most severe hurricanes in Fiji the population of 160 had to be evacuated. occurred in 1929 and caused serious damage on Vanua Levu, Rotuma, Mokogai and Gau. The population of Manam Island had to be Several trading vessels were lost, 12 people evacuated in 1958 for eight months while died, crops suffered and there is a contem- flows of hot lava solidified to depths of 50 feet, and 12-inch deposits of ash ruined sub­ sistence gardens.

Probably one of the most catastrophic volcanic eruptions of recent times occurred in Papua New Guinea for six months in 1951 when Mount Lamington sent an avalanche of hot lava sweeping down its slopes with ‘hurricane force velocities.’ Ninety square miles were devastated and secondary ‘micro’ disasters were caused by the flooding of lava-blocked rivers, mud flows and disrupted roadways and river crossings. Five thousand people had to be evacuated and another 4000 people died. In 1937, an eruption of Mount Matupi ad­ jacent to Rabual of New Britain caused the evacuation of Rabaul which was then the capital city and seat of the government of New Guinea.

In 1945, the island of Niuafo’ou in Tonga Mount Lamington in Papua New Guinea erupted was severely damaged by volcanic eruption on 21 January, 1951, throwing a gas column and considerable damage was done to 40,000 feet above the crater. property and crops. Nearly all of govern­ ment headquarters on the island was porary estimate of £60,000 worth of struc­ destroyed including a wireless station, copra tural damage at Labasa (that would be sheds, lighters and £20,000 worth of copra F$132,000 at today’s prices). awaiting shipment. The entire population of 1300 was evacuated to the island of Eua in In 1931, Labasa was again severely the South (but by 1971 half of them had damaged by hurricane which also destroyed returned). Lautoka and 200 lives were lost in sub­ sequent flooding. Niuafo’ou was previously volcanically ac­ tive in 1929 when one town and a third of the More recently in 1960 on Niue, a hurricane cultivated land on the island were com ­ demolished 750 of the 850 houses on the pletely destroyed. island, which again suffered severe hurricane damage in 1968. In Western Samoa, Mount Matavanu on Savai’i erupted intermittently for six years In 1961, Tonga suffered extensive damage between 1905 and 1911 damaging plantations on the islands of Vava’u and Ha’apai where and crops and causing evacuation of many subsistence and export crops suffered villages. severely, housing was damaged, two people

SOUTH PACIFIC BULLETIN. FIRST QUARTER. 1977 Page 15 On April 18, 1926, the fishing village of'Hoopmoa equipment was destroyed, five people were Landing, Hawaii, ivas wiped out when the lava killed, four fishing vessels were wrecked stream from Mauna Loa engulfed it. This and a large section of the coral reef was lif­ remarkable aerial shot shows the flow, 50 feet ted and carried on-shore. On the islands of high and 1500 feet wide, approaching the village. Fiji, ‘Bebe’ was the worst hurricane for 20 years. Over 4000 bures and 2500 houses were died and 8,000 others required emergency totally or partially destroyed with another shelter. 1100 bures and houses slightly damaged and 120,000 people made homeless (a fifth of the Two tropical storms struck Western country’s population) and in need of Samoa in 1966 and 1968 causing severe emergency feeding for six months. Eighteen damage to crops and long term reductions people were killed. Airports were closed and to agricultural exports. out of action, bridges collapsed, roads were broken, telecommunications were disrupted Winds of 100 mph occurred in a hurricane and water pipelines fractured. ‘Bebe’ went which severely damaged port facilities at on to cause lesser damage in the islands of Honiara, Solomon Islands in 1967 and a num­ Tonga and on Niue. ber of villages were also destroyed. Before there had been anywhere near • In 1971, the Solomon Islands were again enough time to recover from hurricane struck by hurricane ‘Ursula’ at Santa Anna ‘Bebe’, Fiji suffered hurricane ‘Juliette’ in and all houses on that island were destroyed April 1973, destroying almost 14,000 bures leaving one person dead, and 2,500 homeless. and houses and having a disastrous effect on the lives of 160,000 people (35 per cent of the But it was in October 1972 (earlier than country’s population). ‘Juliette’ went on to the usual hurricane ‘season’) that one Tonga and caused severe damage to crops, hurricane formation, hurricane ‘Bebe’, af­ housing, schools and churches on seven fected at least four countries. The island of islands and in 17 villages. Funafuti, the principal island of Tuvalu, was the first to be almost completely destroyed In December of the same year (1973), by ‘Bebe’. With winds reaching 180 mph, 95 hurricane ‘Lottie’ struck Kadavu and the per cent of all houses (all but two) on the Southen Lau group of Fijian islands and island were destroyed, and 700 people were destroyed 1400 homes and 40 schools. Fifteen made homeless; all generating and radio thousand people had to be rationed and

Page 16 SOUTH PACIFIC BULLETIN. FIRST QUARTER. 1977 10,000 of them experienced their second occurrences in the South Pacific. As this hurricane in eight months. Two inter-island paper was being prepared an earthquake ships were lost and 74 people were drowned. with a magnitude of 7.1 occurred in Irian, Jaya, the neighbour of Papua New Guinea, The Lau group of islands were again killing 443 people and leaving 3,000 people struck by hurricane ‘Val’ in January 1975 unaccounted for. Two other earthquakes oc­ destroying 75 per cent of homes, severely curred in Indonesia in the same months and damaging 25 schools, and causing 22,000 another in July 1976, an earthquake ocurred people to be rationed for six months. Ten between New Hebrides, New Caledonia and thousand people suffered their third serious Fiji on August 2 and an earthquake in the hurricanes in less than two years. Celebese Sea on August 16 sent a 15-ft. tsunami into the South coast of Mindanao Island of the Philippines killing at least 2,000 DROUGHT people and leaving as many homeless. Japan experienced its worst typhoon in 15 Drought has been by comparison a gentler years in September. Such events are thus and slower disaster event but capable of not events of a distant past but are with us comparable disruption and deprivation. In all the time. We can sadly be sure of them the Gilbert Islands 1916-1917 had a serious and other disaster events occurring in the period of drought during which exports of future. copra were severely reduced. The brief descriptions I have given have Another period of drought is recorded been retrospective. They are a summary of (amongst others) for 1934 when ‘food some of the effects of some past events. producing trees practically ceased to How are we to anticipate disaster events of produce and an outbreak of beri beri and the the future that we know will occur and how lack of fresh food killed a number of are we to mitigate their effects. What is natives.’ disaster? and what, therefore, is prepared­ ness? It is interesting to note that a period of The first part of my question may seem drought during 1973 and 1974 ended a season facile. We of the South Pacific know what of particularly high coconut production af­ disasters are already. But I am going to fected by the high rainfall of 1972-1973 — no suggest that it is insufficient to think of doubt drastically increased by hurricane disasters entirely in terms of the natural ‘Bebe.’ The ending of one disaster for some phenomena which initiates them. What we was brought about by another disaster for have tended to take for granted in our at­ others. titudes to disaster is that they affect us — they affect people. Without people there can­ I have recently attempted to assess the not be a disaster. There can certainly be the total losses from all disasters over the ten- manifestation of extreme natural year period of 1966-1975 for the ten member phenomena, but an earthquake under the countries of the South Pacific Bureau for sea or the volcanic eruptions of an Economic Co-operation (Lewis, 1976). By uninhabited island does not cause a disaster adjusting a summation of recorded losses (assuming there to be no tsunami which is over this period to allow for inflation, a total experienced elsewhere!) of SA37.5 million resulted. That is ap­ proximately ten dollars for each man, woman and child now in those ten countries and represents an annual average loss per country of $A0.375 million, which is 1.15 per cent of the average GNP at market prices for 1973. To these assessments of primary loss must be added assessments for secon­ dary losses caused in particular by evacuation and migration resulting from or exacerbated by natural disasters.

The overall resulting interruption, debilitation and postponement of plans for development are another important area of secondary loss that has yet to be examined in detail. Another factor is the increase in the amount of development since earlier disaster occurances and the present, and the corresponding increase in disaster losses that would accrue now in similar events due to increased development. As development increases so does vulnerability to losses from disaster. A hurricane in Suva in 1958 caused this damage These were some of the results of disaster to coconut trees planted in sandy soil.

Page 17 SOUTH PACIFIC BULLETIN. FIRST QUARTER. 1977 This is not a mere academic observation been developed to answer the need for a because it follows that if people are a precautionary strategy against the results of necessary constituent for disaster then the disaster events, the probability of which is condition and situation of those people, their known. It takes as its base the premise that socio-economic environment that is, is as a government has a responsibility to do all significant, when we come to assess disaster in its power to protect life and property of potential, as is the natural phenomenon it­ its people, to safeguard their health and self (Baird et al, 1975). Extreme natural welfare and to provide public services phenomena are the disaster agent. Disaster essential to the national well-being and com ­ occurs where the agent meets a vulnerable mensurate with the nation’s capacity human settlement (Baird et al, 1975). (Lewis, 1975).

Attention to disaster occurrence by the It is important to emphasise here that just world press and television and by as the disaster potential is conditioned by monitoring systems encourages all of us, as the socio-economic condition of a settlement, outsiders to situations being experienced by so is the capacity for taking precautions. others, to consider disasters as single events The relationship of disaster impact and of one kind or another. The potential victim, disaster precautions with the development on the other hand, the insider in his process is now therefore clearly apparent vulnerable settlement, finds himself in a and there are now two approaches, continual state of risk from disasters of all simultaneous and not alternative ap­ and whatever kind all of the time. His loss proaches, to precautionary planning. One is and deprivation is assured at each oc­ to attend to the needs of settlements as they currence but the degree of that loss relates exist now. The other is to take steps to to his condition and situation rather more I reduce the vulnerability of future set­ would suggest than to the type of the tlements or the vulnerability of development natural event. In any case he is affected in that has not already taken place. To under­ much the same way, in terms of his take either one without attention to the other deprivation, whatever ‘type’ of disaster has would be an inadequate response. occurred. In human terms as well as socio­ economic values, ‘disaster’ is common from This is important because if the socio­ whatever the cause. economic condition is to be changed then the development process must be aware of Natural events which lead to disaster are disaster potential and its own capacity to therefore an extreme manifestation of a reduce or exacerbate that potential. day-to-day situation. Vulnerability to disaster Development has within its power the is the degree by which a community is at risk to capacity to reduce vulnerability in the long extreme natural phenomena which it has not the term (Baird et al. 1975). This capacity to capacity to absorb (Westgate 1976). It is day- reduce vulnerability in the long term is a to-day therefore because: principal part of what has been called ‘disaster prevention’.

1. The state of hazard condition is con­ Disaster prevention may be described as tinuous. measures designed to prevent natural 2. Disaster potential is conditioned by the phenomena from causing or resulting in socio-economic condition of settlements disaster. which is subject to adjustment continually. Although it is a term I use daily, I find it Furthermore, the taking of precautions difficult to accept until clarified by an against disaster occurs before the disaster analogy to preventive medicine. It seems to occurrence, but more realistically because me to be presumptious in the extreme, even there will usually have been previous in the terms of which I have described the disasters, precautions take place between disaster process, to assume the capacity to disasters. Therefore, and thirdly, totally prevent disaster. Mitigation is to me precautions have to be continuous and day- a more appropriate explanation of this im­ to-day as: portant part of precautionary planning.

3. Precaution is the manifestation of Disaster preparedness may be described awareness of the continual hazard state. as action designed to minimise loss of life and dam age, and to organise and facilitate Precaution for disaster is therefore an timely and effective rescue, relief and aspect of planning and is part of what has rehabilitation in cases of disaster which can­ been called predisaster planning or just sim­ not be avoided. ply precautionary planning. Disaster prevention and disaster Precautionary planning is the policy of im­ preparedness, relief and rehabilitation go plementation over time which sets as its objective closely together to form the comprehensive the mitigation of the effects of disaster by a com­ concept of precautionary planning. Ac­ prehensive co-ordination of indigenous resources tivities under these headings can be related and infrastructure (Westgate, 1976). As an ap­ to the time phases of a disaster occurrence. plied science precautionary planning has These phases are:

P»Oe 18 SOUTH PACIFIC BULLETIN. FIRST QUARTER, 1977 Prevention, Warning (where any is ces of supplies and materials for normal use possible^, Strike, Emergency, Relief, by governments and the private sector Rehabilitation and Reconstruction. which, when scheduled and precoordinated with information on ownership, accessibility These phases are of variable and indeter­ and payment will be a most important and minate time and diffuse in operation and immediately effective local relief source. It they will vary according to location and to is unlikely that all would be lost in the disaster. disaster occurrence, there will be useful areas adjacent to the area most severely In relating the activities of precautions to hit, which is why this principle becomes par­ these time phases, it is clear that some can ticularly valuable in a regional or sub­ be carried out in preparation for a disaster regional grouping of islands or island that will occur in the near future, while groups. others, these for relief and rehabilitation, cannot be carried out until the disaster has The activities of the reconstruction period, occurred and actual conditions are known. which follows those of relief and rehabilitation, are devoted to the permanent Precautions to be taken before disaster oc­ currence can be related to two principal areas. First, land use and building construc­ tion which have been called physical precautions. Secondly, those precautions relating to the preparation of warnings, the promulgation of warnings and associated ad­ vice to achieve a desired and most effective response, attention to particularly vulnerable communities or individuals and the provision of emergency shelter, feeding and first aid. These have been called social precautions (Lewis, 1975b), and include the preparation of information for ad­ ministrators, the public and for schools. This second group are aspects of disaster preparedness.

So prevention and preparedness are the taking of precautions beforehand, which can be classified as:

Physical precautions Social precautions Contingency planning.

Relief is the execution of activities, pre­ This is typical of the wreakage among Samoan identified within the precautionary planning houses when a hurricane struck on 29-30 January process, to restore bodily needs to disaster 1966. ' victims. These bodily needs are: provision of housing and the restoration of Treatment of wounds life-support systems, and supporting ser­ Potable water vices of water, power, sewage disposal, Edible food transport and communication. This is a necessarily much larger period and is the Simple shelter phase during which precautions for sub­ Warmth sequent disaster can and must be incor­ Sanitation porated.

The first three examples of first aid, The activities which relate to each of water and food are immediate bodily needs these phases of operation can be further and are required in order to stop further analysed and identified and related to roles loss of life They belong to the Emergency for personnel in government and non-gover­ period. The latter three examples ot nment organisations. Thus an ad­ emergency shelter, warmth and sanitation ministrative structure, initiated and co-or­ are the commencement of a process to dinated by government, consisting mostly of restore temporary facilities without which existing roles and responsibilities, can serious secondary loss would occur These emerge as a programme precautionary belong to the phase of Rehabilitation. planning to be applied and executed in whole or in part. The whole programme A particularly significant aspect of con­ must be first identified so that sectoral or tingency planning is the identification and mono-disciplinary activity can proceed assessment of indigenous resources (Lewis, within and as part of the whole without 1975a). In any location there will be resour­ resulting in counter-productivity or incom­

SOU T Cine BULLETIN. FIRST QUARTER. 1977 Page 19 patibility. What is important to emphasise is REFERENCES that the programme emerges from within at BAIRD, A .,O ’ K E E FE , P., WESTGATE, K., national, provincial and local levels and WISNER, B. (1975). Towards an Ex­ because it is based on an analysis of planation and Reduction of Disaster physical and administrative resources it is Proneness. Occasional Paper No. 11, immediately commensurate with what is Disaster Research Unit, University of available. Bradford. Further and critically important con­ LEWIS, J. (1975a). Proposals for a Working Method sideration of indigenous resources leads me of Indigenous Resource Co-ordination as to mention the most valuable resource of Part of a Predisaster Plan. Occasional all: the skills, innovation and resour­ Paper No. 3, Disaster Research Unit, cefulness of people. If this powerful resource University of Bradford. is not to be overwhelmed and lost it seems LEWIS, J. (1975b). A Study in Predisaster Planning. to me to be of paramount importance for Occasional Paper No. 10, League of the adaptability of relief aid. which can be Red Cross Societies / Disaster expected sooner or later to be considered as Research Unit, University of Brad­ a matter of policy as part of the preplanning ford. process. We hear a lot nowadays of how aid programmes have increased, rather than LEWIS J. (1976). A Report of a Pilot Study to Establish Guidelines for the Management decreased, dependency. The same is true of of a Regional Fund to Provide Insurance relief aid, and the dangers of unplanned for Natural Disaster. Commonwealth relief-aid are even more real. In a sense it is Secretariat/South Pacific Bureau for consideration of indigenous resource in Economic Co-operation/Disaster Research Unit, University of Brad­ reverse, not in terms of capacity to provide, ford. but in its capacity to absorb outside sup­ plies. WESTGATE, K.N. O’K E E FE , P. (1976). Some Definitions of Disaster. Occasional The countries of the South Pacific can Paper No. 4, Disaster Research Unit, demonstrate a considerable awareness and University of Bradford. c a considerable degree of preparedness direc­ tly related to devastating disaster experien­ ferme ces — some of which I have described. Most NEW C6C6A NTRY significant has been the estabishment of a Regional Disaster Fund by the ten-country IN FIJI WILL BE CHEAPER, member South Pacific Bureau for Economic QUICKER THANKS TO Co-operation (SPEC) based in Suva. The fund was commenced by a donation from LOCAL MATERIALS the republic of Nauru and is contributed to annually and equally by member govern­ A new cocoa fermentry being built at ments and additionally by neighbouring or Logani, in the Bau district will mean a interested governments and organisations. It quicker and cheaper turnover of dried cocoa will be used as oil for the machinery of beans for the farmers in the area. The regional, sub-regional and national in­ Ministry of Agriculture in collaboration with digenous relief; it is itself an aspect of the District Administration and Rural precautionary planning and a catalyst for Development is building the drier to many other aspects. It is the first fund of its streamline cocoa bean processing in the kind to have become established and is a Central Division. striking example of initiative with enormous potential from within the region. Mr. Ray Paris, a V.S.O. attached to the Commissioner Central Division, is super­ The working guidelines for the fund are vising construction of the project financed contained in a Pilot Study Report (Lewis by a $1,500 grant under New Zealand aid. 1976) which has recently received accep­ tance by the SPEC Committee. The applied Commenting on the project, Mr. Paris science of precautionary planning for said: “ On approval of funds, we selected a natural disaster is still in its infancy. It can site and made arrangements for work to be no more than five years old. We are all begin. We are using voluntary labour from still feeling our way in spite of the attentions cocoa farmers. Timber will be the mam being paid to the problems of disaster structural component; about 75 per cent will throughout the world. World attention there be local unsawn timber from nearby areas now certainly is, and interest and activity and about $250 worth of sawn timber. The here in the problems caused by disaster in use of local material will help cut down the countries of the South Pacific is a sig­ costs immensely. Final cost is estimated at nificant part of that world attention. World $1 ,100 .” attention is a reciprocal process between regions, and between nations, and between The capacity of the drier will be about organisations of the world. The countries five tons which will be more than adequate and organisations represented in the South for the maximum demand at the height of Pacific I see as essential partners of this the cocoa season anticipated in the area. It process. . will be simple and will have a timber oven fire.

Page 20 SOUTH PACIFIC BULLETIN. FIRST QUARTER, 1977 NEW FIJI HATCHERY WILL PRODUCE HEALTHY CHICKS The brand new egg hatching machine stead of the normal cardboard boxes which recently installed by Mr. Sam Prasad at his have a capacity of 50 only. Nausori hatchery will mean that many poultry farmers in Fiji will now breed bet­ He said he could supply 75 per cent of the ter, healthy young chickens. Many farmers local demand for day-old-chicks. In fact, the who have received day-old chicks hatched demand for the whole of the Central out by the new machine reduced their mor­ Division, Northern Division and a part of tality rate to as low as one per cent. the Western Division could be met. The new Harrison Jamesway Single Stage Incubator System was bought from Australia at a cost of $30,000. The machine NEW SPC ENGUSH can hatch out 20,000 eggs in one week or 1 LANGUAGE TEACHING SPECIALIST million eggs per year. The twelve old machines previously used by Mr Prasad were only producing 10,000 chickens per Graeme Coates has been appointed Language week. Teaching Specialist (English) with SPC. He is based at SPC's Regional English Teaching Centre in Suva, Fiji. Mr. Prasad said the machine was one of the most modern in the world as far as Mr. C oates holds BA and MA degrees and a Diploma poultry hygiene was concerned. He said far­ in Teaching English as a Second Language from Victoria mers would directly benefit from good University of Wellington, New Zealand. He taught for chickens and Fiji needed something like some years in New Zealand, this. The poultry industry was building up England and France and then and the demand for chickens was in­ returned to New Zealand to work creasing. He said: “We imported this with the Islands Education machine in order to improve our hygiene Division in Wellington on the and to lower the mortality rate among our production o f English teaching chickens. Previously with the old hatchery materials for Island schools. the mortality rate used to be very high. During this period he visited Niue Eggs were not properly stacked inside. This and the Cook Islands to test resulted in a lot of infection. Many farmers reading materials in the are happy with the chickens they now classroom. receive from here.” From 1968 to 1971, Mr. GRAEME COATES Mr. Prasad’s modern hatchery and Coates was Head o f the English poultry farm at Waila, Nausori is a $100,000 Department at Ratu Kadavulevu investment. Equipped with latest equipment School, Fiji. There he was responsible for planning and usually found in similar plants overseas, he organising the English curriculum, the library, the produc­ said it was a worthwhile investment. tion o f school plays and editing o f the school magazine. In 1971, Mr. Coates joined the Curriculum Unit o f the Fiji Explaining more about the hatchery, Mr. Ministry of Education as a Resource Writer. His duties in­ Prasad said, “ The eggs come in at the end cluded advising on the linguistic suitability of English of the building, fumigated with formalin and materials for primary schools; the ed:,'ng and writing o f potassium and are then stored in the freezer environmental booklets; visits to schools; participation in before they are transferred to the setter and planning o f in-service courses; and, at times, where eggs are conditioned for 18 days. assisting with the writing o f materials for the United They spend another three days at the hat­ Nations Development Programme's English Project for the chery before farmers receive their day-old- South Pacific. chicks. The idea of putting the eggs in the cooler is to improve the hatchability and kill From 1974 to 1976, Mr. Coates taught at Sogeri any germs which may be present in the Senior High School in Papua New Guinea, where he was shells. “ Our workforce in the hatchery will responsible for curriculum planning, drama, and the be reduced considerably. We do not want too teaching o f various aspects o f English to Fifth and Sixth many people moving unnecessarily all over Formers. He is familiar with materials already developed the place. When people come to start work, for teaching English as a second language in the Pacific. they will have a shower, change to clean His duties in the new post will include the provision of overall and gumboots — they will only work advice and assistance with English language-teaching at here and not on the farm. This will the primary and intermediate levels; preparation o f drastically reduce infection.” audio-visual materials to supplement the Tate Oral English Syllabus (used in most Island schools); Mr. Prasad has also imported plastic preparation of basic texts, supplementary readers; boxes for use in the distribution of day-old- teachers' handbooks, pupils' workbooks and controlled chicks to farmers. These boxes, which are composition materials; and the organisation o f meetings well ventilated, can hold 100 chickens in­ and courses with English language teaching.

Page 21 SOUTH PACIFIC BULLETIN. FIRST QUARTER. 197T THE MUSEUM OF TAHITI AND THE ISLANDS

By ANNE LAVONDES, Curator of the Museum of Tahiti and the Islands, Ethnologist at ORSTOM.

Museum of Tahiti and the Islands Until recently, no suitable premises were available for the collections of Papeete The plan calls for division of work into Museum; these were entrusted, for purposes two stages, the first of which was to com­ of conservation, maintenance and display, to prise a conference room, an office, a the SociStS des Etudes OcSaniennes (Society for cafeteria, an entry hall and four permanent South Pacific Studies). From 1963 to 1971, display rooms. The administration offices, work was confined to the compilation of a laboratories, storage premises, disinfection detailed catalogue firstly of artifacts room, workshop, library and archives, and procured by the museum from 1917 onwar­ temporary display rooms will make up the ds, and subsequently of recent acquisitions. second stage. In 1971, some of the collections of the museum were seen to advantage in an Funding for the first stage of the project exhibition entitled ‘The Polynesian and the was approved by the Territorial Assembly Sea,’ held at the Tourist Development Of­ in 1969. Work began in 1971, and is now, in fice. 1976, nearing completion. A few changes Yet, plans for the building of a new have been made in the initial plan: museum had been in the offing as early as 1965. The proposed site was a 4-hectares 1. Construction of accommodation for the piece of land purchased by the Territory at head guardian. Punaauia on the West Coast of Tahiti, 15 kms from Papeete, in a bay near the mouth 2. Alterations to the cafeteria which will of the Punaruu Rivet. Though the site, with not be used as such for the time being, its narrow stony beach, is on the waterfront, but as an office and two small facing a pass in the reef, it is known as a storerooms. sheltered spot, out of reach of hurricanes and tidal waves. The scenery is of great An additional office has been placed at the beauty; to the west the site overlooks the entry of the conference room. sea and the island of Moorea, with a view of mountains and the Punaruu valley to the The buildings completed to date form a east. The attractive coastal vegetation single block, reflecting the style of recently- (coconut palms, Casuarina, Hibiscus tiliaceus, constructed public buildings in the mango trees etc.) has been preserved, Territory. Covered walkways link up the whenever possible, during the construction outer parts of the buildings. The exhibition of the museum. block comprises four rooms opening into each other, with one entry and one exit. The project was designed by two Papeete Maximum advantage is taken of natural architects, Michel Prevot and Christian lighting by means of large bay windows, Reguad. From 1965 to 1969, it was on several and by skylights giving diffused central occasions discussed and modified during a lighting. In addition, a mobile artificial series of meetings between various lighting system mounted on a rail will be in­ territorial representatives and two stalled. It has not yet been possible to equip museologists, Bengt Danielsson and Anne the rooms with air conditioning. Ventilation LavondSs. is provided by a continuous band of louvre

Page 22 SOUTH PACIFIC BULLETIN. FIRST QUARTER, 1977 windows between the ceiling and the top of coming of the first European navigators and the walls. missionaries, and their first contacts, will also be shown in this third room. Work on the garden is now in progress. Initially, planting will take place only in the The fourth and last room is to illustrate immediate vicinity of the buildings, pride of the post-European history of Tahiti: historic place going to native plants fulfilling a events, recollections of a leading Tahitian useful role in the traditional Polynesian life­ family, of a 19th-century trading post, and style. of the presence of the Chinese, the develop­ ment of the town and port of Papeete, The department of archeology and current social and demographic structure. ethnology is becoming operational. Metal cabinets and shelving have been placed in Experts will be responsible for each of the the storeroom to accommodate the artifacts elements of the display. Under the direction which are gradually being moved from the of Mr Bernard Salvat, the Natural History former museum to the new one. The Museum will prepare the exhibits on nature marking, registering, description and and the environment; Mr. JosG Garanger, of measuring of artifacts are now carried out the CNRS*, and Mr. Bertrand Gerard, of in the new building. Plans for the interior of ORSTOM, will be in charge of the ar­ the public display rooms are being cheological section. The section dealing with prepared. Window design and interior traditional Polynesian societies has been en­ decoration have been entrusted to a Paris trusted to the author. architect and interior decorator, Mr. RenG Dessirier. Father Patrick O’Reilly, representing the Christian ecumenical association Tenete, Exhibits are to be laid out in such a way will be entirely responsible for the section as to form an on-going progression, in­ tegrating the various disciplines. Part of the first room will be used to provide an in­ troduction to the natural environment in Eastern Polynesia: the formation of raised islands, and of atolls; marine and terrestrial fauna, flora; data on ecology and environ­ mental protection. Part of this information, in particular that concerning fauna, will be presented as a continuous display of slides. Then com es the appearance of man in Eastern Polynesia: the plants and animals which the original Ploynesians brought with them, and a description of the main sites, which, today, provide clues to Polynesian pre-history (stratigraphic and former village sites, religious structures, marcte etc. To this will be added a number of ex­ planatory panels giving information on modern approaches to archeology and Stool lor the use of the chief during ceremonies associated disciplines (physical an­ at the Marae, Tuamotu. thropology, mineralogy, palynology, linguistics etc.). A simulated stratigraphic covering history. Continuity throughout will excavation will be visible from the inside of be provided by an original system of the museum through one of the windows. showcases, each of which is specifically designed in accordance with the exhibit it Day-to-day life — canoes, fishing, gar­ contains, created by Mr. RenG Dessirier. dening, tools, woven ware, clothes and or­ naments — will be displayed in the second As may be inferred, the museum is for the room. Living quarters, furniture, food moment only partially operational. Its staff preparation and medicine will be recon­ consists of: stituted in the centre of the room. The third room will contain information on the Director: Henry LavondGs population and social structures of Tahiti at the time of the arrival of the Europeans; a Curator: Anne LavondGs three-dimensional model will be used to point out the former relations between living Administrative assistant also responsible for space and ownership, social and family secretariat work: Yvonne Chung structures and socio-religious organization as determined by the sites of the marae The permanent full-time assistant curator under first part of this room will also feature for­ training: Hiro Ouwen mer religious artifacts, especially wooden and stone sculptures (tiki), and will illustrate games and leisure activities, and war. The • French national centre for scientific research.

SOUTH PACIFIC BULLETIN FIRST QUARTER. 1B77 Page 23 temporary part-time assistant curator: Marc Pom are

guardian: Etienne Faatau, whose wife is temporarily responsible for maintenance of the part of the museum which is in use.

The museum will of course have to in­ crease its staff once it is opened to the public; a second guardian, a switchboard operator, and an assistant for the sale of tickets, postcards and brochures will be required.

The museum is a public establishment, having the legal status of an incorporated, financially independent body. For the moment it is wholly financed by subsidies from the Territory. It is controlled by a board of directors made up of various representatives of Jearned societies (in par­ ticular the Sociitt des Etudes Oceaniennes), Museum of Tahiti and the Islands: display room elected representatives (Territorial Assem­ bly and Government Council), civil servants responsible for departments to which the ac­ tivities of the museum are relevant (Tourism, Education) and, lastly, scientific personalities.

It is hoped that local staff will in the future be in a position to undertake respon­ sibility for the running and management of StoTie carving (ti’i), Tahiti the museum. Tahitian students are now receiving specialized training in France and it is by no means impossible that one of them may shortly be able to take over.

We have often been asked when the museum will be made open to the public. It is difficult to give an accurate answer, since much remains to be done: completion of work, preparation of showcases, roadworks etc. However, the historical section at least will probably be ready by early 1977. To celebrate the completion of this first stage, the Tenete Association will organize a festival of religious chants at the museum, o

Original text: French

Wooden Statuette, Marquesas Islands

Wooden Tiki, Marquesas Islands. Nukuhtra, 134 cm. Bone head ornament. Marquesas Islands.

Stone lamp known as “ witches' lamp” , Tahiti

SOUTH PACIFIC BULLETIN. FIRST QUARTER. 1977 Pao« 25 7th International CONGRESS Of DIETETICS The 7th International Congress of Dietetics is to be held in Sydney, Austraia, If you May 4-10, 1977. It will be jointly hosted by the Australian Association of Dietitians and are in the Pacific the New Zealand Dietetic Association. The theme of the Congress is Dietetics Around the World and the sessions will include current for BUSINESS . . . happenings and innovations in the areas of nutrition education, food administration, clinical nutrition, applied dietetics and com ­ munity programmes. The official opening of the Congress will be held at the Sydney Opera House when orations will be presented by Sir Basil Het- zel. Chief, CSIRO, Division of Human Nutrition, on Nutrition Problems in In­ dustrialized Societies and by Professor Eric Saint, Dean, Faculty of Medicine, University of Queensland on The Social Role of the Dietitian in the Modern World with a keynote address on Dietitians Around the World to be presented by Dr. Jean McNaughton, of F.A.O., Rome. Topics to be presented include: Nutrition Basic Approach in the Social or PLEASURE . . . Sciences — Communication, Motivation, Education and Evaluation Removing the Mysteries from Food Ser­ vices Clinical Nutrition Heart Disease Diabetes Obesity Child Health Evaluation of Community Nutrition Programmes Dietetics in the Future Youth Programme Share and Compare Sessions Key Speakers from overseas include: Mr. Andreas Fuglesang, Secretariat of Habitat. United Nations, New York. Dr. Volker Pudel, University of Goet­ tingen, West Germany, Mrs Virginia Stucky, Kansas, U.S.A. Mme. Gertrude Bernard. Montreal, Canada. Branchesat: Srta. Ruth Grigorowistch. Sao Paulo, Suva, Sigatoka, Nadi, Lautoka. The Bank of New Zealand offers a complete commercial and personal banking service Brazil. Ba and Labasa. in the Pacific for residents, travellers and Ms. Marie Gabriel, American Dietetic Agencies in Fiji at: overseas businesses. These include: Export and Import Facilities—Currency Exchange Association, Chicago, U.S.A., Marks St., Cumming St., Walu —Financial Transactions—Trade Informa Bay, Lami, Nausori, Navua, tion and Introductions—Collections and Dr. Maurice Mishkell, Hamilton General Deuba, Namaka (Nadi), Market Payments—Travellers’ Cheques—Letters of Credit—Safe Custody—General Advisory Hospital, Ontario, Canada. (Lautoka), Tavua, Nasea Service—Travel Arrangements. Bookings, Dr. Clifford Tasman-Jones, University of (Labasa), Savu-savu. A 24- etc.—Savings Bank Facilities in New Zea hour agency service operates iand, Fiji, Western Samoa end Tonga. Auckland. New Zealand, at Nadi International Airport. Frau W Aign. Institute of Nutrition, Represented at APIA: Giessen, West Germany, (Bank ol Western Samoa) Dr. Derrick Jellife, University of Califor­ Represented at NUKU'ALOFA: nia, Los Angeles. U.S.A. (Bank of Tonga) Dr. Peter Greaves, UNICEF. New Delhi, India, Dr. Florentino Solon, Nutrition Centre oT Bank of the Philippines, Dr. Ian Prior. Wellington Hospital. New Zealand. Mile. Yvonne Serville, National Institute New Zealand of Health and Medical Research, Paris, «*J7 Established in the Pacific Islands since 1876 France, Professor Stewart Truswell, University of London. U K

Page ?6 SOUTH PACIFIC BULLETIN FIRST QUARTER 1977 Virus against Coconut Rhinoceros Beetles in Fiji

By DR. O . BEDFORD, Insect Ecologist in the UN — SPC Rhinoceros Beetle Project, Koronivia Research Station, Nausori, Fiji.

The coconut palm rhinoceros beetle Oryc- baculovirus group), which attacks O. tes rhinoceros L. occurs throughout South rhinoceros, was discovered in Malaysia by East Asia and in a number of South Pacific HUger (1966). Despite considerable field countries. Adult beetles fly to the central research on O. rhinoceros over many years, crown of a palm, crawl down the axil of a no endemic virus had been reported from young frond and then bore through the heart beetle populations in any territory in the of the palm into the unopened fronds to feed South Pacific region. The virus was released on the sap. The fronds so damaged unfold, in Western Samoa in 1967, Wallis Island and revealing tattering and V-shaped cutting of Tonga in 1970, and on Mauritius in the In­ the leaflets. Palms may be killed by dian Ocean in 1970. In these countries its repeated or heavy beetle attacks. The eggs establishment in the beetle population was are laid, and the larvae develop and pupate followed by a marked and widespread fall in in the tops of dead standing palms, decaying beetle damage to palms. trunks and stumps of coconut or other wood, and heaps of compose, sawdust, manure or As a member of the Project for Research other decomposing vegetable matter. on the Control of the Coconut Palm Rhinoceros beetle, sponsored by the South The beetle was accidentally introduced Pacific Commission and UNDP, I was into the Suva area on Viti Levu, the main associated with work on the virus in Fiji island of the Fiji group, early in 1953 from 1971 to April 1975. The work was (Swaine 1966). An attempt was made to carried out in cooperation with the Fiji eradicate the beetle, but this was unsuc­ Ministry of Agriculture Forestry and cessful, and the Coconut Pests and Diseases Fisheries, and the Coconut Pests and Board was set up to initiate and carry out Diseases Board. an intensive quarantine programme to at­ tempt to prevent the insect from spreading The virus multiplies in the nuclei of the further within the Fiji group. cells of the larval fat body (Huger 1966), and the epithelium of the midgut of the This involved regular treatment of the digestive system in adults (Huger 1973). It central crowns of all palms around port may also occur in adult female genital areas with a BHC insecticide-sawdust mix­ organs. The very active virus multiplication ture, inspection and removal of all breeding in the midgut epithelium of adults means sites around port areas, and searching for that adults become flying virus ‘reservoirs’ beetle stages on all vessels leaving ports in able to deposit infective virus material with infested areas bound for non-infested areas. their excrement in natural breeding sites, However, despite a cumulative expenditure and they thus serve as the main agents in of Fijian $2,182,000 (at least US$2.7 million) the dispersal of the virus. from 1953 to the end of 1971, this campaign did not prevent the beetle from spreading Third instar larvae fed with virus die 15 to and the pest has now become establsihed in 22 days after infection, and the freshly dead many islands of Fiji. larvae contain much new virus material. The rectum is often prolapsed. The virus Over the years, a number of parasites, can break down within one to four weeks at predators and pathogens have been in­ ambient temperature due to heat or bac­ vestigated as possible biological control terial decomposition, but may be preserved agents for O. rhinoceros, but most ultimately indefinitely in dead larvae kept deep frozen. proved unsuccessful due to their failure to Under experimental conditions, laboratory- become established or their inability to bred adults, when infested, live for about exert a significant controlling effect on the 24 days, while similar adults, unifected, live beetle population. for about 70 days, and infected females lay Then in 1964, the virus Rhabdionvirus oryc- fewer eggs than non-infected ones (Zelazny tes Huger (now considered to belong in the 1973). Infected adults defaecate virus into the surrounding medium. Dr. Bedford is at present at the School of Biological Sciences, Sydney Technical College, Production of Virus Broadway, NSW, 2007, Australia. A plastic tote box 61 x 27 x 41 cm was two- Pictures by permission of the Centre for Overseas thirds filled with rotted sawdust (previously Pest Research (crown copyright). steam sterilised) into which eight ground-up

SOUTH PACIFIC BULLETIN. FIRST QUARTER. 1977 P»oe 27 which infestation was discovered. up virus grubs mixed with water, was added larvae, which had died of virus, had been to the compost of each heap and stirred in. mixed. A dose of griseofulvin and captan The heaps simulated breeding sites, to may be mixed in to inhibit development of which beetles were attracted, and in the pathogenic fungus Metarrhizium anisopliae crawling through the compost, they became Metsch. (Sorokin). Some 100-150 healthy lar­ contaminated or infected with the virus. vae were added to the box and allowed to Having visited these release heaps, they feed in the virus-contaminated medium for would move away to spread the virus five to seven days. They were then tran­ elsewhere. sferred to a similar holding box containing These heaps suffered from a number of medium without virus, in which they disadvantages: a large labour force was gradually died off, many of them coming to needed to construct them, or else payments the surface of the medium just before death. had to be made to villagers to set them up; The dead larvae, the bodies of which were the virus dose quickly broke down; the filled with virus material, were removed vegetable matter eventually decayed into daily and transferred to a deep freezer soil and the heaps became unattractive to where they could be stored indefinitely. beetles unless more compost was added; the When virus was required, the larvae were heaps required constant attention, otherwise ground up with water in a homogeniser or they quickly became overgrown with weeds meat mincer. and grass. Another serious hazard was the ability of the coconut log walls to support Methods of Virus Release the breeding of many beetles if not Three methods of releasing virus have adequately supervised. been used, the first evolving into the second, (ii) Split coconut log heaps which was eventually superseded by the The virus dose (10-50 ground-up virus third as the mode of transmission of the grubs in water) was mixed in with one half­ virus became more clearly understood. sack of sawdust, which was tipped on the ground and six to ten lengths of split (i) Artifical compost heap. coconut log each about 1.2 m long were laid This consisted of a heap of decaying side by side on top. To prolong the presence leaves and compost or sawdust, 3-4 m(i) 2 with of virus in the heaps, recently infected live

Page 28 SOUTH PACIFIC BULLETIN. FIRST QUARTER. 1977 field collected larvae, or mass rearing from the egg stage (see Appendix).

Adult beetles were infected as follows: two dead virus grubs were ground up in water to form a mixture which was made up to one litre. Live beetles were dipped or swum in this for about five minutes, then allowed to crawl for 24 hours through about 1 kg of sterilised sawdust in which l/t-l virus grub in 500 cm3 of water had been mixed.

For release at a given site, 30-50 beetles were placed on the ground and allowed to crawl away under logs or into vegetation. They took wing at night.

This method eliminated all the disadvan­ tages of the artificial compost and split log release heaps. The virus-infected beetles dispersed widely between the time of infec- tion/release and death and spread the disease directly into the wild population, contaminating breeding sites which may contain larval broods and other beetles. Virus-infected adults being released. A summary of the methods of virus

grubs could also be added to the sawdust. Beetles were attracted to these artificial breeding sites, entering which they became infected.

While easier to construct than the com­ post heaps, they still had several disadvan­ tages: a large labour input; frequent treat­ ment with virus was needed lest the virus disappear and the heaps turn into actual breeding grounds; the logs rotted away and had to be renewed; the heaps could be overgrown by weeds and creepers. A split-log virus release heap. release throughout Fiji, from its inception in The main disadvantage was that the 1970 to the end of 1974, is shown in Table 1 heaps were only an indirect method of No deliberate releases of virus were made releasing virus, as they depended on the on the islands of Yanuca or Batiki, as it was chance of beetles visiting them before the hoped these islands would serve as controls virus broke down, and the heaps had to in relation to any changes in the rhinoceros compete with more attractive natural beetle situation on virus release islands. breeding sites, such as dead standing palms. Method of testing larvae or adults for Usually, when such heaps were set up, any presence of virus dead standing palms in the vicinity were The bioassay test developed by Zelazny felled with a chain saw to reduce com petition. (1972) was used to test larval or adult specimens for virus. Samples of beetles for testing to confirm the presence of virus in (iii) Release of virus infected adults certain areas were caught with traps baited with the attractant ethyl chrysan- The work of HUger (1973) indicated that themumate Occasionally, breeding sites the virus multiplied in the midgut of the were searched and any O. rhinoceros adults and was defaecated, so it became material found was kept in individual con­ clear adults were the vectors of the disease, tainers for observing or testing. responsible for its spread and transmission. At once it became clear that the simplest, Methods of damage assessment most economical, and most direct method of releasing virus was to infect beetles in the (i) Detailed surveys laboratory and then release them in the field. Beetles may be obtained by field Samples of 20-30 palms were paint-num­ collection, attractant trapping, rearing from bered at various sites. Periodically, the

SOUTH PACIFIC BULLETIN FIRST QUARTER. 1977 Pag* 79 TABLE 1 Summary of Virus Releases in the Fiji Islands Island Method of Release Time release started

Beqa Compost heaps, then changed to split log heaps, then adult releases

Vatulele >•

June 1970 Cakaudrove District Adult release Split log heaps, then adult release Aug. 1970 Kioa Rabi Taveuni Aug. 1973 Qamea Adult release Dec. 1971 Laucala Vanua Levu ” Savusavu to Buca Bay Aug. 1973 Labasa Feb. 1975 Lau Group Aug. 1972 June 1973 Doi Split log heaps May 1972 Koala Split log heaps, then adult release OcL 1972 Ono-i-Lau Dec. 1971

Lomarviti Group

Gau " July 1971 Makogai " Moturiki " » Narai " Ovalau " Nov 1971 Wakaya " July 1972

Mamanuca Group

13 islands •• Dec. 1971

Yasawa Group

Yasawa. Nacula Sept 1971 Kuata. Matacawalevu. Oct 1971 Nanuyalaiai, Naviti. Tavewa. Waya, Wayasewa. Yaqeta Viwa Adult release Feb. 1974

Vrti Levu Feb.-Mar. 1972

Suva-Tamavua Split log heaps, then adult 1000 beetles release from Apr! 1972 Caboni Adult release to March 1973 April 1973 Other sites number of fronds above the horizontal levs. C onfirm ation of virus establishm ent was counted in the crown of each palm, and also the number of fronds which showed In June 1971, 33 natural breeding sites on beetle cuts (Young 1974). Results were ex­ Beqa Island were sampled and two sites (6 pressed as percentage of fronds damaged per cent of sites sampled) each contained for the palms at one site, or a group of sites one adult which was found on bioassay combined. testing to be virus infected. In early Septem­ ber 1971, a further 58 sites were sampled (ii) Rapid surveys and two sites (3 per cent) each contained an infected adult. In March-April 1972, 23 sites Checks were also made on larger samples were sampled and the remains of a dead in­ of palms, in which only the central, upper­ fected adult were found in one site. Fifty six most 3-4 fronds of the crown, that is, the breeding sites were sampled on Vatulele most recently opened ones, were considered. Island in May 1971 and one site (2 per cent) Palms were scored as either damaged in contained one virus-killed larva and six lar­ these fronds, or undamaged (Young 1974). vae which later died of virus. In January The results were expressed as the percen-. 1974, ten trapped beetles out of a sample of tage of palms recently damaged. 12 were found to be infected.

Results Samples of beetles were trapped, and the

Page 30 SOUTH PACiFiC BULLETIN, FIRST O il. E R. F S T 7 presence of virus confirmed, on the various localities tollowing release are following islands: Doi, Gau, Makogai, shown in Table 2. Nairai, Kuata, Moala, Ono-i-Lau, Tavua, Wakaya. Waya, Wayasewa, Yanuya, and Discussion Yaqeta. On the main island of Viti Levu some 68 per cent (44/65) of beetles trapped around The dispersal of 0 rhinoceros in Fiji shows the Suva area in January-March 1974 were the ease with which the beetle can spread infected. Between Lautoka and Nadi 66 per once it becomes established in one island of cent of beetles trapped (58/88) from Sep­ a group. This has occurred despite the main­ tember 1973 to March 1974 were infected, tenance of costly quarantine measures over and at Caboni from June 1973 to February a 20-year period. It could be that the detec­ 1974, 57 per cent of beetles trapped (39/68) tion of beetles by the attempted searching of were infected. vessels and their cargoes is very difficult, given the habit of the beetle to secrete itself Although no virus was deliberately during daylight hours and the many places released on Yanuca island, two out of seven of concealment vessels provide.

Before and After: A group of palms at Waisomo, For many years since the establishment of Beqa Island (left) in March 1971 and (right) in the beetle in Fiji, no attempt has been made April 1972; the improvement is immediately to destroy breeding sites over the whole of noticable. the infested areas, because of social and economic factors. Breeding site removal beetles trapped in September 1973 were was restricted to small areas around certain found to be infected. Similarly on Batiki ports, and even here it was discontinued in Island from November 1973 to March 1974 1972 after the spread of the beetle to the six out of 28 beetles trapped (21 per cent) main copra producing regions of Taveuni were found to be infected, and virus was and Vanua Levu. Since no concerted action also present in a small sample of beetles is taken against breeding sites, it is clear trapped in January 1975. No virus was that the general reduction in beetle released on the islands Vomo and Bekana, populations, and consequently damage to yet virus was detected in beetles trapped palms, that has occured in many areas, is here in June 1973 and may have been due to the spread of the virus. present for some months previously. The changes in beetle damage which occured at Reductions in beetle damage occurred

SOUTH PACIFIC BULLETIN. FIRST QUARTER. 1977 Page 31 TABLE 2 C hange in Beetle Damage at various Sites

Vatulele Island1 Per cent of new fronds Beqa island'1 Per cent of new fronds (above horizontal) (above horizontal) Date of Survey Date of Survey beetle damaged beetle damaged

June 1970 43 June 1970 36 June 1971 45 June 1971 30 June 1972 19 March 1972 16 June 1973 5 May 1973 2 November 1974 B November 1974 3 RDS Per cent DS DS palms with Viro village3 Per cent new RDS Per cent recent fronds palms with Wainiloka village1 Per cent new fronds beetle damaged damaged Date beetle damaged recent damage Date November 1971 80 91 November 1971 53 57 May 1972 84 77 Not checked July 1973 ?3 19 July 1973 27 10 September 1974 8 5 September 1974 5 8 RDS C a b o n i3 DS Per cent RDS Per cent Viti Levu Island DS Per cent new Per cent with new fronds palms with fronds beetle Tam avua* recent beetle recent damaged damage Date Date damaged damaged November 1971 76 89 April 1972 79 93 March 1972 74 77 October 1972 69 63 April 1973 April 1973 30 19 36 36 November 1973 11 17 October 1973 26 27 April 1974 8 15 April 1974 21 35 November 1974 4 13 November 1974 16 33 July 1975 5 10 June 1975 16 18

Between Lautoka and Nadi Airport'- Moturiki Island7 Per cent DS Percent new palms with Date DS Per cent fronds DS Per cent fronds fronds beetle recent beetle damaged beetle damaged damaged damage August 1971 43 69 October 1971 88 95 May 1972 32 34 June 1973 57 61 July 1973 g 6 February 1975 12 24 September 1974 8 6

D S - detailed survey, R D S - rapid damage survey (4) Virus introduced March 1972, DS and RDS on 53 palms. (1) Virus introduced August 1970, DS on 170 palms at 11 sites. (5) Virus introduced April 1972 by release on infected adults only. DS on 157 palms, RDS on 600-1000 palms. (2) Virus introduced June 1970, DS on 70 palms at 6 sites, June 1970-June 1971, and on 176 palms at 9 sites (6) Virus spread naturally by mid 1973. 188 palms for thereafter. DS and RDS.

(3) Virus introduced November 1971, 20 palms for DS, (7) Virus introduced August 1971. 20 palms at 100200 palms for RDS. Naicabecabe village for DS, 100-600 for RDS.

about 18 months to two years after virus in­ Adult transmission explains the ease with troduction, when the virus is released into which the pathogen spreads into new areas; artificial compost heaps or split log heaps, for example, from Caboni to Lautoka-Nadi, as on Beqa, Vatulele, Ovalau, and the where it was not deliberately released. In­ Yasawa and Mamanuca Islands. Young fected adults may easily have flown a (1974) found that marked improvement in distance of just under a mile across the palms at various sites on Tongatapu had oc­ water from the Viti Levu mainland around curred by 455 days after virus release into Lautoka to infect the population on Bekana artificial sawdust heaps. Island. Infected beetles may have been carried on vessels to infect Vomo Island, Where virus release is made by the direct either from the Yasawa islands or Viti release of infected adults into the wild Levu. population, marked reductions in damage can be observed after only one year. This Infected beetles might have flown occurred at Caboni, where damage fell from (perhaps with wind assistance) across the 79 per cent to 36 per cent after one year of five mile stretch of sea from Beqa to infect virus release. Yanuca, and could have been carried by

Page 32 SOUTH PACIFIC BULLETIN. FIRST QUARTER, 1977 At the Mass Rearing Insectary — (Top) John Shaw checks boxes containing beetles for egg laying.

boat from Ovalau to infect Batiki. Obser­ vations had been made on palm damage at various sites on virus-free Yanuca and Batiki, but the arrival of the virus on these two islands ended their usefulness as con­ trols. A marked decline in damage on Yanuca in November 1972 led to the discovery of the presence of the virus there. On Batiki, damage had always been low, the average percentage of fronds (above horizontal) damaged on 180 palms over 11 sites ranging from 8 to 14 per cent from November 1970 to November 1973.

The most dramatic reductions in beetle damage occurred where high levels of damage existed at the outset. Where beetle populations, and hence damage, were low at the start of virus release, less change was noticed in beetle damage, and small changes could be due to sampling error. Also, with low beetle populations, the virus may take longer to become established since there are fewer beetles present to become infected and disseminate it.

Over wide areas where the virus has become established, as on Viti Levu, the beetle population appears to remain at the new low level indefinitely, without the need for further virus releases. A three-way balance exists between the number of breeding sites, the size of the beetle population, and the incidence of virus. However, the beetle is not eliminated en­ tirely as the virus does not penetrate to all breeding sites.

In some localised places, if a greater than usual number of breeding sites is created (for example, by the cutting down of a num­ ber of palms in a compact area in a village to clear space for new houses, with the trunks and stumps left in situ, or the bulldozing out of large areas of palms to clear areas for hotel, airstrip or road con­ struction), the beetle population can build up again in these ‘outbreak’ areas and cause an increase in damage to palms in the vicinity, despite the presence of the virus. Investigations are in progress to see if any reduction in damage can be gained by repeating releases of virus infected beetles in localised outbreak areas. However, it would be very desirable if sanitation measures could be applied to remove breeding sites and prevent the development of outbreak areas in the first place.

Samples of palms in all the coconut­ growing areas could be checked every six- to-12 months by the rapid-damage survey method and if there are signs of a sig­ nificant build-up in damage at any of these

SOUTH PACIFIC BULLETIN. FIRST QUARTER. 1977 Page 33 localities, samples ot beetles could be collec­ curs, the tin is left undisturbed for a period of about five weeks. ted and checked for virus incidence and the Thereafter the tin is checked daily and the breaking up of the possibility of further releases of virus-infec­ cocoon into loose material signals the emergence of the adult. ted beetles at these points might be con­ The average results are summarised as follows : sidered. Eggs produced per female ... 40 + (95 per cent confidence There is always the possibility that the limits based on 60 oviposition boxes). virus may die out in small isolated areas. Fertility of eggs, i.e. First instar larvae hatched/eggs set u p ...... The virus has a short life in its free form, 53 per cent (based on 11 egg batches). and depends on the presence of a beetle population for its continued existence, Per cent Third in star larvae reared/eggs... 42 (based on 81 egg through transmission from beetle to beetle, batches). or beetle to larvae, and multiplication in in­ fected larvae in breeding sites. But disap­ Per cent Adults reared/eggs... 38 (based on 81 egg batches). pearance of the virus would be unlikely on Preoviposition period__35 days - + 2(95 per cent confidence large islands or land masses. limits based on 73 oviposition boxes).

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Maximum total adult ife....255 days(8.5 months) -+ 12 days (95 per cent confidence limits, based on 60 oviposition boxes). I thank the members and staff of the Total duration of immature_stages (egg to emergence of adult Coconut Pests and Diseases Board for their from cocoon)....274 days •+ 6 (95 per cent confidence limits, support. The first releases of virus in Fiji in based on 119 specimens). 1970 were made by Mr. S.R. Singh and Mr. J.M. Williams, Ministry of Agriculture, Duration from construction of pupal cocoon to adult emergen­ Forestry and Fisheries. ce... 47 days “ 2(95 per cent confidence limits, based on 119 specimens).

APPENDIX The mass rearing procedure is designed to prevent or minimise Mass Rearing of Rhinoceros Beetles (Oryctes the chance of pathogens the mass rearing insectary. This rhinoceros) was largely successful and adults in only four of the early oviposition boxes developed Metarrhitat infections and hat At first, difficulties were experienced in obtaining supplies of to be discarded. By April 1975 no further Metarrhital infec­ adult beetles for virus infecbon and release. It is often not tions had occured on adults or larvae for more than a year of economic to operate attractant traps to catch them, while heavy operation. No indication of any mortality due to virus had been mortalities and wastage due to tbe virus or the pathogenic fungus found. The key requirement in mass rearing is constant vigilance M. anisoplital can occur during insectary conditions as a result of and cleanliness to prevent the entry of such pathogens. larvae through to adults under insectary conditions as a result of infection already present at the time of collecting. These problems From 6 September, 1974 to 18 April, 1975 some 4,444 beetles were overcome by establishing a special insectary at Koronivia were produced giving an average production over these 33 weeks Research Station for mass rearing beetles from the egg stage of 135 beetles per week. The major expense in mass roaring con­ sists of the wages of the four employees concerned, and taking Virus and fungus must be excluded from the mass rearing insec this as the main factor in calculating the cost of producing tary so. because of the widespread occurrence of these pathogens beetles, over this period the cost was approximately Fijian $0.74 in the field, field-collected beetles could not be used directly for per beetle. egg-laying. However, field-collected larvae which survived and pupated yielded disease-free adults which could then be taken to R eferen ces the mass-rearing insectary to start the culture. The temperature in the mass rearing insectary varied diurnally from 20-30°C. Huger, A M. (1966). A virus disease of the Indian rhinoceros beetle, Oryctes rhinoceros (Linnaeus), A plastic tote box 14 x 37 x 50 cm is half filled with sterilised caused by a new type of insect virus, Rhabdion- (steamed for at least 48 hours then allowed to cool) 1:t cowdung virus oryctes gen. n., sp. n. sawdust medium, and six female and three male beetles added. One or two ripe bananas split lengthwise are added twice per Journal of Invertebrate Pathology 8: 38-51. week. The box is covered with a masonite top held in place with metal clips. Huger, A M. (1973). Grundlagen zur biologischen Belampfung des Indischen Nashornkafers, Oryctes By 29 lanuary 1974, 79 such boxes had been set up. Each box rh in oceros (L .) mit Rhabdionvirus oryctes: is tipped out weekly and the medium sorted through for eggs. The Histopathologie der Virose bei Kafern. Zeitschrift eggs are placed in groups of two on the surface of similar fur angewandte Entomologie 72. 309-319. medium in larger plastic boxes (61 x 27 x 41 cm), 40 eggs per box, and each group is covered with a small plastic pillbox lid to Swaine, G. (1966). Fiji’s campaign against the maintain humidity around the eggs. The eggs hatch, and the young coconut rhinoceros beetle. International Pest Control larvae burrow down into the food medium where they remain un­ 8: 6-9. disturbed for about two months, developing through the first and most of the second instar. Young, E.C. (1974). The epizootiology of two The larvae, now late second or early third instar, are then tran­ pathogens of the coconut palm rhinoceros beetle. sferred to individual 370 ml beer or soft drink cans of medium Journal of Invertebrate Pathology 24: 82-92. with calico covers. Here they remain to complete the rest of their larval life (by keeping the third instar larvae separate rather than Zelazny, B. 11972). Studies on Rhabdionvirus oryc­ bulked together, should any case of pathogen occur, it would be tes. I. Effect on larvae of Oryctes rhinoceros and confined to particular tins and would not affect all the larvae or inactivation of the virus. pupae in an entire bulk batch). The tins are checked periodically, faecal pellets shaken out and fresh food medium added. Journal of Invertebrate Pathology 20 : 235-241.

When about to pupate, the larva compacts all the medium in Zelazny, B. (1973). Studies on Rhabdionvirus oryc­ the tin to form the cocoon. The time of information of the cocoon tes II. Effect on adults of Oryctes rhinoceros. is noted. Within the cocoon the insect completes the pre-pupal and pupal stages and also the teneral adult period in which the Journal of Invertebrate Pathology 22: 122-126. exoskeleton of the young adult hardens. While this process oc­

Page 34 SOUTH PACIFIC BULLETIN, FIRST QUARTER. 1977 A second type of machine features fixed tanks Alternative the bottom of which is a flexible membrane. Wave movements deform the membrane, propelling pressuried water into a hydraulic energy engine which in turn can activate a generator. Water is made to run in one direction only by the use of one-way valves. Available power is deter­ sources mined by the number of tanks. This system is more static, and therefore more reliable, than the other.

in the The Japanese are developing these machines primarily for large-scale applications. A smaller version, reflecting the needs of the South Pacific South area, would require further research. Pacific Remarks on alter­ native energy sources

Solar energy

By J. GUILLOU Research on this form-of energy is continuing apace; as- is stated in the article quoted, it will be Chris Hamilton’s article, ‘Alternative Energy ready for widespread use in the near future. Some Sources for the South Pacific,’ (South Pacific parts of the South Pacific however, though Bulletin, 4th Quarter 1975), gives a good overall receiving sufficient total sunshine over several picture of the ways in which it is possible to years, experience long periods of rainy and over­ derive energy from the sun and the wind. Another cast weather. In these areas, which are situated approach, and one which has been undergoing near the equator and consequently are unaffected research in some industrialized countries, is wave by the trade winds, some additional form of energy. This is, in fact, no more than the result of energy will have to be found to tide over spells of the wind acting on an intermediary element, the adverse weather. surface of the sea. The simplest system uses the up and down movement of floats to turn a shaft Hydraulic energy on land. Ratchet wheels prevent backward movement of the shaft, which activates a No assessment of hydraulic energy potential has generator or hydraulic engine. apparently been made in certain mountainous

HARNESSING WAVE ENERGY

FLOAT MACHINE STATIC COLLECTOR

SOUTH PACIFIC BULLETIN. FIRST QUARTER. 1977 Page 35 islands which would be suitable for such projects. ple — or the community which benefits from the And yet this is a simple and lasting system — in machine? the New Hebrides, for example, a small machine has been operating faultlessly for 50 years. It must also be remembered that wind energy is However, each water course is different and must inconsistent, supply increasing or decreasing along be judged on its own merits. Here are some of with the wind. Some method of storing energy is the main aspects: therefore needed; the most widespread solution is storage in batteries. However, this method has the fall must not be too far from the village, several drawbacks: high capital outlay, periodical as electricity is expensive to transport and replacement of batteries, and meticulous main­ will suffer losses under way; tenance. In addition, a choice must be made bet­ ween alternative current and direct current, the use of a paddle wheel directly in the fall excluding the use of certain commercial applian­ is an elementary method within the scope of ces. a village carpenter. On the other hand, available power is low; Although there are advantages in coupling a wind machine to a hydraulic generator, such a a more costly but lasting solution is to in­ system requires an extremely large reservoir for a stall a turbine and piping. satisfactory degree of regularity in power supply.

An attractive feature of hydraulic machines is Researchers are now attempting to make wind that the power generated is more stable and bet­ machines work more efficiently. In Canada, the ter adapted to the requirements of users. An in­ finishing touches are being put to a machine ventory of available resources would no doubt featuring a three-blade rotor on a vertical axis reveal potential for this form of energy. which is unaffected by changes in wind direction. Its supporting structure is merely a mast held up Wind energy by stays, hence particularly easy to assemble.

Until recently, the main function of windmills Second generation machines will no doubt was to pump underground water into tanks and feature a propeller mounted on a vertical axis and ponds used for watering livestock and irrigating revolving in a Venturi tube. The wind is a fields under cultivation. Only over the past few costless, natural and non-polluting source of years, and after undergoing a number of im­ energy, and therefore suitable for the needs of the provements, have wind machines been commer­ area. At the same time, wind machines, once con­ cialized as a means of generating electricity. The structed, become a lasting feature of the natural criteria for a machine of this type are: setting. From an esthetic point of view, proliferation of such devices would doubtless have drawbacks. (a) Capital outlay in relation to power required. Without going into details, it must The world oil crisis has perhaps been more be remembered that as technology cruelly felt in the Pacific than elsewhere, but it progresses, electricity consumption in has had one favourable consequence, that of villages will increase. Thus, a large machine awakening users of energy to the advantages of — or several machines — will generally be energy derived from the sun and the wind. As Mr. necessary. Furthermore, one of the charac­ Hamilton states in his article, it is highly desirable teristics of wind energy is the dilution of the that the Pacific countries develop a joint energy motor fluid — air — because of its low programme adapted to their specific needs. o specific gravity. The result is that strong winds and a very large machine are required for a relatively low energy output, which ex­ plains why the industrialised countries have thus far shown little interest in developing BACK ISSUES this form of power generation. Many back issues of theSouth Pacific (b) Sim plicity and solidity; the fewer B u lletin are still available at 95 cents moving parts it contains, the simpler the Australian < $US 1.25} per copy, post free. machine will be. It must be sufficiently solid The following issues are out of print: to withstand adverse conditions train, sand, All of volumes 1 to 17; etc.) and, in particular, occassionally drastic variations in wind speed. Consequently, the V ol. 1 8, nos. 1 and 4; system whereby rotor blades are im­ Vol. 20, nos. 3 and 4; mobilised or feathered during cyclones must Vol. 21, nos. 1 and 2; be both simple and effective. Vol. 24, no. 2. It must also be possible to carry out everyday All orders should be sent to: maintenance work on the wind machine and its supporting structure without enlisting the aid of South Pacific Commission Publications an expert. But, this being so, who should be Bureau, responsible for repairs and maintenance of the Box 306, Haymarket, NSW 2000, machine? The authorities-Public Works for exam­ Australia.

Pag© 36 SOUTH PACIFIC BULLETIN. FIRST QUARTER. 1977 Village water supply in Papua New Guinea By CHRISTOPHER H. KIDD, Hydrogeologist, Geological Survey of Papua N ew Guinea In 1965, a programme to investigate and cial Authorities in the form of reports, advise on village water supply problems which also included plans and instructions was initiated by the Papua New Guinea Ad­ for the construction of various water supply ministration to cope with an increasing schemes. Details of methods and number of requests from Local Government organisation, together with the findings of Councils and villages for advice on how to the first two surveys are described improve village water supplies. A village elsewhere by MacGregor and Read (1969). water supply survey team, which consisted On average two surveys were conducted of an engineering geologist from the each year, and in 1975, the last two Geological Survey, an engineer from the remaining Provinces were surveyed. This Local Government Section, Department of article discusses some of the environmental Public Works, and a health officer from the and cultural factors influencing village Department of Public Health, was water supply, the types of water supply established to visit each of the 19 Ad­ schemes and the problem of maintenance. ministrative Provinces (called Districts ENVIRONMENTAL INFLUENCES before Independence) to inspect and advise on all known water supply problems within Rainfall each Province. All requests for assistance were chan­ Although Papua New Guinea lies wholly nelled through the Provincial Administration within the trophies and has a relatively high which allocated priorities, gathered details rainfall (approximately 80 per cent ot tne of the location, population, rainfall and land area receiving an average annual rain­ existing water supply of each village and fall more than 2,500 mm (Figure 1), rainfall arranged the itinerary and necessary tran­ variation is considerable and is distinctly sport for the survey team. On completion of seasonal, depending on topographical and the survey, recommendations and advice meteorological conditions (Fitzpatrick, et were circulated to the councils and Provin­ al., 1966).

Fig.! Papua New Guinea rainfall

SOUTH PACIFIC BULLETIN. FIRST QUARTER. 1977 Page 37 The southeast trade winds which blow Over most of Papua New Guinea from May to October, bring dry periods to hydrogeological conditions give rise to a most areas, especially along parts of the dense network of streams and rivers, except south Papuan coast (see rainfall histogram for a few areas underlain by highly porous for Port Moresby in Figure 1) and large in- and permeable coralline limestone and termontaine valleys such as the Ramu- volcanic ash. In these areas there are few Markham Valley (see Kaiapit on Figure 1). permanent surface water sources. People On the other hand, high areas in the path living on low coral islands in the Milne Bay, of the southeast trades receive most of their Bougainville, New Ireland- and Manus rainfall during this time; for example, the Provinces, in the dry season travel many south coast of New Britain and the Southern kilometres by canoe to the mainland or Highlands — Gulf of Papua area, represen­ larger islands for water. Coconut milk is a ted on Figures 1 by Kandrian and Kikori, common substitute for drinking water in respectively. Most areas receive heavier these and other lowland areas during rainfall during the northwest monsoon from prolonged dry spells. Even on some large, December to March. high volcanic islands, such as Karkar All parts of the country experience dry Island, many streams flow only during or periods, including those areas which receive immediately after heavy rainfall and during more than 5,000 mm of rain per annum. The rainless periods people are forced to obtain mean length of dry spells during the period their water from coastal springs and 1956 - 1970 varied from 1.7 days at Kikori seepages, which are often saline (Kidd, (annual rainfall greater than 5000 mm) to 1974). 10.1 days at Port Moresby (annual rainfall less than 1,500 mm), but rainless periods up Extensive areas of karst limestone occur to 16 days were recorded at Kikori and up to in Papua New Guinea, where the 100 days at Port Moresby (Table 1.) precipitation, which is often in excess of 2,500 mm per annum, rapidly descends un­ These dry spells, although relatively brief, derground through large solution cavities. In cause serious water shortages for villages these areas, little continuous surface relying directly on rainfall for water, drainage exists. On the Darai Plateau im­ because water storage facilities are mediately west of* Kikori, for example, no inadequate. Discarded fuel drums and even rivers exist in a 30 km x 100 km area which the standard rainwater catchments, which receives an average annual rainfall in ex­ include a 9000-litre storage tank, are soon cess of 5,000 mm. Water supply in these exhausted. From June to December, 1972, areas is a major problem and the people many parts of the country experienced a who live there rely on rainfall or small serious drought with severe water shor­ seepages. Recently, an oil company drilling tages. Meteorological conditions similar to on the edge of the Plateau was forced to those associated with the 1972 drought construct water pipelines 10 km to a river previously occurred in the 1920’s and in 1941 outside the Plateau to obtain water for its (Waddell, 1974) and can be expected to operations. recur every 20 to 30 years. Hydrogeology Rapid tectonic uplift of the mountain Apart from rainfall, local hydrogeological ranges and associated erosion has caused conditions are the most important factor rivers to cut deep gorges and deposit coarse regulating the flow of streams and rivers. sediments as alluvial fans in the adjacent They also determine the availability, quan­ structural valleys. The high local relief in tity and quality of groundwater resources. the mountains causes rapid drainage of soil TABLE 1

Mean and maximum durations per quarter of rainless periods (in days) - 1956 - 1970. (after McAlpine,et al., 1975)

Location Jan-Mar Apr-Jun Jul-Sep Oct-Dec 4 .2 3 .3 3.8 3 .7 mean 34 24 Erap (near Kaiapit) 32 30 max. 1.9 1.8 1.7 2 .5 mean 9 K ikori 7 13 16 max. 2.1 1.8 2.1 1.9 mean 12 12 Lae 14 10 max. 2 .6 2 .4 1.7 2 .2 mean 16 12 M t. H agen 6 18 max. 6 .4 10.1 2 .7 6 .4 mean 100 6 2 Port Moresby 24 4 7 max. 3 .6 3 .6 2 .6 3 .0 mean 40 17 R abaul 14 20 max. 2.2 2 .3 2 .6 2 .4 mean 15 W ew ak 17 12 12 max.

Page 38 SOUTH PACIFIC BULLETIN, FIRST QUARTER, 1977 water and shallow groundwater and as a centrations. No faecal coliforms were detec­ result, springs and streams located high on ted in drinking water from 15 small, steep some mountain slopes cease flowing during streams in the Chimbu Province (Kidd & prolonged rainless periods. When this hap­ Guthrie, 1975). Water from springs and pens villagers are forced to make arduous wells is generally not contaminated with trips down to the deeply entrenched rivers faeces. to collect water. In the Sina Sina area of the Chimbu Province in the central Highlands Faecel coliforms and the many other non­ such trips are reported to take up to half a pathogenic bacteria commonly found in day (Kidd & Guthrie, 1975). tropical streams are not harmful, apart from possibly causing gastroenteritis in Although the coarse sediments of the people unaccustomed to drinking from these alluvial fans are a potentially good source of streams; nor do faecal coliforms necessarily groundwater, the rivers have commonly en­ indicate the presence of pathogenic trenched themselves between 50 and 100 organisms, but they do indicate the metres within their fans resulting in existence of"a potential path for the spread relatively deep water-bearing formations of dangerous water-borne diseases. Hepatitis which are costly to develop. For example, is ubiquitous, but there have been few along the northern side of the Ramu- reports of cholera and typhoid, both of Markham Valley and in parts of the Waghi which occur in neighbouring Irian Jaya. As Valley to the northeast of Mt. Hagen, tube it is impractical to chlorinate village water wells are commonly drilled between 50 and supplies, groundwater sources are developed 100 metres deep before encountering good wherever possible because they are safer supplies of groundwater. from contamination.

In the extensive swampy lowlands along The chemical quality of both surface and the middle and lower reaches of large rivers, such as the Fly and Sepik Rivers, there is an over abundance of surface water, but it is commonly stagnant and con­ taminated. Shallow large diameter wells dug in the silty sediments of these basins yield small volumes of groundwater which are sufficient supply for most villages, but in the wet season these rivers often breach their levees along tneir middle and lower reaches and flood large areas, inundating shallow wells. In the Delta area around the Gulf of Papua, extremely high ocean tides also inundate the ground around villages, of­ ten introducing brackish water into shallow wells. This problem occurs mainly in the wet season.

Water quality Most streams and rivers are contaminated by human or animal (pig) faeces. Seventy A standard gravity reticulation with taps, an per cent of all traditional surface water overhead outlet for bathing and tanks to cope sources inspected during the surveys were with peak demands condemned because of suspected faecal con­ tamination. Faecal coliform concentrations underground water sources is good for are high for lowland streams and rivers, for drinking, except for some coastal situations, example: 20,000/ 100 ml in the Amogu River where salinities are high. Most larger (low flow) near Maprik, East Sepik Provin­ streams and rivers are muddy. ce, and in excess of 2,000/ 100 ml in the Bumbu river near Lae (faecal coliforms are CULTURAL INFLUENCES non-pathogenic bacteria found in the in­ testinal tract of humans and animals; their Location and nature o f villages presence in water indicates faecal pollution). The locations of villages often present serious problems in developing a good water Rivers in densely populated areas of the supply. Many inland villages are located on Highlands also have high concentrations of the tops of hills and along high ridges, faecal coliforms. Feachem (1973) reports where local hydrogeological conditions are mean faecal coliform counts of 1563/ 100 ml, unfavourable for the existence of springs 220/ 100 ml, and 669 100 ml for three rivers and streams. In the Highlands, people in the Enga Province, sampled weekly over prefer to locate their villages on the top of a 20-week period. Small, fast-flowing moun­ hills or ridges because they dislike noise and tain streams have lower faecal coliform con­ vallev fogs associated with sDrings and

SOUTH PACIFIC BULLETIN FIRST QUARTER. 19 7 7 Pig* 38 of several square kilometres, makes it dif­ ficult to develop a water supply for the whole village. Normally, to keep costs low, water is provided at a central point within these villages, such as the biggest or most central hamlet, or the aid post or ceremonial/meeting ground.

In some villages located along relatively low ridges, it is possible to reticulate water by gravity to several points within the village. At Dumum village in the Chimbu Province, for example, it is planned to reticulate the whole village, which consists of two large hamlets spread 3 km down a ridge. This scheme will serve a population approaching 3,000.

Customary beliefs

In some areas certain water sources are not acceptable to the people because of customary beliefs, such as the association of the water with spirits, or the fear of sor­ cery. Survey teams have endeavoured to A standaed tube-well pumphead. discover such beliefs before recommending streams (Clarke, 1971; Feachem, 1973). the development of a particular water sour­ ce. During a survey of Karkar Island, for In coastal areas many villages, especially example, several large fresh water springs along the south Papuan coast, are sited im­ were rejected as water sources because the mediately behind the beach, or on beach people regarded them as sacred. A govern­ bars with intertidal mangrove swamps im­ ment water well drilling team was forced to mediately inland. In such localties fresh sur­ abandon drilling a tube well at a large face water is rare and fresh groundwater coastal village near Port Moresby, because resources limited. Furthermore, the very the people, many of whom work as public fine sand along the south Papuan coast is servants in Port Moresby, believed that difficult to develop with dug wells because water from under the ground would have the fine sand enters the well, even when magical properties. screened and artificially packed with coarse sand or fine gravel. In the Dreikikir area of the East Sepik Province men are reluctant to drink water The tendency for villages, especially in from rainwater tanks because it has been much of the Highlands, to consist of a num­ standing and may have had sorcery worked ber of hamlets, often scattered over an area on it (B.J. Allen, pers. comm.). The threat of sorcery is sufficient to make some educated National officers stationed in small rural towns in the Highlands empty their rainwater tanks before going away on recreational leave.

Politics

National politics rarely directly influence village water supply, but local politics play an important role in determining the allocation of funds for rural development projects. It is the policy of most councils to distribute their Rural Improvement Funds, which they receive from the Central Govern­ ment, so that all villages within the council area receive their share of development. Roads generally receive priority for council funds (Table 2), but in areas where either roads are impractical or good roads already exist more money is allocated for water sup­ ply projects.

TYPES OF WATER SUPPLY SCHEMES

Discarded fuel drums and corrugated iron used to The Local Government Section, Depart- collect rainwater. ment of Public Works, and the Council

Page 40 SOUTH PACIFIC BULLETIN, FIRST QUARTER, 1977 Health Services, Department of Public streams is the most successful scheme, Health, have adapted many common low because it involves little maintenance and cost rural water supply schemes to suit delivers large volumes of water. A typical Papua New Guinea conditions. These scheme consists of a low weir across a schemes include: motorised and wind-driven spring or stream above the village, a pumps from various water sources, polythene or galvanised iron delivery pipe hydraulic rams, wells with handpumps, and either taps or a continuously flowing gravity reticulation from springs or outlet in the village. Where the water source streams, and rainwater catchments. Solar is small, a reservoir may be included to distillation units were originally considered cope with peak demands during daylight for small coral islands, but have now been hours. Although polythene pipe is cheaper adandoned because of their inefficiency. and easier to handle than galvanised iron pipe, the latter is commonly used in the Motorised and wind pumps Highlands because the polythene pipe is easily damaged by foraging pigs or neigh­ Motorised and wind-driven pumps were bouring hostile villages during tribal feuds. recommended in earlier surveys, but ex­ Large gravity reticulation schemes often perience has proved that maintenance cost in excess of K 5,000, but their reliability problems are acute; they are now rarely compensates for their higher cost. recommeded. They are also expensive: a windmill to supply a large village costs at Rainwater catchments least K 2,000 (K - Kina ; 1 K is roughly equal to $1 Australian). Rainwater catchments usually consist of a small galvanised iron roof catchment and a Hydraulic rams single 9,000-litre corrugated iron tank. Cheaper plastic sheeting catchments have Hydraulic rams are not commonly used been tried, but they deteriorate in the sun because their delivery discharge is small compared with the volume of water required for their operation; Also, in much of the Highlands, lifts are too great for the use of rams. Council Health Services have developed a low cost ram constructed from materials available locally for use under low head conditions. These units cost less than K100 to manufacture and install.

Wells

Shallow wells fitted with handpumps have been used successfully in many coastal and deltaic areas and on the swampy floodplains of large rivers. The standard sanitary shallow well design incorporates 1,300 mm diameter concrete or fibreglass liners (the latter being preferred in areas with tran­ sport difficulties), a concrete apron and drain, a lid and a handpump. The well can be dug by hand with local labour under supervision of council staff. The cost of such a unit is about K500. Typical rainwater supply installed by Local Where groundwater is deeper, tube wells Government Councils. fitted with deep-well handpumps mounted in standard concrete aprons are recommended. and are easily holed. Fibreglass and con­ When drilled by a commercial driller and in­ crete tanks are used in coastal areas where stalled with screens or perforated steel corrosion from salt spray is a problem. casing, these units cost in excess of Kl,500. Wherever possible, rainwater catchments The government water well-drilling team in­ are avoided because it is difficult and costly stalls tube wells for less than half this cost. to catch and store sufficient rainwater to The cost of a well can be further reduced by last over dry periods. using perforated P.V.C. casing. For exam­ ple, five tube wells drilled near Port Rainwater tanks are also susceptible to Moresby to about 20 m depth, installed with damage by earthquakes which are common perforated 100 mm diameter P.V.C. casing throughout the Highlands, the northern New and standard pumpheads, cost on average of Guinea mainland and the New Guinea islan­ K400 per unit. ds. Fifty per cent of all corrugated iron tanks in Madang collapsed or ruptured Gravity reticulation during the 1970 Madang Earthquake (mag­ nitude MM VII) (Biggs & Hill, 1973). Un­ Gravity reticulation from springs or derground concrete tanks on Karkar Island

SOUTH PACIFIC BULLETIN FIRST QUARTER, 1977 Page 41 were split by the same earthquake. Reinfor­ low value placed on water by villagers. ced concrete tanks, using New Zealand specifications for earthquake-prone areas, Few villagers understand the operation of are being experimented with by the Depart­ mechanical appliances such as handpumps ment of Public Works in association with the and taps. Changing the washer in a tap or Australian Department of Construction. repairing the handle of a handpump is beyond the ability of most uninstructed MAINTENANCE villagers. Some elderly women are frightened to use taps when they are first in­ The most common problem with village stalled in the village. water supply throughout Papua New Guinea, is the lack of maintenance of Most water-supply schemes are installed existing schemes. Knight and Chapman by a government team, with a minimum of (1974) estimated that at the time of their financial and practical assistance from the survey between 70 and 85 per cent of village. The villagers, therefore, do not have existing water supplies in the Madang any direct involment in the project, and in Province were unserviceable. Similar per­ many cases seem to regard it as the centages have been noted in other provin­ property of the government which should be ces. Schemes are inoperative mainly responsible for its maintenance. because of minor disruptions, such as a delivery pipe being cut or blocked, damaged Women and children are the main collec­ tanks and taps, and broken pump handles. tors of water, and men, who are invariably the village representatives on the Local In one village near Port Moresby, the han­ Government Council, have little to do with dle of a handpump was broken six months this activity. The men, therefore, are not after its installation in 1972 and no attempt particularly concerned wheh the water sup­ had been made to repair it by Novemebr ply breaks down and the women and 1975. In another large village, also near Port children have to walk a little further for Moresby, the water supply was not func­ water. tioning because the windmill was overgrown with creepers. The lack of importance which many village people, especially in the Highlands, This attitude towards water supply main­ attach to water is possibly associated with tenance may stem from a combination of their low water consumption. Feachem the following factors: (1973) reports that in the Enga Province a typical domestic group of three or four limited mechanical knowledge of villagers; people collect 2.2 litres of water only once per day, usually while returning from their the manner in which schemes are installed; gardens. Seventy-nine per cent of this water is used for drinking, 20 per cent for cooking water collecting done by women and and the remaining 1 per cent for washing children, who have little say in village af­ pots and plates. None was used for washing fairs; themselves or their clothes and bedding.

TABLE 2

Mean percentages of Council expenditures 1973- 74.

Province New roads & New water Water supply bridges supplies maintenance

Western 51.6 4.7 0.0 Gulf 29.8 6.3 0.7 Central 49.4 5.1 1.0 Northern 51.3 7.4 0.4 Milne Bay 48.8 7.2 0.0 West Sepik 55.2 2.7 0.1 East Sepik 27.8 1.5 0.1 Madang 48.7 3.8 0.2 Mo robe 50.7 4.6 0.2

Southern Highlands 47.2 0.1 0.0 Western Highlands 20.6 1.1 0.0 Enga 35.1 0.1 0.0 Chimbu 17.2 0.5 0.0 Eastern Highlands 44.2 1.0 0.4 3.7 Manus 10.0 0.1 30.3 New Ireland 6.5 0 3 80.5 West New Britain 6.2 0 5 37.2 East New Britain 1.3 39.8 0.0 Bougainville 0.7 0.0

Pag© 42 SOUTH PACIFIC BULLETIN. FIRST QUARTER. 1977 Similar patterns of water usage occur over facing village water supply projects. Much large areas of the Highlands. In the Simbai valuable investment is being lost because of area of the Madang Province, Clarke (1971) simple mishaps rendering water supplies un­ reports: serviceable. To ensure better return from investment and to obtain maximum benefits ... the need for water at the houses is small from a good water supply, a concerned ef­ because people neither wash there nor use fort at National, Provincial, Council and more than a few pints in preparing their village levels is needed to solve the main­ evening meal. tenance problem.

People in coastal- villages wash more Provision must be made for the allocation frequently either in rivers or in the sea. of more funds for the maintenance of village Their consumption of water for drinking and water supplies. Councils need more staff cooking is slightly greater than that of their trained in the construction and maintenance Highland counterparts. of water supplies. Villages must be made aware that they have some responsibility for The attitude of Local Government Coun­ maintenance, especially simple maintenan­ cils towards village water supply reflects ce. They should also be shown how to carry the attitude of the village people. Most out such maintenance. Given that cultural Councils give low priority to water supply, attitudes will not change overnight, use of as is illustrated by the low percentage of low-maintenance schemes and more active Councils’ expenditure allocated to new involvement of village people in construction water supplies and the very low percentage and financing of new schemes should be en­ to maintenance of existing supplies (Table couraged. 2). Less than 0.5 per cent of most Councils’ ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS budgets are for maintenance of water sup­ plies. Water supply accounts for less than 1 The efforts of the many people who helped per cent of most Highland Councils’ expen­ to conduct the Village Water Supply Surveys diture. are gratefully acknowledged. I wish to thank B.J. Allen, R.J. Bielefeld. M.J. Knight and Attempts to solve the problem of main­ R. Gould for their helpful comments during tenance are being investigated at all levels. preparation of this article and L. Allen for At the village level, the people are being en­ assistance with drafting. Published with the couraged to take responsibility for simple permission of the Director, Office of maintenance of their water supplies, such as Minerals and Energy. cleaning leaves from the intake, and to report serious breakdowns to the Council. REFERENCES The Local Government Section, Department BIGGS, K.L. & HILL. R.K.. 1973 — Water storage of Public Works, runs a course to train tanks in seismic areas in Papua New Guinea Aust C S I R.O.. Div. oj Building Council staff in basic aspects of construction Research. and maintenance of water supplies. Recen­ CLARKE, W.C., 1971 — Place and People: An tly, the government has provided some in­ ecology of a New Guinean Community. centive for improving village water supply A.N.U. Press. Canberra by making up to K50.000 per annum FEACHEM, R . 1973 — Domestic water use in the available for integrated village water supply New Guinea Highlands: The case of the projects in each Province. Enga. Uni NSW. Water Res. Lab. Rep. No. 132 CONCLUSIONS FITZPATRICK, E.A., HART, D. & BROOKFIELD, H.C., 1966 — Rainfall Rainfall seasonality, local hydrogeological seasonality in the tropical southwest conditions and water quality are the most P acific Erkunde vo. 20. pp 1S1 - 194 important environmental influences deter­ KIDD, C.H., 1974 — Hydrogeology of Karkar mining available water sources for village Island. Geol. Surv. Papua New Guinea Report 74/9 (unpublished) water supply in Papua New Guinea. Trained staff i$ currently available at the national KIDD, C.H. & GUTHRIE, W., 1975 — Village Water Supply Survey, Chimbu Province. level to evaluate these influences, but more Geol. Surv. Papua New Guinea Report 75/9 trained personnel are required at the (unpublished) Provincial level to provide a more efficient KNIGHT, M.J. & CHAPMAN, D.T., 1974 — service. Cultural factors are also an impor­ Village Water Supply Survey, Madang tant influence on village water supply. Many District, Papua New Guinea. Geol. Surv. schemes have been over-designed and some Papua New Guinea Report 7 4/8 (un­ have proved unacceptable to the people published) because of inadequate appreciation of the McALPINE, J.R., KEIG, G. & SHORT, K., 1975 people’s water usage habits and their — Climatic Tables for Papua New traditional attides towards water. More Guinea. Aust. C.S.I.R.O Div Land use Res. Tech. Paper 37 research into this aspect of water supply is needed in all parts of the country to provide MACGREGOR, J P. & READ, J.P.L.. 1969 — for more realsitic designs and develop­ Village Water Supply Investigation, Territory of Papua New Guinea. Enq ments. Geol. vol. 3. pp 217 — 232 Maintenance is the most serious problem WADDELL, E., 1974 — Frost over Niugini. New Guinea, vol. 8/4. pp 39 - 49 SOUTH PACIFIC BULLETIN. FIRST QUARTER. 1977 Page 43 cereals such as grain amaranths, Amaranthus spp., guinea Chenopodium quimoa Willd., and various forage plants, etc. Great care should be taken, in consultation with the P a c if ic Reading appropriate plant protection authorities, when in­ troducing germ plasm to Pacific Islands, particularly Material in this section is contributed by the South as the report refers mainly to plants originating, or Pacific Commission Publications Bureau. Please direct grown, in Central and South America. any enquiries to Box 306, Haymarket, NSW, 2000. This being said, the book is worth recommending; it contains first-hand technical information on plants which could, in the near future, be of nutritional or economic significance to some Pacific Islands. The bibliography is abundant and diversified, and synopses BOOK REVIEWS in French and Spanish are given at the end of the book. ■jnder exploited Tropical Plants with Promising Michel Lambert, Tropical Agriculturalist. Economic Value, published by the National Academy of Sciences, Washington, D.C.1975. Losing Ground; Environmental Stress and World Food This is a report on selected tropical plants that show Prospects, by Erik P. Eckholm, New York W.W. Norton & promise for improving the quality of life in tropical Co. Inc., 1976; 223 pp. areas. It was prepared by an ad hoc advisory panel of the Board of Science and Technology for International While agricultural and environmental specialists Development, Commission on International Relations, have long been aware that soil erosion is a serious National Research Council, for the Office of Science problem in some areas, Erik Eckholm has compiled a and Technology, Bureau for Technical Assistance, world perspective on the loss of the earth’s fertility Agency for International Development, Washington that has an impact on the reader like much recent D C. In response to a written enquiry, scientists work on the world population situation: a feeling of around the world listed 400 plants, of which 36 were helpless depression. And indeed the two problems are selected by the panel. These are briefly described here closely related. While the number of mouths to feed is under the following headings: doubling with increasing frequency, the productivity of the lands and waters of much of the world, par­ soil and d im ate requirements; ticularly in the developing countries where food needs research needs for increased produc­ are greatest, is steadily shrinking. tion and use; . . an abundant bibliography for each Losing Ground reviews the impact of deforestation, the plant; unwise development of marginal lands, the expansion contacts for agriculturalists, resear­ of deserts by over-grazing, the clearing of steep moun­ chers and interested persons wishing to tain slopes producing uncontrollable erosion, the obtain seeds, cuttings or rootstock. destruction of vegetation for firewood used as a sub­ sistence fuel, the collapse of irrigation systems from The report, which features black and white siltation and salt accumulation, the inability of many photographic illustrations, is divided into seven chap­ tropical rainforest areas to support sustainable ters, covering, in the following order: development, and the over-exploitation and pollution of world fisheries. The combined effect of these processes 1. Cereals; 2. Roots and Tubers; 3. Vegetables; is the gradual erosion of the world’s ability to feed it­ 4. Fruits; 5. Oilseeds; 6 . Forage; 7. Other uses. self. The complex social and political barriers to the solution of this major problem are also discussed. Agricultural officers, researchers and inhabitants of the Pacific will discover little in the way of new infor­ There is much in this book that is pertinent to the mation (with the exception of an ample bibliography) situation in the Pacific Islands. While this area does on plants with which they are already familiar, such not as yet figure in the horror stories recounted for as (i) taro, Colocasia esculenta (L) Schott and Xan- other parts of the world, many of the same problems thosoma spp.; (ii) fruit, for example pummelo Citrus can be found on a small scale throughout the Pacific. grandis (L) Osbeck, and soursop Annona muricata; (iii) Farming, mining or timber cutting on steep slopes is palms, etc. On the other hand, their attention is drawn increasing in the islands as is the resulting erosion. to the sections concerning: Soils are bared of their vegetation cover by fire or for shifting agriculture, and some of the fertility is per­ the winged bean Psophocarpus tetragonolobus. This manently lost. Unproductive grasslands or scrub are twining vine, widely grown in South East Asia increasingly replacing the original forest cover, and and Papua New Guinea, could become the over-grazing by feral animals has reduced some tropical equivalent of the soya bean. A further islands to near deserts. advantage is that it provides edible roots. Over-fishing and lagoon pollution are contributing to Silt grass Paspalum vaginatum Swartz, a highly most islanders’ dependence on imported canned fish or salt-resistant grass which even withstands meat. Since these forests, soils and coastal waters are flooding by seawater. It is recommended for the basic natural resources on which Pacific Islanders revegetating salt-affected areas, and is a satisfac­ must rely long into the future, this is a worrying trend. tory forage grass in coastal marshes.

Page 44 SOUTH PACIFIC BULLETIN, FIRST QUARTER. 1977 By underlining the near-catastropic situations in­ widely despised tnat it is one ol the few personal and volving the loss of the basic productive capacity of the national failings which the United Nations has suc­ environment in other parts of the developing world, cessfully condemned as a crime against humanity. In Erick Eckholm has sounded a warning call to which such an intellectual climate, it might be asked how a the governmental leaders and peoples of the Pacific scholar could hope to treat the topic of race relations Islands should listen with close attention. Our soils, and still maintain any semblance of even-handed forests and fisheries are precious resources worthy of academic objectivity. The answer in the case of Ted our concern and requiring careful management. The Wolfers’ book, Race Relations and Colonial Rule in Papua limits of island environments are closer than many New Guinea is simply, very well indeed. people think. The key to Wolfers’ success lies in his recognition Arthur L. Dahl. that race is connected in conventional wisdom with culture so that laws and regulations which distinguish among people on the grounds of colour will usually Some common trees of the New Hebrides and their ver­ also affect the level of culture contact among peoples nacular names, by Sheila Gowers. Published by the of differing ethnic backgrounds. Varying the level of Forest Section of the Department of Agriculture, Vila, permitted cross-cultural contacts will tend to en­ New Hebrides; 190 pp. Available from Maropa courage or discourage the rate of cultural change. As Bookshop, P.O. Box 210, Vila, New Hebrides. Price Wolfers clearly demonstrates in this extended case $A2.50 including postage. study into legal discrimination, during Papua New Guinea’s colonial experience, European ad­ Although the population of the New Hebrides is less ministrators, whether they were British, German or than 100,000 there are well over 100 distinct vernacular Australian, more or less explicitly sought to use legal languages. In spite of the geographical isolation of the means to inhibit cultural change in Papua New islands there are more than 150 different species of Guinea. To do this, they used race as a shorthand term trees, many of which are widespread. To record all the since colour was the easiest method for making the vernacular names of all the trees species would ob­ distinction between the indigenous Papua New Guinea viously be an immense task, but, while working as a cultures and the expatriate European culture. United Nations Volunteer for two years in the New Hebrides, Miss Gowers has managed to collect names The motives behind the various administrators’ from 35 of the most widely spoken languages, covering resort to discriminatory regulation, however, varied 100 tree species. rather significantly. Some, like Dr Albert Hahl, used the law to establish a form of indirect rule which not The main part of the book consists of detailed only reduced administrative costs but also helped to descriptions of 50 of the more common tree species. ensure minimal local interference with European Each description includes notes on crown, shape, bole, economic activity by reducing the likelihood of cultural buttress, bark, slash, leaves, flowers, fruit, wood conflicts. properties and local uses. They are followed by a list of common and vernacular names and a full page The Australian administrator, Sir Hubert Murray, illustration of the leaves, flowers and fruit. A further also adopted a form of indirect rule in part due to nine species are described briefly. As the book is inten­ financial necessity; but unlike Hahl, Murray was not ded primarily for use by the layman all botanical anxious to abet European economic activity in his terms used are fully explained in an illustrated territory because he felt his charges would be unequal glossary. to the challenge. Rather than inhibit culture contact in Papua to provide the social stability which makes Also included are a well explained key to the species economic exploitation possible, Murray sought to con­ described, notes on the use and pronounciation of ver­ trol the impact of European culture in order to mould nacular names and 30 pages of indices. While the book and shape the development of the Papua societies. His is primarily intended to reduce the confusion that paternalistic policies were designed to protect the exists in the New Hebrides over the nomenclature of health and well-being of Papuans from the exploitative tree species it should also be of interest to linguists, attentions of unsympathetic whites by arrogating to anthropologists and botanists working in the region himself the decisions as to what cultural changes were and worldwide. □ best for the Papuans. There were also many other European officials who seemed, however, to have had R. M. Bennett little vision beyond their belief that white civilization Forest Officer, Department of Agriculture Vila, New was superior to the indigenous cultures. Hebrides. While Wolfers’ approach allows him to explain the Race relations and Colonial Rule in Papua New origins of Papua New Guinea’s racial regulations Guinea, fay Edward P. WoKers. Australia and New Zealand during the colonial period with sensitivity and under­ Book Co., 1975; $6.95. standing for some of the more charitable motives of white officialdom, there is no possibility that his work The term ‘racism’ carries so many powerfully could be taken as an apology for legal racism. The pejorative connotations today that its use in a public variety and detail of the laws, regulations and ad­ situation almost always evokes an immediate and ministrative rules which he has so carefully compiled hostile emotional reaction. To most people it is an create an irrefutable indictment of bias and bigotry in unlovely word which conveys an even more unlovely colonial Papua New Guinea. The impact of these laws, attitude. Even ‘closet racists’ respond with angry in­ as Wolfers points out, was to ‘protect’ Papua New dignation at any overt hint that they might have some Guineans from development and political respon­ racial prejudices. Indeed, the idea of racism is so sibility. And in the end such dubious protection proved very costly indeed.

SOUTH PACIFIC BULLETIN. FIRST QUARTER. 1977 Page 45 Wolfers’ book is likely to serve as a standard text not only in Pacific Studies courses but also for those interested in race relations, but it is not without some SPC HANDBOOKS weaknesses. The format, particularly irregularities in Each Handbook is priced at $A1.50 post chapter lengths, suggests that some chapters were free and this series of publications now written to fill in gaps between others written originally consists of— as articles; this creates an impression of unevenness. On occasions, analysis of the racially-biased rules ap­ No. 1— Rat Control in the South Pacific pears to have taken a second priority to compilation of by F. P. Rowe. English and French. these regulations. Explanatory footnotes help to (English edition revised by F. P. develop further themes and interpretations but in some Rowe, J. M. Williams and E. J. cases these footnotes are so full as to raise the Wilson.) question why such information was not included in the No. 2— Cocoa Production in the South text. Pacific edited by K. Newton. English No book can satisfy all a critic’s demands but Race only. Relations and Colonial Rule in Papua New Guinea does meet most of the expectations which could reasonably No. 3—Improving Land Tenureby Ron be held for it. It does not pretend to provide a com ­ Crocombe. English only. plete history of Papua New Guinea through the early No. 4—Laboratory Techniques in the 1970s but rather to be a detailed examination of one Diagnosis of Some Intestinal Parasitic aspect of that history. The book certainly succeeds ad­ Infections by Lawrence R. Ash. mirably in this. English and French.

— RICHARD HERR, University of Tasmania. No. 5— Banana Production in the South Pacific edited by M. Lambert. English and French. REVIEW OF RECENT TECHNICAL No. 6— Coconut Production in the South PUBLICATIONS Pacific edited by M. Lambert. English Two recent works on solar energy should be noted by and French. those interested in alternative energy sources and their No. 7—Urban Youth Work in the South application in the South Pacific. Pacific by Jean-Michel Bazinet. English and French. The first is an article by John Wilhelm in Vol. 149 No. 3 (March 1976) of the widely read and respected No. 8— Market Gardening in the South Pacific edited by M. Lambert. English National Geographical Magazine. Under the title ‘Solar and French. Energy, the ultimate powerhouse,’ the author devotes 18 pages, 13 outstanding photographs and an abun­ No. 9—Bacteriology by Dr. J. Saugrain. dance of clear diagrams to a comprehensive summary English and French. of ongoing research and current practical applications of solar technology. The use of this type of energy, he No. 10— Weed Control in the South foresees, will snowball spectacularly; by about 2020, Pacific edited by M. Lambert. English the US should be satisfying a quarter of its energy and French. requirements by means of the sun. Mr Wilhelm con­ No. 11—Haematology by Dr. J. Saugrain. cludes that total use of solar energy will be the English and French. hallmark of the highly advanced civilization that the 21st century holds in store for us. No. 12— A Handbook of Hospital and Health Service Administration by D. Those having a reading knowledge of French will be Horne and V. Williams. English only. interested in Utilisations et promesses de VSnergie solaire / No. 13—Manuel de Reutilisation des (368 pages, 50 illustrations, published by Librairie de Effluents d’Origine Animale dans le VEnseignement technique, 61 Bd. St. Germain, 75240 Paris Cedex, 05, France.) This is a comprehensive Pacifique Sud by Claude Richard, review of the various processes for conversion of solar French only. energy, and of its domestic, industrial and rural ap­ plications. The vital issue of industrial generation ’ of No. 14—Citrus Production in the South Pacific edited by M. Lambert. English electricity is brought up, as is the eventuality of a only. large-scale use of solar energy. However, since certain applications have given rise to conflicting schools of No. 15— Beef Cattle Husbandry and thought, the author goes to some lengths to explain Herd Management by W. P. Bewg, that solar technology — o fortiori applied solar English only. technology — has not yet won universal recognition. No. 16— Arabics Coffee Production in the South Pacific edited by M. He further points out that though it is not easy to in­ Lambert. English and French. tegrate the exploitation of solar energy into today’s economic and urban system, it has become vital to do Price includes postage. so, progressively but on a larger scale than now. The All orders and inquiries should be author underscores the urgent need for the Third sent to: World to procure the equipment required to harness SPC Publications Bureau. the resources of the sun. Box 306 Haymarket, N.S.W. 2000. Original text: French C. Richard.

Page 46 SOUTH PACIFIC BULLETIN. FIRST QUARTER. 1977 ] Theses and Dissertations on the South Pacific

Compiled by Dr W. G. Coppell, School of Education, Macquarie University, North Ryde, NSW, Australia.

We continue what we consider a valuable service to all come the title of the work, the university or institution, students and scholars interested in the South Pacific Com­ the year the degree was conferred and the degree for mission area: a continuing list of theses and dissertations which the thesis was written. on the Pacific islands and peoples that have been sub­ mitted to universities throughout the world. The list is being compiled by Dr W. G. Coppell of Mac­ This new service will benefit established scholars and quarie University, who hopes that any theses not included academics as well as students who are working towards will be brought to his notice so that scholars may have a their degrees, particularly in Pacific tertiary institutions. complete reference not available elsewhere. All corres- In our listings, the author’s surname appears first, in pondertce should be directed to him, c/o South Pacific capitals, followed by Christian names or initials. Then Commission, B.P. D5, Noumea Cedex, New Caledonia.

NIUE BARRINGTON, Joan Ruthe. FRANKOVICH, Marija Kristina Higher education in New Zealand's Pacific territories; an exam­ Child rearing on Niue: an ethnopsychological analysis of aspects ination of the Cook, Niue, Samoan and Tokelauan Islands relevant to the goals and acquisition of a contemporary western educational systems, with particular reference to the New edu cation. Zealand Government scheme. University of the Waikato, 1974. M. Soc. Sc. 68 pp. Victoria University of Wellington, 1966. M.A. 369 pp. KAY, F. James A twentieth century Polynesian migration: an inquiry concerned with BISSELL, Harold Preston reasons for the migration of Cook, Niue and Samoan Islanders to Niue Island: land use and land tenure in a residual economy. New Zealand and their adaptation to a turopean social system, witha M.A., University of Hawaii, 1965. XI, 101PP- consideration ot some comparative data. Canterbury University College, 1950. M.A. v, 144 pp. BISSELL, Harold Preston. The effects of selected physical and cultural variables on the McDOWELL, David Keith. population, land use and vegetation on two Pacific Island A history of Niue. ecosystems. NLA. Victoria University College, 1962. University of Oklanoma, 1971. Ph.D. 126 pp. McDONALD, William Fraser. Niuean migrants to Auckland. BLYTH, Conrad Alexander. University of Auckland, 1973. M.A. (Research essay). 59 The export industries of the South Pacific Islands groups; with PP- special reference to Fiji, Western Samoa, the Cook Islands and Niue and to some aspects of their trade with New Zealand. University of Otago, 1950. M.A. 121 pp. MA’IA’I, Fana’afi. A study of the developing pattern of education and the factors influencing the development of New Zealand's Pacific dependen­ CHECK, Maru George cies. A study in immediate memory; subjects Niuean school children. Victoria University College, 1957. M.A. iv, 395 pp. University of Auckland, 1963. Dip. Ed. 2v. (46, 15 pp.) MORRIS, Maude Fitzgerald. The history of Niue-Fekai, a New Zealand dependency. CHECK, Maru George. University of New Zealand (Auckland), 1933. M.A. viii, A study in native education with special reference to Niue 137 pp. Island. University of Auckland, 1953. Dip. Ed. 90 pp. ST. GEORGE, Alison Margaret Elam Pacific Infants Performance scale; some preliminary and com­ parative New Zealand studies. DAVIES, Thomas L. B. Ph.l; University of Waikato, 1972. 87 pp. School achievement on non-Maori Polynesians; a survey of achievement in school subjects of bi-lingual Samoan, Niuean and Cook Islands children attending a New Zealand primary school WARBURTON, Stephen Lee and a consideration of some factors which may influence this The reasons for and the events leading up to the annexation of Niue and the term of the first New Zealand Resident. achievement. University of Auckland, 1962, M.A. 133 pp. M.A., University of Otago, 1967. 27 pp.

SOUTH PACIFIC BULLETIN. FIRST QUARTER. 1977 RECENT STAMP ISSUES

Several Pacific island territories and countries have marked the 25th anniversary of the accession to the throne by Queen Elizabeth II by congratulatory stamp issues.

PITCAIRN ISLANDS

Three stamps were issued on February 6 ; they were designed by Miss Jennifer Toombs the English artist who has been responsible for many issues from Pitcairn during the past five years. The designs are: (continued from page 11) 8 cents: Prince Philip’s visit to Pitcairn Sweet potato can grow well at almost any in 1971. altitudes and that is one of the good charac­ teristics that sweet potato possesses. The 20 cents: The Chair of Homage other introduced crops following sweet potato are corn, water melon, beans, cucum­ 50 cents: The enthronement. ber, banana (Chinese) and tobacco. The in­ digenous crops are taro, yam, sugar cane, John Waddington of Kirkstall Ltd. were pitpit, banana (local variety) and greens. printers using multicolour lithography on Apart from the food crops, fowls and dogs block CA watermarked paper. are domesticated. It is interesting to note that pigs which were once the most impor­ FIJI tant domesticated animal and which also formed part of traditional wealth can no The Dominion of Fiji also issued three longer be seen in the area. At the moment, if stamps; Sylvia Goaman was the designer pigs are needed for a feast or other pur­ and they were produced by Questa Colour poses they have to be purchased outside the Security Printers Ltd. The designs are: village with dollars and cents. Traditional tools used for gardening were 10 cents: The Queen’s visit to Fiji in 1970. the digging stick, stone axe, and kina shells; however, with the introduction of steel axes, 25 cents: King Edward’s Chair. knives, hoes and spades, stone axes and kina shells are no longer used though the 30 cents: The Queen with her cloth-of-gold digging stick is still used today. □ supertunica. The description of Tearaka will be concluded The number of stamps per sheet is 25, in the next issue with Part 2 — Th e Impact printed with multi-colour lithography on CA of Cash Crop Agriculture.' watermarked paper. WESTERN SAMOA This independent state has issued four stamps, two on the actual coronation and two on the visit of Prince Philip and Lord Louis Mountbatten to Apia, the capital, in March 1971, when they sailed through the Pacific on the royal yacht Britannia. The stamps are:

12 sene: Apia, with the Britannia in port. 26 sene: Presentation of the spurs of chivalry. 32 sene: Britannia berthed in Apia. 50 sene: The Queen leaving the Abbey. The stamps were designed by BG. Studios in the U.K. and printed by Questa using the litho process on kava bowl watermarked paper. They were issued on February 11, during the Queen’s visit.

Page 48 SOUTH PACIFIC BULLETIN. FIRST QUARTER. 1977 Principal publications of the SOUTH PACIFIC COMMISSION h SOUTH PACIFIC BULLETIN: This illustrated quarterly magazine provides informative articles and expert opinion and guidance on a wide range of topics of interest to those concerned with the welfare and development of the territories of the South Paci­ fic. Subjects covered in recent issues include— nutrition, public health, tropical crops, pests and diseases of plants and animals, current scientific research, co-operatives, community development and home economics, trade, education, housing and urbaniza­ tion, natural history, and anthropology.

SUBSCRIPTION RATES PACIFIC ISLANDS AUST. NZ UK USA Single copy $A0.95 $1.00 $NZ1.20 65p $US1.25 One year $A3.80 $4.00 SNZ4.80 £2.40 $US5.00 Three years SA10.50 $11.00 SNZ13.50 £6.75 $US14 00

•fa TECHNICAL PAPERS: These are technical reports on a wide range of subjects in the economic, social, and health fields. More than 170 titles have been issued to date, but many are out of print. A list showing available papers is obtainable on request. SPC READERS: Written for Pacific schools at the request of Territories. A series of readers based on the Tate Oral English Course for use as class texts or supplementary reading. Price list available on request. ^ SPC HANDBOOKS: No. 1, Rat Control (revised); No. 2. Cocoa Production', No. 3, Land Tenure', No. 4, Laboratory Techniques in the Diagnosis of Intestinal Parasitic Infections', No. 5, Banana Production', No. 6. Coconut Production', No. 7, Urban Youth Work', No. 8. Market Gardening', No. 9. Bacteriology, No. 10. Weed Control; No. II. Haematology; No. 12, Hospital and Health Service Administration; No. 13, Manuel de Reutilisation des Effluents d ’Origine Animule duns le Pacifique Sud; No. 14, Citrus Production in the South Pacific; No. 15, Beef Cattle Husbandry and Herd Management; No. 16, Arabica Coffee Production in the South Pacific. Price. SA 1.50 (SUS1.85). ^ EXOTIC PLANT PESTS AND DISEASES: An invaluable comprehensive loose-leaf reference book of plant pests and diseases to be excluded from or prevented from spreading within the area of the South Pacific Commission. Price within SPC area $A7.50. Elsewhere $A15.00 ($US18.50). Postage $A3 extra all territories. jl. FISH POISONING IN THE SOUTH PACIFIC: Sums up present knowledge of icthyosar- cotoxism; identifies deadly fish; 44 full-colour plates. Price: $A3.50 (SUS4.35). + BECHE-DE-MER OF THE SOUTH PACIFIC ISLANDS: A handbook for fishermen; identifies, with coloured pictures, commercially important species with advice on col­ lecting, processing, packaging and marketing. Price SA1.50. ^ HANDICRAFTS OF THE SOUTH SEAS: Revised edition, many colour and black-and- white illustrations; an invaluable buyer’s guide to Pacific artefacts. Price, $A3.50 in SPC area, SA4.00 elsewhere. ^ PESTICIDE HANDBOOK: A guide to the safe and efficient use of crop protection chemicals available in the Pacific. Price $A1.50 ($US1.85).

INQUIRIES REGARDING SPC PUBLICATIONS SHOULD BE SENT TO South Pacific Commission Publications Bureau Box 306, Haymarket, N.S.W., Australia 2000 , Head Office: ■ ■■••••'.;? & 7 Bridge Street, Sydney N.S.W. 2000. . Established 1883. Consolidated Capital & Reserves $125,000,000.

GROUP OF COMPANIES General Merchants—Wholesale & Retail. Shipping, Customs, Forwarding, Insurance & Travel Agents. Plantation Owners.

Australian Branches BURNS PHILP TRAVEL SERVICE BURNS PHILP (SOUTH SEA) CO. LTD. Melbourne. Adelaide Brisbane Fremantle Australia Sydney Melbourne Adelaide. Bris­ Branches' Suva. Levuka. Lautoka. Labasa Geraldton, Darwtn Bowen. Townsville bane. Cairns. Townsville. Bowen. Geraldton. Ba Sigatoka. Taveuni. Savusavu — FUI. Cairns. Thursday Is . Normanton. tnnislai! Darwin Apia, Pago Pago — SAMOA Nukualofa, Ingham, Mt Isa New Zealand Auckland. Wellington. New­ Haapai. Vavau — TONGA Niue Is. market Nelson. Christchurch BURNS PHIL? (NEW HEBRIDES) LIMITED London Branches Vila. Santo — NEW HEBRIDES New Zealand Branches Papua New Guinea Port Moresby Lae. Samarai. Madang. Rabaul. Kavieng. Kieta. Wellington. Auckland. Nelson BURNS PHILP (NORFOLK ISLAND) Wewak LIMITED London F iji Suva. Lautoka. Nadi Labasa Norfolk Island Also at Norfolk Island. Santo. Vila. Apia Bums. Philp & Co Ltd Imperial House. Buyers & Exporters ol all Island Produce — 15/19 Kingsway. WC28 6UN Represented In the Pacific Islands by: Distributors & Agents lor all Classes ol BURNS PHILP (NEW GUINEA) LIMITED USA. Manufactured Products & Foodstuffs Agents Burns Philp Company of San Francisco 230 Port Moresby. Boroko. Daru, Samarai, throughout the Pacific lor Queensland Insur­ Catllorma Street San Francisco. 94111, Popondetta. Rabaul. Kieta. Kavieng, Kokopo. ance Co Ltd.. Burns Philp Trustee Co. Lid.. USA Lae. Bulolo. Wau. Kamantu. Madang. Wewak. Shell Co. of Australia Lid S Shell Co(PI.) Goroka. Mt. Hagen — Papua New Guinea. Ltd INTER-ISLAND VESSELS are operated within Papua New Guinea, Western Samoa and the New Hebrides