Pleistocene-Holocene Extinctions: Distinguishing Between Anthropic and Climatic Causes

Home , Aepyornis, Bootherium, Mullerornis, Nothrotherium, Quaternary extinction, Toxodon

Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro

Instituto de Biologia

Programa de Pós-Graduação em Ecologia

Pleistocene-Holocene extinctions: distinguishing between anthropic and climatic causes

Bernardo Barros de Alvarenga Araujo

Supervisor: Fernando A. dos Santos Fernandez

Co-supervisor: José Alexandre F. Diniz-Filho

Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brazil - 2013

"The beauty and genius of a work of art may be reconceived,

though its first material expression be destroyed; a vanished harmony may

yet again inspire the composer; but when the last individual of a race of

living beings breathes no more, another heaven and another earth must

pass before such a one can be again."

William Beebe, The Bird (1906).

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Although this is one of the most enjoyable sections to write in a dissertation – mainly because it is a space to acknowledge the importance of many people I hold dear and because it is (hopefully) a red marker free zone – I will try to make it as quick as possible.

First, I would like to thank my family for the infinite care offered throughout… well, through my whole life, but particularly in the years I’ve been in college. For eight years now I’ve had two homes filled with people who gave me nothing but love and incentive, and I couldn’t possibly begin to explain how much their support has meant

(and will continue to mean) to me.

In the respect of support, friends are also worth mentioning, especially the ones at the Laboratório de Ecologia e Conservação de Populações (Laboratory of Population

Ecology and Conservation; LECP) of Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro (UFRJ), not only for the countless discussions and suggestions that were so valuable for the development of the present dissertation, but also for composing a working environment that is at the same time focused, greatly productive and so incredibly pleasant to inhabit.

I would also like to extend a good extent of my gratitude to my co-supervisor

José Alexandre F. Diniz-Filho, and to my dear colleagues Matheus Souza Lima-Ribeiro and Joaquín Hortal, for all the brainstorms and exchanges of ideas and data that fuelled my research. A particular acknowledgment on that respect should also go to Luiz

Gustavo Rodrigues Oliveira-Santos for the enormous help provided with the conception and development of the models used in this work (and I still haven’t forgotten about that beer I owe you for all that).

III

A couple of agencies also deserve acknowledgement, namely the Conselho

Nacional de Pesquisa e Desenvolvimento (CNPq) for providing the scholarship that aided me through the last two years, and the Programa de Pós-Graduação em Ecologia

(PPGE) of UFRJ (along with its faculty members) for the chance to execute this somewhat audacious project.

For last, and most certainly not least, I would like to thank Fernando Fernandez

– supervisor, friend, and the very first person to open my eyes to the plight of so many fantastical creatures that became my personal object of fascination for the best part of four years. For me, this piece of (hard) work is as much yours as it is mine, and I wouldn’t have it any other way. Wherever my writings (academic or otherwise) should take me, the time spent under your tutelage will never be forgotten. And if I ever manage to build that time machine, I’ll be sure to make it a two-seater.

ABSTRACT

Through the last 50,000 years, the world lost about two thirds of its genera of large terrestrial animals, in a sequence that affected every continent except Africa. Explanations for these Quaternary extinctions, mostly based on regional studies, have been placed anywhere in a gradient ranging from climatic to anthropogenic causes. However, there have been few global quantitative analyses of this phenomenon, none of which takes full advantage of the vastly improved number and reliability of paleontological dates in recent years. Herein, we used a global approach to compare the explanatory power of the climatic and anthropogenic hypotheses. The world was divided in 19 regions where the extinctions took place at distinct times. Late Quaternary climatic variance expressed by 18O fluctuations and calibrated archeological dates of human first arrival to each region were used as predictive variables.

The response variable was the last calibrated dates of occurrence of each megafaunal genus in each region. A comparison of the observed patterns with null models obtained by simulations showed that the extinctions were closer in time than expected by chance to climatic changes, human arrival, both or neither in 2, 82, 10 and 32 cases respectively (n = 126 last occurrence dates). Both cases where climate was the better explanation and most unexplained cases occurred in Eurasia, where the extinction process was longer and megafauna had a long interaction with early hominids. In a global perspective, however, the results provide strong support to the hypothesis that anthropogenic impacts are the best explanation for the extensive megafaunal extinctions that ravaged the planet in the Quaternary. Such realization should prompt us to rescue the true baselines of the world’s megafauna and ecosystem structure, and to reevaluate how we perceive and manage our remaining biodiversity and ecological processes.

KEY-WORDS: Quaternary extinction, megafauna, anthropogenic impacts, climatic variance, global analysis.

RESUMO

Ao longo dos últimos 50.000 anos, o mundo perdeu por volta de dois terços dos seus gêneros de grandes animais terrestres, em uma sequência que afetou todos os continentes exceto a África. As explicações para estas extinções do Quaternário, em sua maioria baseadas em estudos regionais, têm sido colocadas em qualquer ponto de um gradiente que vai de causas climáticas a antropogênicas. No entanto, têm havido poucas análises quantitativas globais deste fenômeno, nenhuma das quais tira completo proveito do vasto aperfeiçoamento no número e confiabilidade das datas paleontológicas nos anos recentes. Aqui, nós usamos uma abordagem global para comparar o poder explicador das hipóteses climática e antropogênica. O mundo foi dividido em 19 regiões onde as extinções aconteceram em tempos diferentes. A variância climática do final do Quaternário expressa por flutuações em 18O e datas arqueológicas calibradas de primeira chegada humana a cada região foram utilizadas como variáveis preditoras. A variável resposta foi a última data calibrada de ocorrência de cada gênero de megafauna em cada região. Uma comparação dos padrões observados com os modelos nulos obtidos por simulações mostrou que as extinções eram mais próximas no tempo do que o esperado ao acaso de mudanças climáticas, chegada humana, ambas ou nenhum dos dois em 2, 82, 10 e 32 casos respectivamente (n =

126 datas de última ocorrência). Ambos os casos nos quais o clima foi a melhor explicação e a maior parte dos casos não explicados ocorreram na Eurásia, onde o processo de extinção foi mais longo e a megafauna teve uma longa interação com hominídeos mais antigos. Numa perspectiva global, no entanto, os resultados fornecem um forte apoio para a hipótese de que impactos antropogênicos são a melhor explicação para as extensivas extinções da megafauna que assolaram o planeta no Quaternário. Essa percepção deve nos impelir a recuperar as verdadeiras linhas de base da megafauna e estrutura dos ecossistemas do mundo, e a reavaliar como nós percebemos e manejamos nossa biodiversidade e nossos processos ecológicos remanescentes.

PALAVRAS-CHAVE: extinções do Quaternário, megafauna, impactos antropogênicos, variância climática, análise global.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Acknowledgements III

Abstract V

Resumo VI

List of Tables VIII

List of Figures IX

Introduction 1

Methods data 5

Methods analyses 10

Results 16

Discussion 25

References 32

Appendix I supplementary data a1

Appendix I supplementary data references a82

Appendix II supplementary figure a91

VII

LIST OF TABLES

Table 1 Mead-Meltzer Scale, as modified by Lindsey and Barnosky (2010) 7

Table 2 Scoring systems created to assess the reliability of U/Th and OSL dates 8

Table 3 Dates for extinct genera, human arrival, and summarized results from the null models 19

Table 4 Dates corrected by bootstrapping and comparisons between results 24

Table S1 Megafaunal dates from South America that ranked 11+ on the Mead-Meltzer Scale a2

Table S2 Megafaunal dates from Caribbean that ranked 11+ on the Mead-Meltzer Scale a5

Table S3 Megafaunal dates from North America that ranked 11+ on the Mead-Meltzer Scale a6

Table S4 Megafaunal dates from Eurasia that ranked 11+ on the Mead-Meltzer Scale a14

Table S5 Megafaunal dates from Japan that ranked 11+ on the Mead-Meltzer Scale a42

Table S6 Megafaunal dates from Madagascar that ranked 11+ on the Mead-Meltzer Scale a44

Table S7 Megafaunal dates from Tasmania that ranked 11+ on the Mead-Meltzer Scale a47

Table S8 Megafaunal dates from New Zealand that ranked 11+ on the Mead-Meltzer Scale a48

Table S9 Megafaunal dates from Australia that ranked 11+ on the Mead-Meltzer Scale a52

Table S10 Human dates from South America that ranked 13+ on the Mead-Meltzer Scale a60

Table S11 Human dates from North America that ranked 13+ on the Mead-Meltzer Scale a66

Table S12 Human dates from Eurasia that ranked 13+ on the Mead-Meltzer Scale a70

Table S13 Human dates from Japan that ranked 13+ on the Mead-Meltzer Scale a78

Table S14 Human dates from Tasmania that ranked 13+ on the Mead-Meltzer Scale a79

Table S15 Well ranked Rattus exulans dates from New Zealand as proxies for human arrival a80

VIII

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1 Regions considered on the analyses 11

Figure 2 Sampled dates of Mylodon from Cueva del Milodon, replacement for 1k iterations 15

Figure 3 Null model results - effects of climatic variance over extinct megafauna genera 17

Figure 4 Null model results - effects of human arrival over extinct megafauna genera 18

Figure 5 Null model results - Geographical distribution of all extinction causes 18

Figure S1 Effects of climatic variance and human arrival time-lapse over No. of extinct genera a91

INTRODUCTION

Since the beginning of the 19th century, when science became aware of a sudden and geologically recent disappearance of many large-bodied animals, the Pleistocene-Holocene extinctions became a heated topic of academic debate (Grayson 2008). Starting around 50,000 years ago, the world (with the exception of Africa) lost most representatives of the megafauna

(broadly defined as animals above 44kg; Martin 1984). Some landmasses, like Australia and the Americas, experienced the extinction of more than three quarters of their large animal genera (Koch & Barnosky 2006).

Understanding the causes of the megafauna extinctions across the Pleistocene-

Holocene boundary remains a great unresolved scientific question. For a long time, two main hypotheses to explain these extinctions divided the academic community interested on the debate. The first predicts that the extinctions were caused by environmental changes triggered by climatic shifts that followed the last glacial maximum. The other hypothesis focus on human diaspora across the globe, arguing that anthropogenic impact – mostly overhunting – would have caused the extinctions following the colonization of each landmass by anatomically modern humans.

The first hypothesis originated from Agassiz’s ideas about glaciation, a disclosure that took place still on the 19th century (Grayson 1984). Yet, Darwin himself, during his voyage aboard the Beagle, showed that Pleistocene extinct fauna fossils also occurred on geological stratifications more recent than the glaciation periods’ (Grayson 1984). Other scientists of that time, like Alfred Russel Wallace, had already argued that no environmental disturbances other than of the ones brought by the arrival of men on each continent, could have prompted such extinctions (Martin 1967). However, that second hypothesis was only formalized by Paul S.

Martin on 1967, when he demonstrated the synchrony between human arrival and megafaunal

1 decline on North America and, later, on many regions of the globe. Martin claimed that a strong hunting pressure over animals that were evolutionarily unprepared to deal with it would have led to a fast wave of large mammal extinctions. This hypothesis would come to be known as Pleistocene overkill, and it was improved over the following years, further refining the extinction model based on anthropogenic factors (Martin 1984). Over the next decades different theories were also raised by different authors, invoking pathogens (MacPhee

& Marx 1997), extraterrestrial impacts (Firestone et al. 2007) or instabilities caused by intrinsic characteristics of the dynamics of the “extinct communities” (Forster 2004) as possible causes for the extinctions. Such theories, however, failed to explain the geographical and taxonomical width of the event, earning little attention among the scientific community.

For a long time after the publication of Martin’s works, the extinctions debate remained polarized. On one side were the advocates of the climatic hypothesis, who initially argued in favor of the direct effects of the glaciation over the megafauna (Grayson 1984).

After some time, however, they started to be criticized because of the lack of synchrony between the last glacial maximum and the extinctions on several continents (Koch &

Barnosky 2006). As a result, through recent years, the environmental view of the extinctions has been supported by climatic and floral data that suggest environmental changes particular to each time and place where a group of species has gone extinct (Koch & Barnosky 2006).

On the other side were the advocates of the overkill, defending their view from critiques about the apparent scarcity of direct evidences of human predation over megafauna species and of coexistence between men and some of the extinct genera (Grayson & Meltzer 2003), arguing that these apparent lacks are mere sampling artifacts. Over the last few years, in light of many recent findings and improved datasets, proponents of anthropic driven extinctions abandoned the idea of very fast decimation waves (blitzkrieg), suggesting a slower paced process

(Johnson 2006; Barnosky & Lindsey 2010).

2 In recent years, many researchers came to defend a synergy among climatic and anthropogenic factors as a more plausible scenario for the extinctions (e.g. Barnosky 2004,

Nogués-Bravo et al. 2008, Lorenzen 2011, Prescott et al. 2012, Lima-Ribeiro & Diniz-Filho

2013), although they may diverge in respect to the balance of climate and humans as extinction drivers (Prescott et al. 2012, Lima-Ribeiro et al. 2012). Nonetheless, many articles are still written in favor of either side of this dichotomy. Most of the studies on the

Quaternary extinctions, however, are focused on a single continent (Alroy 2001, Diniz-Filho

2004, Jonhson 2006) and few global analyses exist in the literature (for exceptions, see Lyons et al. 2004, Gillespie 2008, Prescott 2012). Furthermore, few of the global studies offer actual quantitative analyses of one or both hypotheses, and the ones that do are based on crude data

(Prescott et al. 2012).

However one chooses to approach the question of past extinctions, fossil dating (i.e. the establishment of the calendar “dates” when fossilized beings were alive) is a crucial methodology, for it allows the establishment of synchrony between a given extinction event and its potential causes. In the last years, a growing number of dates have been published and revised in different parts of the world (FAUNMAP Working Group 1994, Roberts et al. 2001,

Orlova et al. 2004, Barnosky & Lindsey 2010, Crowley 2010, Lorenzen 2011, Iwase et al.

2012, Rawlence et al. 2012). Moreover, more accurate climatic models have been developed for the last 125,000 years, a period that encompasses the end of the Pleistocene and the beginning of the Holocene (Andersen et al. 2004). These advances made a once unfeasible comparative global analysis of climatic changes, dates of human arrival on each landmass and extinction of each megafauna taxa a concrete possibility, and a promising path for resolving the extinctions debate.

This dissertation aims to answer whether the Pleistocene-Holocene extinction of the megafauna was caused by climatic changes, anthropogenic impacts or a combination of both.

3 These extinctions were a worldwide event and a satisfactory explanation for them begs for a global approach. Thus, a comprehensive number of all published dates of human arrival and last appearance of megafaunal genera on each landmass, together with climatic data across the late Pleistocene, were compiled in order to compare the power of both hypotheses to explain the extinction dates. This is one of the first works to use a strict quantitative global approach to this end, making use of as many recently published dates as possible.

4 METHODS

Data

The predictions of each hypothesis were compared in order to evaluate them. The environmental hypothesis predicts that extinctions would have occurred during or following intense climatic changes through the Pleistocene-Holocene. The human impact hypothesis, on the other hand, predicts that extinctions would have followed human colonization of each landmass across the globe.

First, dates corresponding to the aforementioned events were collected from scientific literature. The last appearance dates of megafauna (MLADs) species and first appearance dates of anatomically modern humans (HFADs) on several landmasses were gathered from all published sources that could be assessed (see Appendix 1). These landmasses include South

America, North America, Caribbean islands, Northern Eurasia, Australia, Tasmania,

Madagascar, New Zealand and Japan. Climatic changes throughout the last millennia of the

Pleistocene and Holocene were assessed through the North Greenland Ice Core Project

(NGRIP) data on oxygen isotopic composition on ice cores (Andersen et al. 2004). This database comprises δ18O data (a proxy of the planet’s temperature conditions) from the last

122,000 years, with mean 18O values for every 50 years.

To allow comparisons between the hypotheses’ predictions, data reliability was assessed through a scoring system. Paleontological and archaeological dates are a frequent matter of debate due to their sensitivity to methodological errors (Walker 2005). Sample contamination, poor materials, stratigraphic misinterpretations, inadequate dating methods and other problems can seriously jeopardize a date’s accuracy. To identify reliable data, many authors have used different quantitative scales based mainly on sample material, stratigraphic

5 associations and the type of equipment and logistics used in a given method (Mead & Meltzer

1984, Burney 2004, Barnosky & Lindsey 2010, Iwase 2012). Dates from articles and books that passed through such scrutiny were collected without further appraisal. In most cases, however, displayed dates lacked any sort of accuracy determination, making data filtering a necessity. For radiocarbon based dates, this filtering was achieved using the Mead-Meltzer

Scale (Mead & Meltzer 1984) modified by Lindsey and Barnosky (2010; Table 1), applying strict criteria: for paleontological and archaeological dates to be accepted, they had to reach at least ranks 11 (out of a maximum rank of 12) and 13 (out of a maximum rank of 17) respectively (following Barnosky & Lindsey 2010). Still, most datings performed in Oceania over the extinctions period are based on different methods, mainly U/Th (Uranium-Thorium dating), OSL (Optically Stimulated Luminescence dating) and ESR (Electron Spin Resonance dating). As there are no scoring systems capable of evaluating the accuracy of these types of dating methods, ranked scales along the lines of the Mead-Meltzer Scale were designed to assess the reliability of U/Th and OSL dates (Table 2). The new scales do not include ranks associated with archaeological remains, because human dates were always based on radiocarbon methods. ESR dating involves a more complex set of techniques, making its dates harder to fit into a simple scoring system. So, only sources that utilized CSUS-ESR, a much more accurate variant of the ESR method, were considered in the following analyses

(Grün et al. 2008, 2010).

6 Table 1 – Mead-Meltzer Scale, as modified by Lindsey and Barnosky (2010). Scores from each category

(Material, Stratigraphic association of specimen of interest with dated material, Association of dated material with archaeological evidence and Dating method) were summed to establish the date’s overall rank. Paleontological dates that ranked 11 or 12 (because the Association with archaeological evidence

category did not apply to them) and archaeological dates that ranked 13 to 17 were considered

reliable and used in the following analyses.

14C SCORE

Material

Collagen 5

Dung 5

Hide 5

Hair 5

Apatite 3

Whole bone 1

Charcoal 6

Wood (logs, twigs, leaves) 5

Peat 3

Organic mud (gyttja) 3

Soil 3

Shell 2

Terrestrial carbonate (marl) 1

Stratigraphic association of specimen of interest with dated material

Date on the specimen itself 5

Date from same stratum as the specimen 3

Date on material above the specimen 2

Date on material below the specimen 2

7 ‘‘Associated’’ date 1

Association of dated material with archaeological evidence

Date from human remains 5

Living floor/assemblage 4

Clear hearth 3

Single artifact 3

Probable hearth 2

Clear butchering 2

Equivocal evidence 1

Dating method

AMS 2

Standard or unknown 1

Table 2 – Scoring systems created to assess the reliability of U/Th and OSL dates. The establishment of each

date’s overall rank followed the Mead-Meltzer system (see Table 1).

U/TH SCORE

Material

Unaltered coral 6

Speleothem 6

Volcanic rocks 6

Ferruginous concretions 4

Tufa 4

Mollusc shells 4

Phosphates 4

Diagenetically altered corals 2

8 Bone 1

Evaporites 1

Caliche 1

Stromatolites 1

Peat and wood 1

Stratigraphic association of specimen of interest with dated material

Date from same stratum as the specimen or on the specimen itself 4

Date on material above the specimen 2

Date on material below the specimen 2

‘‘Associated’’ date 1

Dating method

MC-ICP-MS / TIMS 2 alpha particles / ICP-MS 1

OSL SCORE

Material

Quartz 2

Feldspar 1

Stratigraphic association of specimen of interest with dated material

Date on sediment adjacent or attached to the specimen 5

Date from same stratum as the specimen 3

Date on material above the specimen 2

Date on material below the specimen 2

‘‘Associated’’ date 1

Dating method (measurement)

IRSL (feldspar only) / LED 3

9 Halogen lamp 2

Argon-Ion 1

Dating method (analysis)

Single aliquot 2

Multiple aliquot 1

After the data filtering, date calibration was performed. Radiocarbon datings are based on the 14C/12C ratio of tested samples, and, as base concentrations of both isotopes fluctuate through time in the atmosphere, calibration is necessary to transform ‘radiocarbon years’ on actual ‘years before present’. Dates were calibrated using the software Calib 6.0, using the

IntCal09 curve for every sample. Even though this calibration curve was originally designed for the northern hemisphere, it is the only one that encompasses the whole span of the extinction event.

Analyses

Calibrated dates and climatic data were then used to develop mathematical models to assess each hypothesis individually and combined. Before any analysis could be performed, as both megafauna extinctions and human colonization times vary considerably within large landmasses, MLADs and HFADs on continents had to be divided geographically. The divisions were based mainly on great geographical barriers and temporal gaps on human arrival. A total of 19 regions, including islands and portions of continents, were used to pair up human arrival and genera disappearances (Figure 1). In the following models, each extinct genus in a given region was treated as an individual sampling unit. Genera were considered

10 rather than species to avoid taxonomical confusion, once fossil samples are not always identified to the specific level, and when they are, the identifications are often controversial.

This procedure allows genera with well ranked dates (see above) in more than one region to appear multiple times, which makes biological sense as the extinction of species of a genus in different regions can be independent events, regardless of their cause.

Figure 1 – Regions considered on the analysis: Australia, Caribbean, Japan, Madagascar, New Zealand,

Tasmania, Wrangel, Bering (northwesternmost North America and northeasternmost Eurasia), Central North

America, Eastern North America, Western North America, Northern Europe, Southern Europe, West Siberia,

Central Russia, Northern South America, Central South America, Patagonia and Andean region (the Andes

and South America’s western coast).

With the sampling units established, a generalized mixed model was used to test the effects of the human arrival time-lapse and 18O variation (fixed effects) on the number of extinct megafaunal genera through the late Quaternary in the 19 aforementioned regions around the world. For such test, the last 60 thousand years of data were divided into 20 categories of 3 thousand years each. The dependent variable, the megafauna, was quantified as the number of extinct genera on each time category. Human arrival time-lapse (first independent variable) was quantified as the amount of years from each time category to the

11 category where human colonization took place on each region. Climatic variation (the second independent variable) was quantified simply as 18O variance within each time category. The model was fit using a Poisson distribution because the number of extinct genera is a typical discrete count variable. The regions’ identities were included in the model as random effects

(allowing random intercept estimation) and temporal autocorrelation was controlled between successive time windows within each province using a first-order autoregressive correlation structure. The model was validated through the checking of both normality and absence of temporal autocorrelation of the residuals. The analysis was performed in R using the glmmPQL() function from the MASS package.

After the initial analysis, null models were designed to further investigate the chronological association of periods of intense climatic change and of HFADs with the

MLADs. For the first hypothesis, a thousand dates were randomly drawn from the 122 thousand years of climatic data available for each extinct genus on each region. Each true last appearance date, as well as its thousand random associated dates, had the 18O variance of their dating error timespan plus another thousand years into the past calculated. This step assumes that the effects of climatic changes on regional megafauna extinctions would be apparent within 1,000 years interval; this is regarded as a conservative approach to accommodate a delay in response by the extinct genera. That measure of climatic instability was chosen as an environmental variable rather than extreme values because there is a single apex to the last glaciation (or two, if the Younger Dryas is considered), thus climatic variance would be a better candidate than climatic extremes for providing a global explanation for the extinction event. These lists of 1001 variances for each sampling unit were then used to create one-tailed probability distributions, and p-values were extracted based on the position of the true last appearance date in relation to the intensity of climate changes, among all possible (random) dates.

12 A similar method was employed to assess the second hypothesis. Again, a thousand dates were randomly drawn from a 122,000 years timespan into the past for each MLAD on each region, but this time the chronological distance between each date (random and true) and the corresponding regional HFAD was measured. These chronological distance lists were then ranked and p-values were extracted, in a way that they expressed the proportion of random dates (number of dates divided by a thousand) that were closer to human arrival than the true

MLAD.

Both models were generated in R, and their results tabulated and compared. On every occasion where the test of significance of a given model provided a p-value of up to 0.06 (to better encompass the temporal lag between human colonization and megafaunal demise) – that is, when extinctions were more closely related to climatic changes or to human arrival than expected by chance – the cause it expressed was considered responsible for that genus extinction. When both hypotheses showed significant p-values, the result was considered

“entangled”, meaning that the models could not discern between causes for that particular extinction event.

Due to the natural paucity of the fossil record and its consequent vulnerability to sampling biases (Signor & Lipps 1982), a second round of analyses was carried out to assess the influence of poorly represented taxa over the overall results of the two previous models. It is highly unlikely that any single dated fossil will represent the actual extinction date of a given taxon (i.e. the moment when its last individual perished), but well sampled taxa have a good chance of having a MLAD closely related to their true time of demise (Barnosky &

Lindsey 2010). The same is not true for poorly represented taxa. With the help of bootstrapping simulations (Gotelli & Ellison 2004), however, one can evaluate and even attempt to correct some of this distortion, using dates of genera that are very well represented on single fossiliferous sites to estimate the bias for poorly represented genera from the same

13 region (Barnosky & Lindsey 2010). Ideally, such corrections should have been exercised over this work’s complete dataset, but that was impossible because many regions failed to present even a single well represented genus. So, only data from South America was corrected in this manner, sampling dates of Mylodon from Cueva del Milodon (Patagonia) with replacement for 1000 iterations (Figure 2), and the previous models were run for a second time, using the new corrected dates. This continent was chosen because Mylodon at Cueva del Milodon was the second best sampled genus in a single site in the whole dataset, and the extinction timespan in South America was small enough to allow dates from a single region to be used to correct for all four of them. The best sampled site in all dataset was located in Wrangel, an island inhabited by a single genus of megafauna (Mammuthus), and thus unfit to serve the correction’s purpose. Finally, the results of this new round of null models were compared with the initial ones, and the effects of sampling bias appraised.

It is important to note that the antiquity of human arrival on every region would also be subject to such biases. However, archeological findings tend to outnumber single genera records over most of the globe. That way, Homo sapiens was considered a well sampled species throughout the world, and no bootstrapping corrections were run over anthropological dates.

Figure 2 - Sampled dates of Mylodon from Cueva del Milodon (Patagonia) with replacement for 1000 iterations.

15 RESULTS

All dates gathered from literature that were ranked satisfactorily according to the modified versions of the Mead-Meltzer scale (Tables 1 and 2, see Methods), along with their results from calibration procedures, are compiled in Appendix 1. Two thousand and eighty eight dates for a total of 67 genera of extinct megafauna (58 mammals, 8 birds and 1 reptile) fulfilled the filtering requirements and were used in the analysis and null models, totalizing

126 sampling units across the 19 regions due to repeated genera. Similarly, 762 human dates fulfilled the same requirements, and were considered in the following analysis and models.

As many regions have genera that survived several millennia after most of their concurrent taxa, to avoid effects of time-lag between the onset of a given variable (human arrival or climatic instability) and total megafaunal demise within a region, 25% of the most recent extinction dates from every region were removed from the constructed mixed models.

The analysis with the remaining 97 genera found both effects of the human arrival time-lapse

(t = -4.69, p < 0.001) and climatic variation (t = 2.42, p < 0.02) on the number of extinct genera through time (model; Number of extinct genus = -0.45 - 0.12*Time-lapse from human arrival + 0.29*Climatic variation). However, the main effect of climatic variation was to magnify the effects of the human arrival (Appendix 2, Figure S1). At times far (> 10 thousand years) from the dates of human arrival, increases in climate variation did not increase the number of extinct genera (Appendix 2, Figure S1). On the other hand, at times close (<5 thousand years) to human arrival, increases in climate variation yielded even higher numbers of extinct genera. The random effect suggested low variance among regions in the intercepts of their respective regressions (sd = 10-4), and the autoregressive structure estimated a correlation of only 0.17 between successive time windows within each region, suggesting that these results are robust.

16 The results for each analyzed genus for the two null models are summarized in Table

3. For the climatic hypothesis, 12 (around 9.5%) out of the 126 genera were found to become extinct during a period of intense climatic instability (Figure 3). The anthropogenic models, on the other hand, showed that 92 (around 73%) out of the 126 genera became extinct on their respective regions nearer human arrival than expected by chance (Figure 4). In ten of the cases above the effects of both factors were entangled. Thus, in the models 2 genera were considered extinct by climatic factors alone, 82 due to human impact alone, 10 by a synergy of both factors, and for the remaining 32 cases no evidence could be found of the effect of either variable (Figure 5).

Figure 3 – Geographical distribution of the results of the null model investigating the effects of climatic

instability over 126 genera (including repeated ones) of extinct megafauna. p values denote the proportion of

random δ18O variances that were greater than the one that encompassed the true MLAD, in a way that values <

0.06 express extinctions during a period of greater climatic instability than expected by chance.

Figure 4 – Geographical distribution of the results of the null model investigating the effects of human arrival

over 126 genera (including repeated ones) of extinct megafauna. p values denote the proportion of random

genera extinction dates that were closer to human arrival than the true MLAD, in a way that values < 0.06

express extinctions nearer to human arrival than expected by chance.

Figure 5 – Geographical distribution of the results regarding which process best explained the extinctions:

climatic change, anthropogenic impact, the entangled effects of both, or none of them.

18 Table 3 - Dates for each extinct genus (MF), human arrival (HS), and summarized results from the null models.

MF14C MF14C MF14C OSL U-Th CSUS- CSUS- HS14C EXTINCTION REGION GENERA MF14C error (2σ) error (2σ) OSL error U-Th error ESR ESR error HS14C (2σ) p Climate p Human CAUSE Australia Diprotodon 44000 6000 45470 48079 0.449 0.054 human Australia Genyornis 47000 2000 45470 48079 0.249 0.015 human Australia Macropus 52000 8000 45470 48079 0.584 0.049 human Australia Methastenurus 89000 6000 45470 48079 0.557 1.000 none Australia Phascolonus 47000 2000 45470 48079 0.229 0.011 human Australia Procoptodon 40100 1100 44013 1556 45470 48079 0.455 0.055 human Australia Protemnodon 44900 1300 45470 48079 0.249 0.037 human Australia Simosthenurus 40100 1100 44013 1556 45470 48079 0.416 0.057 human Australia Sthenurus 44000 5000 45470 48079 0.431 0.052 human Australia Thylacoleo 40100 1100 44013 1556 45470 48079 0.437 0.045 human Australia Zygomaturus 44900 1300 45470 48079 0.274 0.048 human Bering Bison 10370 160 12062 554 13225 15986 0.435 0.035 human Bering Coelodonta 14260 150 17380 432.5 13225 15986 0.631 0.009 human Bering Equus 12290 440 14721 1431 13225 15986 0.078 0.015 human Bering Mammuthus 9650 60 10988 212.5 13225 15986 0.087 0.044 human Bering Panthera 12525 50 14660 430 13225 15986 0.024 0.012 entangled Caribbean Megalocnus 4190 40 4713 130 5500 5500 0.969 0.013 human Caribbean Parocnus 4960 280 5636 663 5500 5500 0.999 0.001 human Central Russia Bison 8860 40 9970 195.5 43300 47049 0.499 0.330 none Central Russia Coelodonta 13165 180 15936 755 43300 47049 0.568 0.317 none Central Russia Mammuthus 9670 60 11000 215.5 43300 47049 0.074 0.335 none Central Russia Megaloceros 10055 45 11575 236 43300 47049 0.262 0.310 none Central Russia Panthera 12450 60 14580 430 43300 47049 0.018 0.313 climate Japan Bison 17900 90 21318 299 31420 35843 0.617 0.151 none Japan Cervus 13970 90 17106 310 31420 35843 0.570 0.169 none Japan Mammuthus 19530 80 23198 508 31420 35843 0.580 0.127 none 19 Japan Palaeoloxodon 23600 130 28323 357 31420 35843 0.125 0.092 none Japan Sinomegaceros 40560 1500 44326 2251 31420 35843 0.324 0.116 none Madagascar Aepyornis 1000 150 964 291 2300 2300 0.897 0.008 human Madagascar Archaeoindris 2291 55 2302 154 2300 2300 0.964 0.000 human Madagascar Geochelone 750 370 652 655 2300 2300 0.000 0.013 entangled Madagascar Hippopotamus 99 36 133 137 2300 2300 0.964 0.012 human Madagascar Megaladapis 630 50 606 63 2300 2300 0.938 0.017 human Madagascar Mullerornis 1280 60 1183 114 2300 2300 0.883 0.006 human NA Central Arctodus 10921 50 12790 155 11480 13627 0.476 0.006 human NA Central Bison 8950 350 10185 921 11480 13627 0.058 0.031 entangled NA Central Bootherium 10980 80 12876 210 11480 13627 0.445 0.005 human NA Central Camelops 11180 45 13061 175 11480 13627 0.395 0.009 human NA Central Equus 9310 310 10456 857 11480 13627 0.036 0.015 entangled NA Central Mammuthus 10200 350 11738 960 11480 13627 0.280 0.012 human NA Central Nothrotheriops 10670 140 12510 371 11480 13627 0.385 0.009 human NA East Arctodus 11480 60 13331 135 12690 15181 0.349 0.013 human NA East Bison 9990 200 11595 785 12690 15181 0.212 0.037 human NA East Castoroides 10320 250 11948 676 12690 15181 0.379 0.026 human NA East Cervalces 11030 150 12916 289 12690 15181 0.469 0.013 human NA East Mammut 8910 150 9959 412 12690 15181 0.498 0.046 human NA East Mammuthus 8260 300 9268 845 12690 15181 0.640 0.049 human NA East Megalonyx 11430 60 13289 135 12690 15181 0.355 0.017 human NA East Mylohyus 11860 40 13669 180 12690 15181 0.145 0.010 human NA East Palaeolama 12390 50 14515 420 12690 15181 0.015 0.005 entangled NA East Platygonus 10790 150 12749 335 12690 15181 0.405 0.024 human NA East Smilodon 9410 155 10696 433 12690 15181 0.055 0.039 entangled NA East Tapirus 12500 1020 15059 2651 12690 15181 0.309 0.002 human NA West Arctodus 10870 75 12764 171 12293 14413 0.434 0.019 human NA West Bison 11930 210 13908 611 12293 14413 0.049 0.002 entangled NA West Bootherium 11690 190 13554 369 12293 14413 0.124 0.009 human NA West Camelops 9955 165 11480 609 12293 14413 0.166 0.030 human NA West Equus 11130 40 12984 175 12293 14413 0.412 0.011 human

20 NA West Euceratherium 11630 150 13507 293 12293 14413 0.245 0.008 human NA West Glossotherium 11030 800 12837 2262 12293 14413 0.081 0.017 human NA West Mammut 10800 250 12643 597 12293 14413 0.410 0.021 human NA West Mammuthus 8815 100 9869 307 12293 14413 0.491 0.038 human NA West Nothrotheriops 10400 275 12001 740 12293 14413 0.419 0.017 human NA West Oreamnos 10140 510 11629 1333 12293 14413 0.167 0.026 human NA West Platygonus 11340 50 13221 108 12293 14413 0.415 0.008 human NA West Smilodon 11130 275 13071 530 12293 14413 0.372 0.009 human New Zealand Dinornis 658 30 615 58 702 627 0.942 0.000 human New Zealand Emeus 10470 130 12244 399 702 627 0.431 0.101 none New Zealand Euryapteryx 1070 60 986 184 702 627 0.907 0.001 human New Zealand Megalapteryx 646 95 623 119 702 627 0.945 0.000 human New Zealand Pachyornis 564 26 584 57 702 627 0.952 0.000 human Northern Europe Bison 27140 360 31578 602.5 42900 46766 0.261 0.185 none Northern Europe Coelodonta 30220 460 34917 1319.5 42900 46766 0.445 0.123 none Northern Europe Equus 36000 450 41072 870 42900 46766 0.424 0.074 none Northern Europe Mammuthus 9760 40 11189 55 42900 46766 0.091 0.328 none Northern Europe Megaloceros 10257 75 12051 335 42900 46766 0.432 0.319 none Northern Europe Panthera 12248 66 14351 480 42900 46766 0.022 0.302 climate Northern Europe Ursus 22107 130 26682 677 42900 46766 0.217 0.209 none SA Andes Cuvieronius 11990 200 14068 716 12780 15289 0.047 0.018 entangled SA Andes Equus 10950 35 12803 148 12780 15289 0.447 0.022 human SA Andes Glossotherium 12350 70 14474 447 12780 15289 0.012 0.006 entangled SA Andes Haplomastodon 16670 80 19851 313 12780 15289 0.600 0.053 human SA Andes Hippidion 21070 100 25182 405 12780 15289 0.529 0.102 none SA Andes Mylodon 13500 65 16636 263 12780 15289 0.519 0.020 human SA Andes Paleolama 10310 30 12179 197 12780 15289 0.346 0.021 human SA Andes Scelidotherium 8910 200 10014 481 12780 15289 0.486 0.061 none SA Central Doedicurus 7010 100 7837 174 11010 12890 0.774 0.045 human SA Central Equus 10290 130 11984 572 11010 12890 0.423 0.012 human SA Central Glossotherium 10500 90 12357 250 11010 12890 0.356 0.004 human SA Central Hippidion 8990 90 10069 303 11010 12890 0.488 0.024 human SA Central Megatherium 7750 250 8644 605 11010 12890 0.840 0.038 human

21 SA Central Scelidotherium 7550 60 8324 125 11010 12890 0.803 0.041 human SA Central Toxodon 11090 40 12946 172 11010 12890 0.423 0.002 human SA North Catonyx 9960 40 11430 178 12440 14621 0.196 0.033 human SA North Equus 16180 70 19198 271 12440 14621 0.479 0.051 human SA North Eremotherium 11340 50 13221 108 12440 14621 0.408 0.015 human SA North Glyptodon 25500 600 30202 1011 12440 14621 0.391 0.158 none SA North Haplomastodon 15290 70 18424 304 12440 14621 0.659 0.032 human SA North Holmesina 41000 1300 44624 1992 12440 14621 0.391 0.369 none SA North Nothrotherium 12200 120 14317 545 12440 14621 0.028 0.001 entangled SA North Smilodon 9130 150 10247 456 12440 14621 0.175 0.045 human SA North Stegomastodon 12980 85 15721 613 12440 14621 0.555 0.011 human SA Patagonia Arctotherium 10345 75 12179 346 11570 13438 0.400 0.017 human SA Patagonia Hippidion 10310 160 11992 585 11570 13438 0.402 0.015 human SA Patagonia Macrauchenia 11665 50 13528 166 11570 13438 0.209 0.003 human SA Patagonia Mylodon 10295 65 12107 283 11570 13438 0.378 0.023 human SA Patagonia Smilodon 11265 45 13189 114 11570 13438 0.420 0.001 human Southern Europe Equus 28680 390 33225 1250 41400 44882 0.176 0.143 none Southern Europe Mammuthus 13390 300 16071 916 41400 44882 0.619 0.287 none Southern Europe Megaloceros 21000 40 25085 355 41400 44882 0.577 0.188 none Southern Europe Panthera 13770 120 16899 266.5 41400 44882 0.541 0.268 none Southern Europe Ursus 27440 130 31587 309 41400 44882 0.136 0.153 none Tasmania Macropus 34230 460 40031 1297 34790 39883 0.458 0.003 human Tasmania Metasthenurus 56000 4000 34790 39883 0.434 0.239 none Tasmania Palorchestes 35920 290 41276 703 34790 39883 0.309 0.016 human Tasmania Protemnodon 30400 270 35345 804 34790 39883 0.307 0.056 human Tasmania Simosthenurus 44500 1000 47822 1957 34790 39883 0.229 0.099 none Tasmania Thylacoleo 56000 4000 34790 39883 0.437 0.255 none Tasmania Zygomaturus 33510 210 38179 701 34790 39883 0.068 0.018 human West Siberia Bison 24600 300 29417 787 14500 17587 0.696 0.111 none West Siberia Coelodonta 10770 250 12600 615 14500 17587 0.422 0.047 human West Siberia Mammuthus 10000 70 11506 261 14500 17587 0.202 0.053 human West Siberia Megaloceros 6816 35 7642 54.5 14500 17587 0.716 0.085 none West Siberia Panthera 13500 65 16636 262.5 14500 17587 0.513 0.011 human

22 West Siberia Ursus 31870 190 36179 618 14500 17587 0.170 0.214 none Wrangel Mammuthus 3685 60 4037 187 4300 4300 0.950 0.001 human

All dates corrected by bootstrapping for the South American continent are compiled in

Table 4. The results from the bootstrapped models deviated little from the general trend expressed above. In the main models, out of 29 South American genera, the extinction of 22 was related to human impact, 3 were considered entangled and 4 were not related to any variable. In the corrected models, the extinction of 22 genera was also related to anthropogenic factors, but only 2 were considered entangled and 5 were not related to any variable. Individually, only 6 genera changed groups between these analyses, shifting from entangled to human impacts in 3 cases, from human to entangled in 2 and from human to unexplained in the remaining case.

23 Table 4 - Dates from South America corrected by bootstrapping and comparisons between corrected and uncorrected results. Corrected MF14C MF14C MF14C HS14C p p Corrected Corrected Corrected EXTINCTION REGION GENERA MF14C error (2σ) error (2σ)HS14C (2σ) Climate Human CONSENSUS MF14C (2σ) p Climate p Human CAUSE SA Andes Cuvieronius 11990 200 14068 716 12780 15289 0.047 0.018 entangled 12327 0.522 0.026 human SA Andes Equus 10950 35 12803 148 12780 15289 0.447 0.022 human 10366 0.48 0.039 human SA Andes Glossotherium 12350 70 14474 447 12780 15289 0.012 0.006 entangled 12037 0.477 0.029 human SA Andes Haplomastodon 16670 80 19851 313 12780 15289 0.600 0.053 human 17414 0.591 0.02 human SA Andes Hippidion 21070 100 25182 405 12780 15289 0.529 0.102 none 23441 0.729 0.084 none SA Andes Mylodon 13500 65 16636 263 12780 15289 0.519 0.020 human 14199 0.014 0.013 entangled SA Andes Paleolama 10310 30 12179 197 12780 15289 0.346 0.021 human 9742 0.493 0.056 human SA Andes Scelidotherium 8910 200 10014 481 12780 15289 0.486 0.061 none 7577 0.849 0.062 none SA Central Doedicurus 7010 100 7837 174 11010 12890 0.774 0.045 human 6743 0.991 0.056 human SA Central Equus 10290 130 11984 572 11010 12890 0.423 0.012 human 9547 0.566 0.026 human SA Central Glossotherium 10500 90 12357 250 11010 12890 0.356 0.004 human 10616 0.118 0.019 human SA Central Hippidion 8990 90 10069 303 11010 12890 0.488 0.024 human 7632 0.831 0.042 human SA Central Megatherium 7750 250 8644 605 11010 12890 0.840 0.038 human 6903 0.949 0.054 human SA Central Scelidotherium 7550 60 8324 125 11010 12890 0.803 0.041 human 5887 0.981 0.067 none SA Central Toxodon 11090 40 12946 172 11010 12890 0.423 0.002 human 11205 0.076 0.019 human SA North Catonyx 9960 40 11430 178 12440 14621 0.196 0.033 human 10132 0.496 0.048 human SA North Equus 16180 70 19198 271 12440 14621 0.479 0.051 human 17900 0.678 0.036 human SA North Eremotherium 11340 50 13221 108 12440 14621 0.408 0.015 human 10784 0.099 0.039 human SA North Glyptodon 25500 600 30202 1011 12440 14621 0.391 0.158 none 28461 0.461 0.164 none SA North Haplomastodon 15290 70 18424 304 12440 14621 0.659 0.032 human 15987 0.594 0.021 human SA North Holmesina 41000 1300 44624 1992 12440 14621 0.391 0.369 none 42883 0.47 0.368 none SA North Nothrotherium 12200 120 14317 545 12440 14621 0.028 0.001 entangled 11880 0.391 0.014 human SA North Smilodon 9130 150 10247 456 12440 14621 0.175 0.045 human 8506 0.873 0.059 human SA North Stegomastodon 12980 85 15721 613 12440 14621 0.555 0.011 human 14423 0.038 0.002 entangled SA Patagonia Arctotherium 10345 75 12179 346 11570 13438 0.400 0.017 human 9742 0.518 0.038 human SA Patagonia Hippidion 10310 160 11992 585 11570 13438 0.402 0.015 human 10251 0.14 0.026 human SA Patagonia Macrauchenia 11665 50 13528 166 11570 13438 0.209 0.003 human 11091 0.068 0.021 human

24 SA Patagonia Mylodon 10295 65 12107 283 11570 13438 0.378 0.023 human 9670 0.554 0.041 human SA Patagonia Smilodon 11265 45 13189 114 11570 13438 0.420 0.001 human 11448 0.179 0.014 human DISCUSSION

The Pleistocene-Holocene extinctions encompassed a wide variety of animals on taxonomical, behavioral and bionomical grounds. However, when they are observed as a single global phenomenon, clear patterns emerge. First and foremost, most extinctions (73%) took place around the time of human arrival in each place, as it can be seen by the close temporal gap between most MLADs and HFADs across the globe. A similar correlation of extinction dates with times of intense climatic variance did not occur, as only 9.5% of the

MLADs followed periods of great 18O fluctuation, a figure only slightly above the value expected by chance. The mixed model results reinforced this conclusion, demonstrating a very strong effect of human arrival time-lapse over the extinction dates (t = -4.69, p < 0.001).

Climatic variation also showed a significant influence over the extinctions (t = 2.42, p < 0.02), but only through the intensification of anthropogenic impacts (Appendix 2, Figure S1). So, our results indicate that human impact was not a mere proximate cause to the Late Quaternary extinctions, but the main factor that led to the demise of the megafauna, even if assisted by climate on some regions.

An interesting trend is that, within this global scenario, strong regional patterns can be observed when the Eurasian continent (with the exception of Bering) is viewed separately from the rest of the world. In the sampling units that occur within West Siberia, Central

Russia, Japan and Europe, only 3 out of the 28 present genera can be considered extinct by humans and 2 can be considered extinct by climatic instability (the only ones in the entire analysis), leaving 23 sampling units unexplained. This is in sharp contrast with the patterns for the rest of the world, where a total of 89 among the 98 genera left (90.8%) were extinct around the time of human arrival, and 79 of those extinctions can be attributed uniquely to anthropogenic causes. This suggests that a synergy with climatic changes is likely to have

25 been important in Eurasia, unlike the other continents, as suggested by several authors (e.g.

Nogués-Bravo et al. 2008, Lorenzen et al. 2011). It also highlights the limitations of single- continent studies to make inferences about the causes of the planetary process of Pleistocene-

Holocene extinctions.

Observing the abovementioned patterns, it becomes clear that extinctions over the

Americas, Australia and every island included in this analysis (except for Japan) were driven mainly by anthropogenic factors, most likely overhunting (Martin 1984). The fact that Africa escaped the main extinction pattern reinforces this interpretation, because this is the only continent where man was native rather than a late arrival. Thus the African megafauna coevolved with man, gradually developing instincts to deal with human predation (Klein

1984), while such instincts are conspicuously absent in faunas which were first exposed to man when he was already an accomplished hunter (Diamond 1984). In Eurasia, the pattern of anthropogenic extinction was not clear-cut, but even there climatic variance did not seem to be the fundamental cause. In the case of the Americas, many of the extinctions closely followed the Younger Dryas stadial, but since human expansion overlapped temporally with this event at this continent, such coincidence was expected. There is no reason to suppose that glacial peaks would account for the megafauna’s demise as the Pleistocene accommodated over 30 glacial events before the Last Glacial Maximum, all of them with few or no associated extinctions (Cione et al. 2003, Barnosky 2004). On continental Eurasia, extinctions were more spaced in time than in any other continent, encompassing genera with MLADs from 10 thousand to over 40 thousand years before present. Therefore, most of these extinctions also could not be explained by cold temperature peaks of the Last Glacial

Maximum or any stadials. In fact, given this temporally protracted extinction window on

Eurasia, it is possible that climate played a very different role on the extinctions.

26 The colonization of the Eurasian continent was the only moment in human dispersal across the globe when paleolithic men – until then, a fully tropical species – was forced to move against increasingly colder environments as it made its way toward high latitudes

(Oppenheimer 2009). While the spread of anatomically modern men was a process that took only a few thousand years over most continents (from around 8 thousand years in Sahul to less than 2 thousand years in the Americas), it was much longer over Eurasia. The HFADs from Central Russia and Europe are over 45 thousand years old, about 30 thousand years apart from Bering’s, the region of highest latitude in the continent, and almost 20 thousand years apart from the first human dates across the arctic (Pitulko et al. 2004). This pattern shows that traversing the Eurasian latitudinal range was a long process. It is very likely that human numbers grew very slowly in Eurasia due to the same conditions that made its colonization difficult, retarding the demographic impacts of men over megafauna genera. This process would result in a greater temporal gap between FHADs and MLADs across Eurasian regions, resulting in a false negative signal in the null models. This possibility could also be investigated by correlating human arrival with extinctions in Eurasia on a finer spatial scale, but additional data would likely be necessary. Thus, such analysis was not conducted in this dissertation.

Other possible explanation for the slower pace of Eurasian extinctions, and the fact that this continent lost a smaller proportion of its large fauna than Australia and the Americas, is the coexistence of megafauna with hominids for several thousand years prior to the arrival of modern men. Although the diaspora of modern humans to Eurasia was relatively recent, early Homo – H. heidelbergensis and H. neanderthalensis – had been present in that continent for hundreds of thousands of years (Stringer & Andrews 2005). So, as in Africa, it is possible that coevolution granted these animals a greater resilience to the hunting pressure exerted by

Homo sapiens (Antonio Gilman, personal communication).

27 Other works have approached the Eurasian extinctions from different angles. One that deserves attention for comparative purposes is Lorenzen’s et al. (2011) work on species- specific responses of a few large mammals to climate and human presence. They conclude that the extinctions of these species on Eurasia and North America were either caused by climatic changes or a synergy between climate and anthropogenic effects. These conclusions, however, are based on the construction of past species distribution models and the use of ancient DNA, methods that are either based on many assumptions or plagued by methodological uncertainties (Hofreiter et al. 2001, Barry & Elith 2006). Furthermore, environmental hypotheses propose that climatic driven habitat changes were the direct cause of the extinctions and, at least for North America, it has been demonstrated that such changes occurred after the megafauna declined (Gill et al. 2009; see Rule et al. 2012 for similar results in Australia). The advantage of the present work is that it presents strong patterns under only two assumptions; that the dates incorporated in the models are accurate and that humans hunted the megafauna species.

Some authors have questioned that second assumption in the past, arguing that a mere coincidence of HFADs and MLADs is not enough to establish causality, and that there is a lack of direct evidence of human hunting some megafauna species (Grayson & Meltzer 2003).

However, it has been demonstrated that this lack is another artifact caused by the short coexistence of Homo sapiens and the large animal fauna in any specific locality. The length of the evolutionary history of each megafaunal genus dwarfs the period when it coexisted with humans in any given place, which explains the rarity of sites with direct evidences of man- megafauna interactions (Barnosky 2004). Furthermore, the key to understanding these extinctions lies not in the intensity of the hunting but in the vulnerability of the hunted. Large animals, especially mammals, have very low fecundity, which makes them particularly vulnerable even to moderate harvesting of their populations (Johnson 2002). Many

28 simulations have shown that paleolithic men were capable of exerting hunting pressures strong enough to drive large mammal species to extinction in few thousands or even hundred years (Alroy 2001, Diniz-Filho 2004, Johnson 2006), even when conservative estimates of yield and human density were considered.

Even when the abovementioned results show a clear pattern of anthropogenic extinctions over most of the globe, a final consideration about a methodological limitation of the models generated in this work is in order. In the null model that tested human effects over the extinct animals, the absolute chronological distances between HFADs and MLADs were considered, regardless if the extinction occurred before or after man’s arrival. Of the 92 genera of megafauna extinct by anthropogenic causes or considered entangled, 14 show a

MLAD prior to human appearance, but in only 8 of these cases the HFAD is outside the date’s standard error. These deviations are likely a result of fossil sampling biases (Signor &

Lipps 1982; see methods). Bootstrapping corrections would actually place the extinction of 2 out of the 5 deviated genera that occur in South America (Stegomastodon on Northern South

America and Mylodon on the Andean region) at a date that follows human arrival. The 3 other deviated South American genera (Haplomastodon and Equus on Northern South America and

Haplomastodon on the Andean region) continue to precede human colonization, however.

The remaining 3 deviated genera elsewhere (Coelodonta on Bering, Euryapteryx on New

Zealand and Palorchestes on Tasmania) have MLADs very close to its respective regions’

HFADs (see Table 3), and would be likely corrected if bootstrapping could be exerted over them. In any case, excluding these deviated dates from the results would do little to change the overall patterns demonstrated across this dissertation, since the global approach shows that these cases are but a noise within a much stronger signal.

When we place the extinction dates in chronological order (with the possible exception of Eurasia, as mentioned before), we can see that they tell the story of human colonization of

29 each continent. The same happens with the islands that were never connected to any continental mass during glacial periods (notably the Caribbean islands, Madagascar, New

Zealand and Wrangel), which had large animal faunas that survived until later because they were protected by water barriers. This trend is often referred to as the Late Pleistocene extinction wave, but when this view is broaden to encompass our modern biodiversity crisis, the inaccuracy of this definition becomes clear. The demises of the megafauna on the last few unexplored islands are well within historical period, and some actually post-date the first written records of anthropogenic animal extinctions (Flannery & Shouten 2001). As history goes, paleolithic men’s need for food led to the demise of demographically vulnerable species. Now, after a few thousand years of technological advance, our much more efficient exploitation of natural resources is destroying even more resilient taxa. That way, human- induced extinctions on the late Quaternary form a single continuous wave, starting with men’s departure from the African continent and persisting until this day.

Another consideration must be made about the ecological importance of so many extinct megafaunal species. Large animals play a huge part on the characterization of the habitats they live in, shaping the landscape around them and generating micro and mesohabitats for smaller species (Janzen & Martin 1984, Dublin 1990, Zimov 2005, Doughty et al. 2013). So, pinpointing specific ways in which today’s ecosystems are affected by the loss of two thirds of its largest terrestrial vertebrates becomes a cumbersome task. Much of the ecological communities’ structure, trophic relations and phytophysiognomies we see today are the very consequence of the extirpation of so many megafaunal species that used to roam the earth in a near past (Johnson 2009, Corlett 2013). Interestingly enough, this perspective is not often taken into account. Ecological studies that refer to historically defaunated and intact biotas commonly ignore the fact that most of today’s communities are already impaired by the loss of the megafauna (Corlett 2013). Similarly, studies that

30 investigate extinction risk on threatened groups many times fail to consider species that are already extinct, and thus can inform the most about the subject (Turvey & Fritz 2011). Our baseline (basal state of reference) is skewed by the fact that scientific registries never actually coexisted with truly pristine environments outside of Africa (Corlett 2013).

The results presented in this dissertation offer new quantitative support for a global pattern that has been pointed out by many authors along the last decades (Martin 1967,

Johnson 2002, Lyons et al. 2004, Gillespie 2008); human beings were responsible for the extinction of a great number of large animal genera through the late Pleistocene and the

Holocene. Such realization should prompt us to rescue the true baselines of our ecosystems and communities, and to employ this knowledge in the assessment of our present day natural world (Corlett 2013). After all, climatic changes and overhunting are still pressing conservation problems, and understanding how these factors affected past extinctions holds great value to our assessment of present and future extinctions, and, most importantly, on how to avoid them.

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798

APPENDIX I a1

APPENDIX I

Supplementary Data

Data is organized by landmass rather than geographical region (see Methods).

Human dates from the Caribbean, Madagascar and Wrangel were not tabled because no reliable published anthropological dates were found in the consulted literature. Thus, human arrival on each of these islands was set in accord to indirect references (Steadman 2005 for the Caribbean, Burney 2004 for Madagascar and Guthrie

2004 for Wrangel). Human dates from Australia were also not tabled, because a broad survey on the subject already existed in recent literature (Williams 2012), and its dates were used as a database for anthropological dates on Australia.

Table S1 - Megafaunal dates from South America that ranked 11 or 12 on the modified Mead-Meltzer scale (see Methods; Table 1).

Genus Species Latitude Longitude 14C error 14C (2σ) error (2σ) Source reference Catonyx cuvieri -19.58 -43.90 9960 40 11430 178 Barnosky and Lindsey (2010) Catonyx cuvieri -19.58 -43.90 13920 50 16990 199 Barnosky and Lindsey (2010) Catonyx cuvieri -19.58 -43.90 14030 50 17131 290 Barnosky and Lindsey (2010) Cuvieronius sp. -41.50 -73.45 11990 200 14068 716 Barnosky and Lindsey (2010) Cuvieronius sp. -41.50 -73.45 12000 250 14105 764 Barnosky and Lindsey (2010) Doedicurus clavicaudatus -37.00 -61.00 7010 100 7837 174 Barnosky and Lindsey (2010) Doedicurus clavicaudatus -37.00 -61.00 7460 80 8233 180 Barnosky and Lindsey (2010) Doedicurus clavicaudatus -37.00 -61.00 7510 370 8435 814 Barnosky and Lindsey (2010) Doedicurus clavicaudatus -37.00 -61.00 7291 62 8127 157 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Equus sp. -31.60 -71.00 10950 35 12803 148 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Equus neogeus -38.18 -60.55 11000 100 12883 224 Barnosky and Lindsey (2010) Equus neogeus -38.18 -60.55 11320 110 13170 240 Barnosky and Lindsey (2010) Equus neogeus -38.18 -60.55 11590 90 13473 208 Barnosky and Lindsey (2010) Equus neogeus -19.58 -43.90 16620 70 19773 301 Barnosky and Lindsey (2010) Eremotherium laurillardi -3.30 -56.00 11340 50 13221 108 Barnosky and Lindsey (2010) Glossotherium robustus -38.18 -60.55 12240 110 14349 529 Barnosky and Lindsey (2010) Glossotherium wegneri 0.50 -78.00 12350 70 14474 447 Barnosky and Lindsey (2010) Haplomastodon waringi -3.30 -56.00 15290 70 18424 304 Barnosky and Lindsey (2010) Haplomastodon chimborazi 0.70 -78.00 16670 80 19851 313 Barnosky and Lindsey (2010) Hippidion saldiasi -51.47 -72.60 10710 100 12637 217 Barnosky and Lindsey (2010) Hippidion saldiasi -51.47 -72.60 10860 160 12779 344 Barnosky and Lindsey (2010) Hippidion saldiasi -51.40 -72.50 10310 160 11992 585 Barnosky and Lindsey (2010) Hippidion saldiasi -51.40 -72.50 10780 60 12701 135 Barnosky and Lindsey (2010) Hippidion saldiasi -47.90 -67.90 10925 65 12839 217 Barnosky and Lindsey (2010) Macrauchenia sp. -45.20 -71.50 11665 50 13528 166 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Megatherium americanum -38.18 -60.55 11770 120 13609 251 Barnosky and Lindsey (2010) Megatherium americanum -38.18 -60.55 12155 70 14002 209 Barnosky and Lindsey (2010) Megatherium americanum -38.18 -60.55 12200 170 14345 610 Barnosky and Lindsey (2010) Megatherium americanum -38.18 -60.55 12073 57 13926 158 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Megatherium americanum -37.05 -61.10 7750 250 8644 605 Barnosky and Lindsey (2010) Megatherium americanum -37.05 -61.10 8080 200 8978 495 Barnosky and Lindsey (2010) Megatherium americanum -38.08 -59.02 10440 100 12311 283 Barnosky and Lindsey (2010) Mylodon sp. -45.20 -71.50 11255 30 13183 95 Lima-Ribeiro (2012)

Mylodon sp. -45.20 -71.50 11265 35 13187 96 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) a2 Mylodon sp. -45.20 -71.50 11480 70 13326 154 Barnosky and Lindsey (2010) Mylodon sp. -45.20 -71.50 12510 30 14649 417 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Mylodon sp. -51.40 -72.60 12825 110 15435 693 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Mylodon sp. -31.60 -71.00 13500 65 16636 263 Barnosky and Lindsey (2010) Mylodon sp. -51.47 -72.60 12720 300 15236 1207 Barnosky and Lindsey (2010) Mylodon sp. -51.45 -72.55 13630 50 16780 187 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Nothrotherium maquinense -11.00 -41.00 12200 120 14317 545 Barnosky and Lindsey (2010) Paleolama sp. -31.60 -71.00 10310 30 12179 197 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Panthera oncamesembrina -53.60 -68.80 11085 70 12932 205 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Smilodon populator -19.58 -43.90 9260 150 10616 459 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Smilodon populator -19.58 -43.90 9130 150 10247 456 Barnosky and Lindsey (2010) Smilodon populator -51.45 -72.55 11265 45 13189 114 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Smilodon populator -51.45 -72.55 11420 50 13281 125 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Toxodon platensis -38.18 -60.55 11250 105 13106 249 Barnosky and Lindsey (2010) Toxodon platensis -38.18 -60.55 11750 70 13596 181 Barnosky and Lindsey (2010) Toxodon platensis -24.90 -48.10 11090 40 12946 172 Barnosky and Lindsey (2010) Toxodon platensis -24.90 -48.10 11380 40 13248 111 Barnosky and Lindsey (2010) Glossotherium robustus -38.18 -60.55 10500 90 12357 250 Barnosky and Lindsey (2010) Glyptodon cf.clavipes 10.50 -72.15 25500 600 30202 1011 Barnosky and Lindsey (2010) Glyptodon cf.clavipes 10.50 -72.15 27980 370 32283 863 Barnosky and Lindsey (2010) Hippidion saldiasi -22.36 -68.92 21070 100 25182 405 Barnosky and Lindsey (2010) Hippidion saldiasi -22.36 -68.92 21380 100 25526 421 Barnosky and Lindsey (2010) Holmesina occidentalis 10.50 -72.15 41000 1300 44624 1992 Barnosky and Lindsey (2010) Holmesina occidentalis 10.50 -72.15 42600 2500 46447 3554 Barnosky and Lindsey (2010) Arctotherium sp. -51.60 -71.50 10345 75 12179 346 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Equus neogeus -19.58 -43.90 16250 60 19262 317 Barnosky and Lindsey (2010) Equus neogeus -19.58 -43.90 16180 70 19198 271 Barnosky and Lindsey (2010) Equus neogeus -38.20 -59.00 10290 130 11984 572 Barnosky and Lindsey (2010) Glossotherium robustus -28.20 -55.50 12270 220 14419 679 Barnosky and Lindsey (2010) Glossotherium robustus -28.20 -55.50 12770 220 15266 1076 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Hippidion saldiasi -52.00 -69.70 11210 50 13092 175 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Hippidion saldiasi -52.00 -69.70 11990 90 13715 239 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Hippidion sp. -53.60 -68.80 10685 70 12590 159 Barnosky and Lindsey (2010) Hippidion saldiasi -53.60 -68.80 12540 70 14669 446 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Hippidion sp. -34.75 -68.40 8990 90 10069 303 Barnosky and Lindsey (2010) Megatherium americanum -38.00 -59.00 13070 120 15828 669 Barnosky and Lindsey (2010) Mylodon sp. -51.40 -72.60 11380 150 13246 344 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) 10295 65 12107 283 Mylodon sp. -51.68 -70.03 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) a3 Mylodon sp. -52.00 -69.70 12165 80 14135 357 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Mylodon darwinii -51.45 -72.55 10200 400 11760 1076 Barnosky and Lindsey (2010) Mylodon darwinii -51.45 -72.55 10400 330 12063 862 Barnosky and Lindsey (2010) Mylodon darwinii -51.45 -72.55 10575 400 12230 997 Barnosky and Lindsey (2010) Mylodon darwinii -51.45 -72.55 10832 400 12431 1027 Barnosky and Lindsey (2010) Mylodon darwinii -51.45 -72.55 10880 300 12683 698 Barnosky and Lindsey (2010) Mylodon darwinii -51.45 -72.55 11775 480 13898 1250 Barnosky and Lindsey (2010) Mylodon darwinii -51.45 -72.55 11810 299 13961 875 Barnosky and Lindsey (2010) Mylodon darwinii -51.45 -72.55 11905 335 14050 917 Barnosky and Lindsey (2010) Mylodon darwinii -51.45 -72.55 12020 460 14247 1372 Barnosky and Lindsey (2010) Mylodon darwinii -51.45 -72.55 12270 350 14478 1119 Barnosky and Lindsey (2010) Mylodon darwinii -51.45 -72.55 12285 480 14790 1519 Barnosky and Lindsey (2010) Mylodon darwinii -51.45 -72.55 12308 288 14450 976 Barnosky and Lindsey (2010) Mylodon darwinii -51.45 -72.55 12440 150 14568 544 Barnosky and Lindsey (2010) Mylodon darwinii -51.45 -72.55 12496 148 14609 544 Barnosky and Lindsey (2010) Mylodon darwinii -51.45 -72.55 12552 128 14661 521 Barnosky and Lindsey (2010) Mylodon darwinii -51.45 -72.55 12570 160 14752 700 Barnosky and Lindsey (2010) Mylodon darwinii -51.45 -72.55 12870 100 15551 621 Barnosky and Lindsey (2010) Mylodon darwinii -51.45 -72.55 12984 76 15718 604 Barnosky and Lindsey (2010) Mylodon darwinii -51.45 -72.55 13183 202 15955 779 Barnosky and Lindsey (2010) Mylodon darwinii -51.45 -72.55 13261 115 16091 691 Barnosky and Lindsey (2010) Mylodon darwinii -51.45 -72.55 13470 189 16249 726 Barnosky and Lindsey (2010) Mylodon darwinii -51.45 -72.55 13500 410 16273 1253 Barnosky and Lindsey (2010) Mylodon darwinii -51.45 -72.55 13500 470 16164 1494 Barnosky and Lindsey (2010) Mylodon darwinii -51.45 -72.55 13560 190 16350 726 Barnosky and Lindsey (2010) Mylodon sp. -51.40 -72.50 11590 100 13480 224 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Mylodon sp. -51.40 -72.50 11050 60 12914 194 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Mylodon sp. -51.40 -72.50 13400 90 16375 504 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Mylodon darwinii -51.40 -72.50 12990 490 15452 1459 Barnosky and Lindsey (2010) Scelidotherium chilensis -7.50 -79.30 8910 200 10014 481 Barnosky and Lindsey (2010) Scelidotherium leptocephalum -32.80 -64.20 7550 60 8324 125 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Stegomastodon waringi 11.40 -73.00 12980 85 15721 613 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Stegomastodon waringi 11.40 -73.00 13000 200 15802 834 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Stegomastodon waringi 11.40 -73.00 13860 120 17036 338 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) a4 Table S2 - Megafaunal dates from Caribbean that ranked 11 or 12 on the modified Mead-Meltzer scale (see Methods; Table 1).

Genus Species Latitude Longitude 14C error 14C (2σ) error (2σ) Source reference Parocnus brownii 22.90 -82.25 4960 280 5636 663 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Megalocnus rodens 22.89 -82.30 4190 40 4713 130 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Neocnus comes 18.50 -72.10 4391 42 5057 205 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Neocnus comes 18.10 -74.00 4486 39 5138 160 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Neocnus dousman 19.00 -70.50 7141 35 7946 71 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Parocnus brownii 22.89 -82.20 10520 440 12096 1196 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Parocnus brownii 22.89 -82.20 11880 420 14013 1127 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Neocnus comes 18.10 -72.10 6161 45 7081 150 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Neocnus comes 18.10 -74.00 6875 47 7719 105 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Neocnus comes 18.10 -74.00 7411 51 8212 155 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Neocnus comes 18.10 -74.00 8326 57 9304 167 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Neocnus dousman 18.10 -72.10 9897 65 11404 203 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Parocnus brownii 22.85 -82.20 6250 50 7139 132 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) a5 Table S3 - Megafaunal dates from North America that ranked 11 or 12 on the modified Mead-Meltzer scale (see Methods; Table 1).

Genus Species Latitude Longitude 14C error 14C (2σ) error (2σ) Source reference Arctodus simus 39.50 -111.30 10870 75 12764 171 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Arctodus simus 40.90 -83.20 11480 60 13331 135 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Arctodus simus 40.90 -83.20 11570 70 13444 175 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Arctodus simus 40.90 -83.20 11570 50 13432 149 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Arctodus simus 40.90 -83.20 11610 90 13488 209 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Arctodus simus 39.10 -94.90 10921 50 12790 155 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Arctodus simus 39.10 -94.90 11688 50 13550 164 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Arctodus simus 41.00 -114.10 12650 70 14864 599 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Arctodus simus 39.50 -111.30 10976 40 12865 199 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Arctodus simus 40.60 -112.00 12650 70 14864 599 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Arctodus simus 41.30 -86.20 11500 520 13594 1441 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Arctodus simus 40.90 -83.20 11566 40 13418 137 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Bison antiquus 38.90 -101.10 10520 70 12379 235 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Bison antiquus 38.60 -92.20 11770 40 13606 158 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Bison occidentalis 56.10 -120.10 10340 150 12050 547 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Bison occidentalis 56.10 -120.10 10580 210 12344 592 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Bison occidentalis 56.10 -120.10 10600 160 12426 417 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Bison antiquus 34.10 -101.60 9110 90 10252 306 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Bison antiquus 42.70 -106.20 10140 170 11816 570 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Bison occidentalis 51.20 -114.50 11100 160 12968 308 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Bison occidentalis 51.20 -114.50 11370 170 13237 392 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Bison occidentalis 56.10 -120.10 10230 140 11936 581 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Bison occidentalis 56.10 -120.10 10750 180 12617 471 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Bison preoccidentalis 65.10 -147.30 11735 130 13579 261 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Bison priscus 65.10 -147.20 11980 135 13805 337 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Bison antiquus 51.00 -114.00 11300 290 13184 553 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Bison occidentalis 51.30 -114.50 10760 160 12655 436 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Bison occidentalis 39.50 -105.10 8950 350 10185 921 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Bison crassicornis 64.10 -141.90 10370 160 12062 554 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Bison occidentalis 51.70 -113.10 9630 300 11103 888 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Bison occidentalis 51.70 -113.10 9670 160 11058 539 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Bison occidentalis 40.10 -99.40 11020 635 12709 1829 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Bison occidentalis 40.10 -99.40 11363 865 13463 2669 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Bison crassicornis 67.80 -139.80 11910 180 13758 419 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Bison crassicornis 67.80 -139.80 12275 180 14409 611 Lima-Ribeiro (2012)

Bison crassicornis 67.80 -139.80 12460 220 14634 807 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) a6 Bison crassicornis 67.80 -139.80 12610 70 14727 484 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Bison antiquus 34.10 -118.40 12275 775 14773 2042 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Bison antiquus 40.60 -111.90 11930 210 13908 611 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Bison alleni 36.80 -99.70 9160 160 10270 487 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Bison preoccidentalis 65.10 -147.30 12460 320 14864 1192 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Bison antiquus 30.30 -83.90 9990 200 11595 785 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Bison antiquus 30.30 -83.90 11170 130 13010 286 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Bison antiquus 49.90 -113.90 11130 90 12983 244 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Bootherium bombifrons 49.90 -113.90 10980 80 12876 210 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Bootherium bombifrons 40.60 -112.00 11690 190 13554 369 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Camelops sp. 42.70 -106.20 11190 50 13073 180 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Camelops sp. 41.00 -109.40 11180 45 13061 175 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Camelops hesternus 39.40 -114.50 11390 60 13258 129 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Camelops sp. 43.30 -120.40 9955 165 11480 609 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Camelops hesternus 38.90 -112.40 11075 255 12945 507 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Castoroides ohioensis 41.30 -74.30 11670 70 13536 189 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Castoroides ohioensis 40.90 -83.20 10850 60 12748 150 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Castoroides ohioensis 44.90 -93.10 10320 250 11948 676 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Cervalces scotti 41.40 -85.30 11420 70 13280 143 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Cervalces scotti 41.40 -85.30 11620 70 13485 186 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Cervalces scotti 41.50 -89.70 11405 50 13269 123 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Cervalces scotti 41.30 -74.10 12180 60 14019 216 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Cervalces scotti 41.30 -74.50 11030 150 12916 289 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Cervalces scotti 40.20 -82.30 11500 130 13389 270 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Cervalces scotii 40.90 -83.20 12590 450 15148 1460 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Cervalces scotii 40.90 -83.20 12840 100 15514 625 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Cervalces scotti 40.90 -83.20 12520 170 14616 616 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Equus sp. 40.40 -119.50 12280 520 14817 1595 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Equus sp. 30.10 -99.50 11410 60 13273 133 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Equus sp. 49.20 -112.10 11180 150 13013 311 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Equus sp. 29.90 -91.80 9700 550 11142 1463 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Equus sp. 67.10 -140.80 12290 440 14721 1431 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Equus lambei 67.10 -140.80 12900 100 15613 628 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Equus sp. 32.40 -104.50 10730 150 12603 453 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Equus sp. 30.30 -99.90 9310 310 10456 857 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Equus ferus 64.80 -148.00 12510 130 14632 513 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Equus ferus 64.80 -148.00 12580 140 14755 661 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Equus sp. 40.40 -119.50 11210 50 13092 175 Lima-Ribeiro (2012)

Equus sp. 40.40 -119.50 11350 40 13225 102 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) a7 Equus ferus 64.90 -147.60 12560 140 14660 557 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Equus sp. 42.90 -120.70 11130 40 12984 175 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Equus conversidens 50.00 -110.50 10870 45 12757 142 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Equus sp. 41.00 -109.40 11530 50 13379 126 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Equus ferus 65.10 -147.30 12482 80 14613 451 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Equus conversidens 49.90 -113.90 11330 70 13226 133 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Equus sp. 50.10 -110.70 11280 200 13119 442 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Equus sp. 34.10 -118.40 10940 510 12545 1262 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Euceratherium sp. 40.20 -119.50 11950 50 13813 150 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Euceratherium collinum 37.30 -110.80 11630 150 13507 293 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Glossotherium harlani 45.30 -118.10 11030 800 12837 2262 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Mammut americanum 40.00 -82.50 11390 80 13261 148 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Mammut americanum 43.00 -89.00 10780 60 12701 135 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Mammut americanum 43.00 -89.00 10910 60 12784 167 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Mammut americanum 43.00 -89.00 11140 60 12987 204 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Mammut sp. 42.90 -76.90 10840 60 12742 148 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Mammut sp. 42.90 -76.90 11630 80 13499 199 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Mammut americanum 42.80 -85.60 10920 190 12837 399 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Mammut americanum 42.10 -85.00 11770 110 13611 234 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Mammut americanum 43.00 -78.20 10630 80 12556 165 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Mammut americanum 43.00 -78.20 10790 70 12716 147 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Mammut americanum 43.00 -78.20 11070 70 12922 203 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Mammut americanum 43.00 -78.20 11100 80 12945 223 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Mammut americanum 43.00 -78.20 11390 80 13261 148 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Mammut americanum 43.00 -78.20 10705 80 12612 184 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Mammut americanum 43.00 -78.20 10810 50 12719 137 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Mammut americanum 43.00 -78.20 10990 100 12879 223 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Mammut americanum 40.20 -82.30 11390 80 13261 148 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Mammut americanum 41.00 -86.00 9863 40 11277 73 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Mammut americanum 41.00 -86.00 10032 40 11541 210 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Mammut americanum 41.00 -86.00 10055 40 11575 229 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Mammut americanum 41.40 -74.00 11000 80 12885 209 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Mammut americanum 41.50 -74.10 10080 160 11791 583 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Mammut sp. 30.10 -84.00 10520 130 12350 322 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Mammut americanum 40.00 -82.50 10860 70 12756 160 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Mammut americanum 42.60 -82.20 8910 150 9959 412 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Mammut americanum 42.80 -85.60 11320 140 13155 309 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Mammut sp. 40.80 -80.90 10880 50 12764 146 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Mammut sp. 40.80 -80.90 10950 40 12806 158 Lima-Ribeiro (2012)

Mammut americanum 43.00 -78.20 10850 140 12822 269 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) a8 Mammut americanum 39.20 -78.10 11550 165 13440 321 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Mammut americanum 39.50 -111.30 10800 250 12643 597 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Mammut americanum 42.00 -73.50 11480 60 13331 135 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Mammut americanum 42.10 -73.30 11520 655 13526 2018 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Mammut americanum 41.10 -86.50 10115 205 11857 660 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Mammut americanum 41.10 -86.50 10325 160 11999 590 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Mammut americanum 41.10 -86.50 11185 270 13090 509 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Mammut americanum 41.00 -85.80 11160 90 13016 244 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Mammut americanum 40.20 -82.30 10860 70 12756 160 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Mammut americanum 41.50 -88.60 10995 110 12881 234 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Mammut americanum 41.50 -74.50 10970 40 12861 200 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Mammut americanum 42.00 -85.90 11220 310 13153 594 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Mammut americanum 43.40 -84.80 9990 350 11579 992 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Mammut americanum 42.60 -82.00 11380 170 13252 390 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Mammuthus columbi 19.30 -99.00 11100 80 12945 223 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Mammuthus sp. 37.30 -110.80 11870 140 13708 303 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Mammuthus sp. 37.30 -110.80 12090 210 14173 710 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Mammuthus sp. 51.00 -110.10 10930 100 12852 226 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Mammuthus sp. 67.10 -140.80 12845 250 15366 1130 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Mammuthus sp. 39.10 -94.90 12360 110 14498 503 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Mammuthus sp. 39.10 -94.90 12640 60 14839 571 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Mammuthus sp. 42.20 -71.10 10930 315 12718 725 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Mammuthus sp. 64.30 -146.10 11540 140 13429 287 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Mammuthus sp. 68.90 -166.20 11910 130 13734 297 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Mammuthus sp. 65.50 -168.00 12440 130 14567 515 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Mammuthus sp. 65.10 -147.30 12337 108 14470 506 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Mammuthus sp. 65.10 -147.30 12476 81 14607 451 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Mammuthus columbi 43.95 -108.00 10790 30 12684 108 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Mammuthus columbi 43.95 -108.00 10950 30 12802 142 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Mammuthus sp. 64.00 -139.00 11860 120 13691 269 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Mammuthus sp. 64.00 -145.80 11540 140 13429 287 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Mammuthus sp. 40.00 -104.90 10590 500 12113 1315 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Mammuthus columbi 40.00 -104.90 10940 60 12850 211 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Mammuthus columbi 40.00 -104.90 10940 30 12796 138 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Mammuthus sp. 40.00 -104.90 10950 480 12588 1194 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Mammuthus columbi 40.00 -104.90 10960 70 12864 207 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Mammuthus columbi 40.00 -104.90 11065 35 12930 173 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Mammuthus sp. 35.30 -98.00 10690 640 12210 1620 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Mammuthus sp. 35.30 -98.00 10820 270 12644 640 Lima-Ribeiro (2012)

Mammuthus sp. 35.30 -98.00 11010 710 12795 2038 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) a9 Mammuthus sp. 35.30 -98.00 11480 450 13627 1209 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Mammuthus columbi 35.30 -98.00 10810 420 12404 1057 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Mammuthus columbi 35.30 -98.00 10860 450 12487 1133 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Mammuthus columbi 35.30 -98.00 10960 30 12808 149 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Mammuthus columbi 35.30 -98.00 11480 450 13627 1209 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Mammuthus sp. 65.00 -147.60 12429 178 14549 597 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Mammuthus sp. 70.80 -155.80 12508 145 14621 540 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Mammuthus sp. 42.90 -76.90 10890 50 12771 147 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Mammuthus sp. 64.80 -156.90 11500 160 13417 325 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Mammuthus sp. 65.00 -147.60 12123 88 13984 237 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Mammuthus sp. 65.00 -147.60 12576 147 14753 674 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Mammuthus sp. 42.50 -88.00 12480 60 14610 433 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Mammuthus sp. 42.50 -88.00 12520 50 14656 430 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Mammuthus primigenius 43.00 -78.20 10810 50 12719 137 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Mammuthus columbi 39.50 -111.30 11220 110 13056 265 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Mammuthus sp. 69.90 -154.80 12190 130 14313 556 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Mammuthus sp. 69.90 -154.80 12490 170 14599 592 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Mammuthus columbi 43.40 -102.50 10710 130 12553 379 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Mammuthus columbi 43.40 -102.50 11110 40 12962 170 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Mammuthus columbi 46.50 -106.00 12175 40 14021 157 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Mammuthus columbi 46.50 -106.00 12330 50 14455 437 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Mammuthus sp. 42.50 -81.70 12130 80 13985 212 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Mammuthus exilis 34.00 -120.00 11030 50 12904 189 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Mammuthus exilis 34.00 -120.00 12840 410 15378 1355 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Mammuthus exilis 34.00 -120.00 12840 410 15378 1355 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Mammuthus sp. 42.60 -88.00 12310 60 14434 455 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Mammuthus sp. 64.30 -146.00 12060 70 13924 173 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Mammuthus sp. 66.00 -140.00 11990 130 13813 331 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Mammuthus sp. 39.00 -109.50 12800 370 15339 1308 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Mammuthus sp. 36.50 -99.10 11990 170 13947 546 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Mammuthus sp. 37.30 -110.80 11670 300 13498 732 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Mammuthus sp. 37.30 -110.80 11850 160 13694 336 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Mammuthus sp. 37.30 -110.80 12620 220 14954 965 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Mammuthus sp. 37.30 -110.80 12900 160 15681 808 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Mammuthus sp. 37.30 -110.80 12320 160 14446 580 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Mammuthus sp. 37.30 -110.80 12390 120 14527 509 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Mammuthus sp. 37.30 -110.80 12390 140 14527 538 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Mammuthus sp. 37.30 -110.80 12400 250 14602 860 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Mammuthus sp. 37.30 -110.80 12430 150 14561 545 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Mammuthus sp. 37.30 -110.80 12430 300 14767 1099 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) a10 Mammuthus sp. 37.30 -110.80 12470 140 14591 528 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Mammuthus sp. 37.30 -110.80 12570 100 14684 483 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Mammuthus sp. 37.30 -110.80 12570 130 14671 538 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Mammuthus sp. 37.30 -110.80 12610 140 14805 673 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Mammuthus sp. 37.30 -110.80 12620 130 14811 659 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Mammuthus sp. 37.30 -110.80 12880 140 15653 756 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Mammuthus sp. 37.30 -110.80 13040 280 15735 1060 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Mammuthus sp. 37.30 -110.80 13505 580 16038 1797 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Mammuthus sp. 43.95 -108.00 10864 141 12826 265 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Mammuthus sp. 43.95 -108.00 11200 220 13044 410 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Mammuthus sp. 63.60 -156.00 12980 250 15674 1032 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Mammuthus sp. 38.30 -110.20 11020 180 12925 322 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Mammuthus sp. 38.30 -110.20 11810 140 13655 293 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Mammuthus sp. 38.30 -110.20 12070 210 14156 714 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Mammuthus sp. 38.30 -110.20 12320 160 14446 580 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Mammuthus sp. 40.00 -104.90 11200 500 12815 1401 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Mammuthus sp. 50.00 -114.10 11170 60 13052 202 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Mammuthus sp. 35.30 -98.00 11200 500 12815 1401 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Mammuthus sp. 35.30 -98.00 11220 500 12983 1477 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Mammuthus sp. 41.90 -88.00 13130 350 15732 1170 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Mammuthus sp. 39.60 -102.30 11710 150 13566 289 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Mammuthus sp. 44.50 -63.60 12270 60 14382 471 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Mammuthus columbi 29.90 -82.00 9840 190 11344 635 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Mammuthus sp. 39.50 -111.30 10800 250 12643 597 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Mammuthus sp. 51.80 -114.60 10240 325 11776 956 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Mammuthus columbi 39.40 -105.00 10200 350 11738 960 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Mammuthus sp. 50.80 -108.10 12000 200 14086 717 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Mammuthus sp. 39.50 -105.10 11735 95 13587 211 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Mammuthus sp. 39.50 -105.10 13140 1000 15825 2642 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Mammuthus sp. 43.40 -102.50 10730 530 12409 1317 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Mammuthus sp. 40.60 -100.60 12090 95 13960 230 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Mammuthus jeffersonii 43.00 -84.00 11480 400 13526 979 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Mammuthus imperator 46.50 -106.00 11500 80 13368 195 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Mammuthus sp. 42.20 -80.20 12210 120 14325 543 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Mammuthus sp. 67.80 -139.80 13820 840 16373 2235 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Mammuthus sp. 43.00 -116.50 10920 150 12847 270 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Mammuthus sp. 43.00 -116.50 12250 200 14399 647 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Mammuthus sp. 56.00 -120.00 11600 1000 13937 2834 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Mammuthus sp. 41.80 -86.50 8260 300 9268 845 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Mammuthus sp. 38.90 -109.30 10350 110 12165 394 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) a11 Mammuthus primigenius 43.50 -81.00 10790 150 12749 335 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Mammuthus sp. 40.50 -111.90 8815 100 9869 307 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Mammuthus exilis 34.00 -120.00 11800 800 14239 2397 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Mammuthus sp. 52.20 -106.60 12000 320 14151 882 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Mammuthus sp. 39.50 -119.90 10440 490 12007 1243 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Mammuthus jeffersonii 43.60 -83.00 9680 500 11168 1390 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Mammuthus sp. 65.80 -163.20 11360 100 13213 232 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Mammuthus sp. 44.20 -84.10 11280 70 13145 185 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Mammuthus imperator 51.30 -107.70 10600 140 12412 350 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Mammuthus sp. 37.50 -111.90 12010 160 13958 533 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Megalonyx jeffersonii 41.50 -89.70 11430 60 13289 135 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Megalonyx jeffersonii 41.50 -89.70 11485 40 13346 103 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Megalonyx jeffersonii 41.50 -89.70 11530 70 13412 172 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Megalonyx jeffersonii 41.50 -89.70 11710 80 13570 195 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Mylohyus nasutus 40.90 -83.20 11860 40 13669 180 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Nothrotheriops shastense 32.00 -107.00 11606 50 13464 160 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Nothrotheriops shastense 32.00 -107.00 11080 200 12959 351 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Nothrotheriops shastense 36.50 -112.00 10950 70 12858 211 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Nothrotheriops sp. 31.80 -104.80 10670 140 12510 371 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Nothrotheriops sp. 31.80 -104.80 10750 140 12649 421 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Nothrotheriops sp. 31.80 -104.80 10760 150 12656 432 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Nothrotheriops sp. 31.80 -104.80 11020 180 12925 322 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Nothrotheriops sp. 31.80 -104.80 11590 230 13451 486 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Nothrotheriops shastense 36.20 -114.80 11005 100 12885 225 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Nothrotheriops shastense 36.20 -114.80 11080 90 12927 229 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Nothrotheriops shastense 36.20 -114.80 11360 260 13215 521 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Nothrotheriops shastense 36.20 -114.80 11690 250 13603 527 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Nothrotheriops shastense 36.00 -113.80 10650 220 12458 631 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Nothrotheriops shastense 36.00 -113.80 11060 240 12978 430 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Nothrotheriops shastense 36.00 -113.80 11140 160 12988 314 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Nothrotheriops shastense 36.00 -113.80 11290 170 13099 365 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Nothrotheriops shastense 36.00 -113.80 11610 60 13472 172 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Nothrotheriops shastense 36.00 -113.80 11810 70 13634 186 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Nothrotheriops shastense 34.70 -116.60 11600 500 13767 1332 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Nothrotheriops shastense 36.10 -113.90 10400 275 12001 740 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Nothrotheriops shastense 36.10 -113.90 10500 180 12235 508 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Nothrotheriops shastense 36.10 -113.90 10780 200 12627 486 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Nothrotheriops shastense 36.10 -113.90 11000 140 12887 270 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Nothrotheriops shastense 36.10 -113.90 11020 200 12932 348 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Nothrotheriops shastense 36.10 -113.90 11370 300 13228 578 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) a12 Nothrotheriops shastense 36.10 -113.90 11480 200 13350 424 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Nothrotheriops shastense 36.10 -113.90 12050 400 14276 1181 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Nothrotheriops shastense 36.10 -113.90 12440 300 14782 1089 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Nothrotheriops shastense 36.10 -113.90 12470 170 14585 584 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Nothrotheriops shastense 32.10 -106.50 11330 370 13222 790 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Nothrotheriops shastense 32.10 -106.50 12330 190 14456 619 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Nothrotheriops shastense 32.10 -106.50 12430 250 14632 861 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Nothrotheriops shastense 36.20 -114.80 11360 260 13215 521 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Nothrotheriops shastense 36.00 -113.80 11140 160 12988 314 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Nothrotheriops shastense 36.00 -113.80 11290 170 13099 365 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Nothrotheriops shastense 36.10 -113.90 11140 250 13022 453 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Nothrotheriops shastense 32.00 -103.00 10750 140 12649 421 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Nothrotheriops shastense 32.00 -103.00 10780 140 12743 326 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Nothrotheriops shastense 32.00 -103.00 11060 180 12948 324 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Nothrotheriops shastense 32.00 -103.00 11590 230 13451 486 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Nothrotheriops shastense 31.10 -102.70 11140 320 13067 664 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Nothrotheriops shastense 31.10 -102.70 11930 170 13777 402 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Nothrotheriops shastense 31.10 -102.70 12100 210 14184 712 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Palaeolama mirifica 30.10 -84.00 12390 50 14515 420 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Platygonus compressus 42.00 -111.80 11340 50 13221 108 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Platygonus compressus 41.30 -74.30 12160 80 14128 355 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Platygonus compressus 41.30 -74.30 12220 60 14185 336 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Platygonus compressus 41.30 -74.30 12430 70 14564 441 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Platygonus compressus 40.90 -83.20 11060 60 12920 193 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Platygonus compressus 40.90 -83.20 11130 60 12975 202 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Platygonus compressus 42.30 -83.60 10790 150 12749 335 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Smilodon floridanus 36.10 -86.80 9410 155 10696 433 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Smilodon fatalis 34.10 -118.40 11130 275 13071 530 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Smilodon fatalis 34.10 -118.40 11640 135 13521 267 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Smilodon fatalis 34.10 -118.40 11980 260 14089 780 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Smilodon fatalis 34.10 -118.40 12000 125 13823 330 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Smilodon fatalis 34.10 -118.40 12200 200 14354 669 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Tapirus veroensis 34.40 -77.80 12500 1020 15059 2651 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Ursus americanus 55.80 -133.00 8600 60 9590 107 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) Ursus americanus 55.80 -133.00 8725 70 9828 289 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) a13 Table S4 - Megafaunal dates from Eurasia that ranked 11 or 12 on the modified Mead-Meltzer scale (see Methods; Table 1).

Genus Species Latitude Longitude 14C error 14C (2σ) error (2σ) Source reference Bison priscus 54.00 -4.00 37300 1100 41982 1936 Higham et al 2006 Bison priscus 51.55 -4.25 27140 360 31578 603 Jacobi & Higham 2008 Bison priscus 51.55 -4.25 31250 230 35757 648 Jacobi & Higham 2008 Bison priscus 72.83 107.42 8860 40 9970 196 Orlova 2004 Bison priscus 54.37 81.70 9320 95 10497 248 Orlova 2004 Bison priscus 56.10 92.90 11610 110 13498 235 Orlova 2004 Bison priscus 70.50 149.50 12800 60 15368 473 Orlova 2004 Bison priscus 55.95 92.40 13200 110 15968 693 Orlova 2004 Bison priscus 55.87 92.20 14480 400 17703 835 Orlova 2004 Bison priscus 52.83 103.55 14720 190 17903 632 Orlova 2004 Bison priscus 68.30 157.70 14800 250 17926 668 Orlova 2004 Bison priscus 73.50 110.00 16390 120 19640 366 Orlova 2004 Bison priscus 53.55 92.00 17660 700 21135 1728 Orlova 2004 Bison priscus 51.05 82.00 17910 265 21311 804 Orlova 2004 Bison priscus 63.12 133.62 19695 100 23543 367 Orlova 2004 Bison priscus 57.50 112.50 20040 765 24035 1902 Orlova 2004 Bison priscus 52.83 103.53 21600 170 25859 736 Orlova 2004 Bison priscus 55.33 84.50 23050 255 27712 753 Orlova 2004 Bison priscus 55.83 102.83 23400 455 28117 1161 Orlova 2004 Bison priscus 69.50 166.00 23590 1560 27837 3266 Orlova 2004 Bison priscus 56.00 66.00 24600 300 29417 787 Orlova 2004 Bison priscus 57.48 107.77 25100 940 29656 1605 Orlova 2004 Bison priscus 75.70 144.20 26100 300 30763 423 Orlova 2004 Bison priscus 58.24 115.31 27140 330 31530 518 Orlova 2004 Bison priscus 73.20 98.15 27600 400 32026 825 Orlova 2004 Bison priscus 51.38 84.68 28700 850 33073 1654 Orlova 2004 Bison priscus 69.00 147.50 29500 100 34165 482 Orlova 2004 Bison priscus 75.50 135.83 30500 400 35402 880 Orlova 2004 Bison priscus 73.30 98.20 31800 500 36215 1173 Orlova 2004 Bison priscus 71.60 87.10 31900 500 36329 1258 Orlova 2004 Bison priscus 58.24 115.31 32170 250 36557 853 Orlova 2004 Bison priscus 75.60 144.05 32200 600 36870 1582 Orlova 2004 Bison priscus 51.25 83.05 32700 2800 36978 5343 Orlova 2004

Bison priscus 75.65 144.05 33100 320 37754 905 Orlova 2004 a14 Bison priscus 73.50 98.00 33750 1200 38469 2824 Orlova 2004 Bison priscus 72.00 149.67 33800 1200 38513 2830 Orlova 2004 Bison priscus 73.16 102.20 35800 800 40549 1542 Orlova 2004 Bison priscus 70.55 122.10 36800 500 41732 755 Orlova 2004 Bison priscus 68.00 156.00 37100 500 41933 733 Orlova 2004 Bison priscus 68.50 156.00 38400 800 42925 1191 Orlova 2004 Bison priscus 73.60 100.50 39200 800 43407 1174 Orlova 2004 Bison priscus 74.53 100.50 39760 870 43791 1277 Orlova 2004 Bison priscus 54.45 89.47 40595 875 44338 1299 Orlova 2004 Bison priscus 54.45 89.47 40690 1150 44391 1666 Orlova 2004 Bison priscus 54.45 89.47 40770 1075 44442 1565 Orlova 2004 Bison priscus 52.83 103.53 41100 1500 44841 2483 Orlova 2004 Bison priscus 70.55 122.10 41300 800 44854 1210 Orlova 2004 Bison priscus 72.45 123.20 41700 1500 45551 2705 Orlova 2004 Bison priscus 68.75 156.20 42800 700 46095 1318 Orlova 2004 Bison priscus 75.20 141.00 43400 2200 46916 3084 Orlova 2004 Bison priscus 73.07 106.83 45320 1740 47862 2138 Orlova 2004 Bison priscus 68.45 150.45 45400 1200 48180 1820 Orlova 2004 Bison priscus 51.55 -4.25 30320 170 34874 262 Jacobi & Higham 2008 Bison priscus 51.55 -4.25 31100 800 35726 1703 Jacobi & Higham 2008 Coelodonta antiquitatis 54.00 -4.00 30220 460 34917 1320 Higham et al 2006 Coelodonta antiquitatis 54.00 -4.00 34500 800 39343 1914 Higham et al 2006 Coelodonta antiquitatis 54.00 -4.00 34620 820 39454 1920 Higham et al 2006 Coelodonta antiquitatis 54.00 -4.00 35150 330 40184 944 Higham et al 2006 Coelodonta antiquitatis 54.00 -4.00 35650 330 40811 769 Higham et al 2006 Coelodonta antiquitatis 54.00 -4.00 36040 330 41157 650 Higham et al 2006 Coelodonta antiquitatis 54.00 -4.00 36370 320 41468 547 Higham et al 2006 Coelodonta antiquitatis 54.00 -4.00 37200 550 41999 795 Higham et al 2006 Coelodonta antiquitatis 54.00 -4.00 42700 2200 46575 3343 Higham et al 2006 Coelodonta antiquitatis 54.00 -4.00 43350 650 46691 1453 Higham et al 2006 Coelodonta antiquitatis 54.00 -4.00 45000 750 48189 1691 Higham et al 2006 Coelodonta antiquitatis 54.00 -4.00 45000 2200 47487 2514 Higham et al 2006 Coelodonta antiquitatis 51.55 -4.25 32500 700 37063 1715 Jacobi & Higham 2008 Coelodonta antiquitatis 51.55 -4.25 35200 1500 39636 2868 Jacobi & Higham 2008 Coelodonta antiquitatis 54.00 -4.00 31140 170 35698 612 Jacobi et al 2009 Coelodonta antiquitatis 54.00 -4.00 32250 700 36891 1676 Jacobi et al 2009 Coelodonta antiquitatis 54.00 -4.00 32870 200 37599 816 Jacobi et al 2009 Coelodonta antiquitatis 54.00 -4.00 33800 200 38519 729 Jacobi et al 2009

Coelodonta antiquitatis 54.00 -4.00 36370 320 41468 547 Jacobi et al 2009 a15 Coelodonta antiquitatis 54.00 -4.00 37540 370 42234 570 Jacobi et al 2009 Coelodonta antiquitatis 54.00 -4.00 40200 700 44080 1082 Jacobi et al 2009 Coelodonta antiquitatis 54.00 -4.00 40550 400 44385 726 Jacobi et al 2009 Coelodonta antiquitatis 54.00 -4.00 41900 900 45370 1419 Jacobi et al 2009 Coelodonta antiquitatis 54.00 -4.00 42650 800 46021 1475 Jacobi et al 2009 Coelodonta antiquitatis 54.00 -4.00 43700 1000 47229 2037 Jacobi et al 2009 Coelodonta antiquitatis 54.00 -4.00 45800 1400 48172 1829 Jacobi et al 2009 Coelodonta antiquitatis 60.97 68.53 10770 250 12600 615 Kuzmin 2010 Coelodonta antiquitatis 52.97 55.32 12330 120 14462 525 Kuzmin 2010 Coelodonta antiquitatis 54.40 81.67 13165 180 15936 755 Kuzmin 2010 Coelodonta antiquitatis 56.38 57.62 14200 400 17513 993 Kuzmin 2010 Coelodonta antiquitatis 54.83 57.88 14300 110 17407 393 Kuzmin 2010 Coelodonta antiquitatis 55.43 65.35 14390 150 17490 434 Kuzmin 2010 Coelodonta antiquitatis 54.40 81.67 14700 210 17888 636 Kuzmin 2010 Coelodonta antiquitatis 71.16 153.45 15130 90 18319 294 Lorenzen et al 2011 Coelodonta antiquitatis 69.87 147.58 15850 80 19087 282 Lorenzen et al 2011 Coelodonta antiquitatis 62.00 132.50 19500 120 23175 508 Lorenzen et al 2011 Coelodonta antiquitatis 63.17 133.75 26030 200 30752 352 Lorenzen et al 2011 Coelodonta antiquitatis 68.20 157.67 26900 400 31313 646 Lorenzen et al 2011 Coelodonta antiquitatis 68.00 162.17 27300 300 31644 547 Lorenzen et al 2011 Coelodonta antiquitatis 68.00 162.17 27300 300 31644 547 Lorenzen et al 2011 Coelodonta antiquitatis 69.03 156.00 37100 1100 41594 1992 Lorenzen et al 2011 Coelodonta antiquitatis 67.27 155.87 39900 500 43867 818 Lorenzen et al 2011 Coelodonta antiquitatis 67.20 132.90 40000 500 43933 827 Lorenzen et al 2011 Coelodonta antiquitatis 52.97 55.32 12330 120 14462 525 Orlova 2004 Coelodonta antiquitatis 67.00 157.17 14260 150 17380 433 Orlova 2004 Coelodonta antiquitatis 62.00 132.50 19500 120 23175 508 Orlova 2004 Coelodonta antiquitatis 58.15 115.51 19610 670 23367 1634 Orlova 2004 Coelodonta antiquitatis 63.17 133.75 20080 150 23971 435 Orlova 2004 Coelodonta antiquitatis 70.70 143.00 20400 200 24391 535 Orlova 2004 Coelodonta antiquitatis 55.50 159.50 20800 200 24864 556 Orlova 2004 Coelodonta antiquitatis 55.38 109.00 25880 350 30479 702 Orlova 2004 Coelodonta antiquitatis 56.35 90.77 26620 240 31117 303 Orlova 2004 Coelodonta antiquitatis 71.00 179.00 29800 340 34258 760 Orlova 2004 Coelodonta antiquitatis 61.05 68.57 30090 800 34661 1803 Orlova 2004 Coelodonta antiquitatis 51.62 108.12 30600 500 35466 978 Orlova 2004 Coelodonta antiquitatis 71.16 153.45 30900 200 35579 699 Orlova 2004

Coelodonta antiquitatis 70.40 133.00 31500 300 35877 704 Orlova 2004 a16 Coelodonta antiquitatis 55.45 103.05 31860 780 36662 1746 Orlova 2004 Coelodonta antiquitatis 66.17 151.67 33100 400 37744 979 Orlova 2004 Coelodonta antiquitatis 51.25 109.33 34860 2100 39108 3918 Orlova 2004 Coelodonta antiquitatis 67.02 154.30 41600 800 45127 1185 Orlova 2004 Coelodonta antiquitatis 69.03 156.00 43700 1000 47229 2037 Orlova 2004 Equus caballus germanicus 41.97 12.48 28680 390 33225 1250 Crochet et al 2007 Equus caballus germanicus 41.97 12.48 31450 270 35859 679 Crochet et al 2007 Equus ferus 54.00 -4.00 44300 2100 47330 2671 Higham et al 2006 Equus ferus 54.00 -4.00 44900 2800 47036 2964 Higham et al 2006 Equus ferus 54.00 -4.00 36000 450 41072 870 Jacobi et al 2006 Mammuthus primigenius 54.00 -4.00 42700 2100 46561 3281 Higham et al 2006 Mammuthus primigenius 51.55 -4.25 21710 120 26107 554 Jacobi & Higham 2008 Mammuthus primigenius 51.55 -4.25 22210 160 26870 713 Jacobi & Higham 2008 Mammuthus primigenius 47.04 18.18 13315 35 16232 579 Kovacs 2012 Mammuthus primigenius 46.00 18.09 17760 200 21024 598 Kovacs 2012 Mammuthus primigenius 53.00 103.50 12015 85 13881 209 Kuzmin & Orlova 2004 Mammuthus primigenius 74.83 106.00 12050 150 13993 526 Kuzmin & Orlova 2004 Mammuthus primigenius 54.50 80.20 12520 150 14626 556 Kuzmin & Orlova 2004 Mammuthus primigenius 59.25 132.67 12520 250 14831 1012 Kuzmin & Orlova 2004 Mammuthus primigenius 69.00 147.30 12530 60 14663 438 Kuzmin & Orlova 2004 Mammuthus primigenius 67.38 67.87 12535 80 14662 455 Kuzmin & Orlova 2004 Mammuthus primigenius 69.00 147.30 12570 80 14693 459 Kuzmin & Orlova 2004 Mammuthus primigenius 50.50 72.75 12570 400 15111 1377 Kuzmin & Orlova 2004 Mammuthus primigenius 55.00 159.00 12630 50 14885 341 Kuzmin & Orlova 2004 Mammuthus primigenius 71.00 179.00 12750 50 15177 407 Kuzmin & Orlova 2004 Mammuthus primigenius 70.55 149.05 12850 110 15559 673 Kuzmin & Orlova 2004 Mammuthus primigenius 59.00 69.00 12860 90 15516 581 Kuzmin & Orlova 2004 Mammuthus primigenius 55.33 92.47 12860 175 15525 915 Kuzmin & Orlova 2004 Mammuthus primigenius 46.78 134.03 12900 410 15430 1344 Kuzmin & Orlova 2004 Mammuthus primigenius 69.78 168.00 12950 130 15724 681 Kuzmin & Orlova 2004 Mammuthus primigenius 71.00 179.00 12980 80 15716 607 Kuzmin & Orlova 2004 Mammuthus primigenius 58.05 69.50 13140 100 15892 667 Kuzmin & Orlova 2004 Mammuthus primigenius 70.55 149.05 13205 150 15967 732 Kuzmin & Orlova 2004 Mammuthus primigenius 55.92 92.33 13260 160 16023 749 Kuzmin & Orlova 2004 Mammuthus primigenius 56.10 92.50 13260 250 16003 828 Kuzmin & Orlova 2004 Mammuthus primigenius 56.10 92.50 13310 140 16132 702 Kuzmin & Orlova 2004 Mammuthus primigenius 75.30 105.00 13340 240 16049 817 Kuzmin & Orlova 2004

Mammuthus primigenius 56.10 92.50 13350 60 16266 578 Kuzmin & Orlova 2004 a17 Mammuthus primigenius 61.03 68.63 13430 105 16388 511 Kuzmin & Orlova 2004 Mammuthus primigenius 72.83 106.75 13560 40 16711 205 Kuzmin & Orlova 2004 Mammuthus primigenius 54.50 80.20 13600 230 16368 824 Kuzmin & Orlova 2004 Mammuthus primigenius 73.00 74.40 13600 160 16531 554 Kuzmin & Orlova 2004 Mammuthus primigenius 56.10 92.50 13650 70 16791 205 Kuzmin & Orlova 2004 Mammuthus primigenius 73.00 74.40 13650 170 16636 543 Kuzmin & Orlova 2004 Mammuthus primigenius 71.00 145.00 13700 800 16332 2183 Kuzmin & Orlova 2004 Mammuthus primigenius 75.00 138.00 13700 100 16827 240 Kuzmin & Orlova 2004 Mammuthus primigenius 44.15 131.78 13750 780 16372 2148 Kuzmin & Orlova 2004 Mammuthus primigenius 56.10 92.50 13930 80 17069 300 Kuzmin & Orlova 2004 Mammuthus primigenius 68.88 70.75 13940 170 17124 389 Kuzmin & Orlova 2004 Mammuthus primigenius 69.78 168.00 14000 120 17138 330 Kuzmin & Orlova 2004 Mammuthus primigenius 69.78 168.00 14120 170 17243 416 Kuzmin & Orlova 2004 Mammuthus primigenius 54.50 80.20 14200 150 17303 421 Kuzmin & Orlova 2004 Mammuthus primigenius 54.50 80.20 14280 285 17420 622 Kuzmin & Orlova 2004 Mammuthus primigenius 72.47 128.42 14340 50 17456 332 Kuzmin & Orlova 2004 Mammuthus primigenius 66.30 -170.00 14380 70 17499 344 Kuzmin & Orlova 2004 Mammuthus primigenius 70.15 69.00 14400 80 17516 350 Kuzmin & Orlova 2004 Mammuthus primigenius 58.07 68.19 14510 195 17753 693 Kuzmin & Orlova 2004 Mammuthus primigenius 53.00 103.50 14750 120 18046 465 Kuzmin & Orlova 2004 Mammuthus primigenius 74.53 100.50 15390 50 18654 134 Kuzmin & Orlova 2004 Mammuthus primigenius 79.90 94.58 19270 300 23021 722 Kuzmin & Orlova 2004 Mammuthus primigenius 53.55 92.00 20100 300 24066 770 Kuzmin & Orlova 2004 Mammuthus primigenius 55.20 92.05 20100 100 24038 353 Kuzmin & Orlova 2004 Mammuthus primigenius 72.36 139.73 20100 150 23994 431 Kuzmin & Orlova 2004 Mammuthus primigenius 57.75 83.52 20140 240 24050 657 Kuzmin & Orlova 2004 Mammuthus primigenius 55.05 90.00 20200 100 24132 304 Kuzmin & Orlova 2004 Mammuthus primigenius 53.00 103.50 20340 320 24259 771 Kuzmin & Orlova 2004 Mammuthus primigenius 73.53 105.82 20380 140 24335 446 Kuzmin & Orlova 2004 Mammuthus primigenius 73.53 105.82 20390 160 24360 479 Kuzmin & Orlova 2004 Mammuthus primigenius 57.22 111.83 20400 100 24337 418 Kuzmin & Orlova 2004 Mammuthus primigenius 72.08 96.25 20400 100 24337 418 Kuzmin & Orlova 2004 Mammuthus primigenius 55.64 88.00 20480 180 24444 504 Kuzmin & Orlova 2004 Mammuthus primigenius 45.50 126.33 20580 600 24595 1588 Kuzmin & Orlova 2004 Mammuthus primigenius 74.15 99.39 20600 90 24633 325 Kuzmin & Orlova 2004 Mammuthus primigenius 74.15 99.39 20620 70 24651 300 Kuzmin & Orlova 2004 Mammuthus primigenius 59.50 62.25 20630 220 24548 573 Kuzmin & Orlova 2004

Mammuthus primigenius 53.00 103.50 20700 150 24692 382 Kuzmin & Orlova 2004 a18 Mammuthus primigenius 55.64 88.00 20770 560 24829 1432 Kuzmin & Orlova 2004 Mammuthus primigenius 74.00 103.00 20800 70 24768 284 Kuzmin & Orlova 2004 Mammuthus primigenius 53.00 103.50 20800 120 24774 343 Kuzmin & Orlova 2004 Mammuthus primigenius 53.00 103.50 20800 140 24779 383 Kuzmin & Orlova 2004 Mammuthus primigenius 53.00 103.50 20800 200 24864 556 Kuzmin & Orlova 2004 Mammuthus primigenius 53.00 103.50 20900 200 24974 571 Kuzmin & Orlova 2004 Mammuthus primigenius 75.25 144.00 20900 100 24865 379 Kuzmin & Orlova 2004 Mammuthus primigenius 44.63 129.58 20910 1000 25143 2554 Kuzmin & Orlova 2004 Mammuthus primigenius 74.27 101.58 20950 190 25017 567 Kuzmin & Orlova 2004 Mammuthus primigenius 53.00 103.50 21000 110 25050 454 Kuzmin & Orlova 2004 Mammuthus primigenius 53.00 103.50 21100 150 25211 543 Kuzmin & Orlova 2004 Mammuthus primigenius 53.00 103.50 21100 140 25214 517 Kuzmin & Orlova 2004 Mammuthus primigenius 70.00 125.00 21260 310 25363 840 Kuzmin & Orlova 2004 Mammuthus primigenius 53.00 103.50 21300 300 25391 835 Kuzmin & Orlova 2004 Mammuthus primigenius 53.00 103.50 21300 110 25461 419 Kuzmin & Orlova 2004 Mammuthus primigenius 56.35 161.00 21300 400 25548 1091 Kuzmin & Orlova 2004 Mammuthus primigenius 55.64 88.00 21300 420 25558 1132 Kuzmin & Orlova 2004 Mammuthus primigenius 53.00 103.50 21340 240 25546 658 Kuzmin & Orlova 2004 Mammuthus primigenius 53.00 103.50 21400 110 25545 436 Kuzmin & Orlova 2004 Mammuthus primigenius 62.42 133.00 21500 775 25886 1965 Kuzmin & Orlova 2004 Mammuthus primigenius 52.72 102.00 21520 155 25665 529 Kuzmin & Orlova 2004 Mammuthus primigenius 53.00 103.50 21600 200 25867 755 Kuzmin & Orlova 2004 Mammuthus primigenius 59.45 150.55 21600 200 25867 755 Kuzmin & Orlova 2004 Mammuthus primigenius 71.28 129.42 21630 240 25902 778 Kuzmin & Orlova 2004 Mammuthus primigenius 53.00 103.50 21700 160 26073 642 Kuzmin & Orlova 2004 Mammuthus primigenius 55.00 159.15 21750 150 26146 588 Kuzmin & Orlova 2004 Mammuthus primigenius 72.40 106.00 22000 200 26632 834 Kuzmin & Orlova 2004 Mammuthus primigenius 52.72 102.00 22090 150 26700 732 Kuzmin & Orlova 2004 Mammuthus primigenius 55.64 88.00 22240 185 26897 733 Kuzmin & Orlova 2004 Mammuthus primigenius 55.64 88.00 22290 125 26919 681 Kuzmin & Orlova 2004 Mammuthus primigenius 55.64 88.00 22500 280 27083 828 Kuzmin & Orlova 2004 Mammuthus primigenius 79.52 96.92 24910 200 29836 432 Kuzmin & Orlova 2004 Mammuthus primigenius 53.00 103.50 25700 260 30397 652 Kuzmin & Orlova 2004 Mammuthus primigenius 43.11 128.91 26560 550 31104 919 Kuzmin & Orlova 2004 Mammuthus primigenius 71.83 150.00 26680 200 31168 228 Kuzmin & Orlova 2004 Mammuthus primigenius 73.65 143.13 26860 290 31265 332 Kuzmin & Orlova 2004 Mammuthus primigenius 68.45 150.45 28600 300 33152 1252 Kuzmin & Orlova 2004

Mammuthus primigenius 75.26 144.00 28650 350 33213 1222 Kuzmin & Orlova 2004 a19 Mammuthus primigenius 57.30 112.00 28670 600 33108 1438 Kuzmin & Orlova 2004 Mammuthus primigenius 51.43 85.35 28730 995 33117 1846 Kuzmin & Orlova 2004 Mammuthus primigenius 75.15 98.00 28800 600 33184 1428 Kuzmin & Orlova 2004 Mammuthus primigenius 54.35 86.21 28870 600 33229 1421 Kuzmin & Orlova 2004 Mammuthus primigenius 44.76 126.53 28880 1220 33653 2543 Kuzmin & Orlova 2004 Mammuthus primigenius 72.40 106.00 28900 300 33576 962 Kuzmin & Orlova 2004 Mammuthus primigenius 75.30 140.00 29020 190 33797 691 Kuzmin & Orlova 2004 Mammuthus primigenius 75.25 144.00 29100 400 33662 1006 Kuzmin & Orlova 2004 Mammuthus primigenius 75.25 144.00 29100 1000 33713 2381 Kuzmin & Orlova 2004 Mammuthus primigenius 67.10 68.00 29300 300 33926 713 Kuzmin & Orlova 2004 Mammuthus primigenius 72.15 113.30 29400 400 33927 856 Kuzmin & Orlova 2004 Mammuthus primigenius 72.12 96.03 29500 300 34040 690 Kuzmin & Orlova 2004 Mammuthus primigenius 64.00 126.00 29500 3000 34565 6173 Kuzmin & Orlova 2004 Mammuthus primigenius 67.35 116.00 29600 500 34037 1031 Kuzmin & Orlova 2004 Mammuthus primigenius 75.26 144.00 29700 250 34200 638 Kuzmin & Orlova 2004 Mammuthus primigenius 69.18 69.88 29700 1000 34096 2230 Kuzmin & Orlova 2004 Mammuthus primigenius 71.83 150.00 29900 300 34374 695 Kuzmin & Orlova 2004 Mammuthus primigenius 73.07 106.83 29990 280 34534 600 Kuzmin & Orlova 2004 Mammuthus primigenius 73.55 118.50 30000 300 34506 650 Kuzmin & Orlova 2004 Mammuthus primigenius 56.00 159.75 30000 300 34506 650 Kuzmin & Orlova 2004 Mammuthus primigenius 70.30 77.30 30250 1800 34936 3695 Kuzmin & Orlova 2004 Mammuthus primigenius 71.00 117.01 30600 1240 34980 2928 Kuzmin & Orlova 2004 Mammuthus primigenius 73.60 100.50 30850 200 35548 721 Kuzmin & Orlova 2004 Mammuthus primigenius 73.07 106.83 30890 290 35565 727 Kuzmin & Orlova 2004 Mammuthus primigenius 73.22 143.58 31000 1000 35585 2306 Kuzmin & Orlova 2004 Mammuthus primigenius 51.87 108.15 31060 530 35642 906 Kuzmin & Orlova 2004 Mammuthus primigenius 66.30 173.70 31100 900 35620 2041 Kuzmin & Orlova 2004 Mammuthus primigenius 66.30 173.70 31370 900 36460 1987 Kuzmin & Orlova 2004 Mammuthus primigenius 75.26 144.00 31400 300 35832 697 Kuzmin & Orlova 2004 Mammuthus primigenius 70.00 125.00 31500 2000 36122 4337 Kuzmin & Orlova 2004 Mammuthus primigenius 42.87 133.00 31500 980 36439 2211 Kuzmin & Orlova 2004 Mammuthus primigenius 69.60 164.80 31530 420 35886 831 Kuzmin & Orlova 2004 Mammuthus primigenius 42.87 133.00 31550 600 36026 1221 Kuzmin & Orlova 2004 Mammuthus primigenius 73.52 105.08 31580 240 35933 665 Kuzmin & Orlova 2004 Mammuthus primigenius 74.00 100.08 31580 330 35910 742 Kuzmin & Orlova 2004 Mammuthus primigenius 67.15 157.30 31750 2500 36383 4947 Kuzmin & Orlova 2004 Mammuthus primigenius 75.50 112.00 31800 500 36215 1173 Kuzmin & Orlova 2004

Mammuthus primigenius 73.00 112.00 31900 300 36161 841 Kuzmin & Orlova 2004 a20 Mammuthus primigenius 75.30 105.00 32000 200 36281 648 Kuzmin & Orlova 2004 Mammuthus primigenius 74.50 102.63 32000 500 36465 1356 Kuzmin & Orlova 2004 Mammuthus primigenius 66.30 173.70 32000 3000 36665 5633 Kuzmin & Orlova 2004 Mammuthus primigenius 73.30 142.00 32030 1170 37010 2537 Kuzmin & Orlova 2004 Mammuthus primigenius 67.38 67.87 32090 480 36577 1390 Kuzmin & Orlova 2004 Mammuthus primigenius 73.30 142.00 32100 900 36812 1901 Kuzmin & Orlova 2004 Mammuthus primigenius 73.60 101.13 32200 800 36863 1779 Kuzmin & Orlova 2004 Mammuthus primigenius 72.40 106.00 32300 400 36988 1388 Kuzmin & Orlova 2004 Mammuthus primigenius 49.35 117.58 32430 1700 37321 3689 Kuzmin & Orlova 2004 Mammuthus primigenius 74.53 100.50 32530 270 37266 789 Kuzmin & Orlova 2004 Mammuthus primigenius 42.87 133.00 32570 1510 37733 3227 Kuzmin & Orlova 2004 Mammuthus primigenius 73.67 86.83 32600 700 37139 1731 Kuzmin & Orlova 2004 Mammuthus primigenius 72.50 101.58 32600 280 37445 918 Kuzmin & Orlova 2004 Mammuthus primigenius 73.00 103.00 32750 280 37527 878 Kuzmin & Orlova 2004 Mammuthus primigenius 66.30 173.70 32810 720 37339 1818 Kuzmin & Orlova 2004 Mammuthus primigenius 74.43 107.58 32840 290 37589 887 Kuzmin & Orlova 2004 Mammuthus primigenius 68.03 166.00 32850 900 37419 2180 Kuzmin & Orlova 2004 Mammuthus primigenius 66.30 173.70 32890 1200 37713 2669 Kuzmin & Orlova 2004 Mammuthus primigenius 42.87 133.00 33000 1000 37729 2414 Kuzmin & Orlova 2004 Mammuthus primigenius 73.22 143.58 33100 2000 37859 4034 Kuzmin & Orlova 2004 Mammuthus primigenius 42.87 133.00 33420 460 37966 1171 Kuzmin & Orlova 2004 Mammuthus primigenius 70.30 77.30 33500 1000 38589 2309 Kuzmin & Orlova 2004 Mammuthus primigenius 71.83 150.00 33600 500 38224 1395 Kuzmin & Orlova 2004 Mammuthus primigenius 68.45 150.45 33800 500 38588 1496 Kuzmin & Orlova 2004 Mammuthus primigenius 43.11 128.91 34310 1850 38742 3535 Kuzmin & Orlova 2004 Mammuthus primigenius 72.25 127.00 34450 2500 38902 4746 Kuzmin & Orlova 2004 Mammuthus primigenius 70.08 135.33 35400 2000 39563 3947 Kuzmin & Orlova 2004 Mammuthus primigenius 72.25 127.00 35800 1200 40410 2354 Kuzmin & Orlova 2004 Mammuthus primigenius 72.00 85.30 35800 2700 39854 4843 Kuzmin & Orlova 2004 Mammuthus primigenius 72.00 85.30 36950 4300 40946 7853 Kuzmin & Orlova 2004 Mammuthus primigenius 45.00 127.60 38800 3500 42878 6313 Kuzmin & Orlova 2004 Mammuthus primigenius 54.12 86.38 39090 2440 43081 4456 Kuzmin & Orlova 2004 Mammuthus primigenius 75.30 105.00 39200 700 43414 1053 Kuzmin & Orlova 2004 Mammuthus primigenius 56.30 160.00 39600 1600 43681 2300 Kuzmin & Orlova 2004 Mammuthus primigenius 45.00 127.60 39600 3000 43950 5444 Kuzmin & Orlova 2004 Mammuthus primigenius 45.00 127.60 40200 3500 44272 5729 Kuzmin & Orlova 2004 Mammuthus primigenius 74.60 101.20 40800 2000 45030 3412 Kuzmin & Orlova 2004

Mammuthus primigenius 50.03 128.27 41000 4000 44075 5926 Kuzmin & Orlova 2004 a21 Mammuthus primigenius 53.00 103.50 41100 1500 44841 2483 Kuzmin & Orlova 2004 Mammuthus primigenius 72.47 98.03 41400 2000 45532 3412 Kuzmin & Orlova 2004 Mammuthus primigenius 72.52 101.58 41580 1190 45092 1994 Kuzmin & Orlova 2004 Mammuthus primigenius 71.20 150.30 41750 1290 45382 2307 Kuzmin & Orlova 2004 Mammuthus primigenius 72.40 106.00 41900 800 45342 1188 Kuzmin & Orlova 2004 Mammuthus primigenius 59.00 64.00 41900 800 45342 1188 Kuzmin & Orlova 2004 Mammuthus primigenius 71.16 153.45 42400 800 45747 1348 Kuzmin & Orlova 2004 Mammuthus primigenius 73.32 141.38 42700 1300 46545 2465 Kuzmin & Orlova 2004 Mammuthus primigenius 72.30 104.30 42800 800 46198 1551 Kuzmin & Orlova 2004 Mammuthus primigenius 53.00 103.50 43100 2400 46681 3320 Kuzmin & Orlova 2004 Mammuthus primigenius 74.42 107.58 43160 1280 46877 2397 Kuzmin & Orlova 2004 Mammuthus primigenius 73.00 119.00 43200 400 46262 864 Kuzmin & Orlova 2004 Mammuthus primigenius 74.05 93.10 43500 1000 47066 2041 Kuzmin & Orlova 2004 Mammuthus primigenius 74.42 107.58 43500 1000 47066 2041 Kuzmin & Orlova 2004 Mammuthus primigenius 56.78 93.52 43580 8800 40530 9470 Kuzmin & Orlova 2004 Mammuthus primigenius 68.45 161.15 43700 800 47139 1773 Kuzmin & Orlova 2004 Mammuthus primigenius 68.58 147.08 44540 1900 47535 2465 Kuzmin & Orlova 2004 Mammuthus primigenius 70.83 97.00 45000 1000 48171 1829 Kuzmin & Orlova 2004 Mammuthus primigenius 73.00 119.00 45500 1200 48207 1793 Kuzmin & Orlova 2004 Mammuthus primigenius 69.00 147.30 46100 1000 48494 1506 Kuzmin & Orlova 2004 Mammuthus primigenius 74.05 93.10 46100 1200 48360 1641 Kuzmin & Orlova 2004 Mammuthus primigenius 75.00 149.00 9650 60 10988 213 Kuzmin 2010 Mammuthus primigenius 60.45 44.45 10000 800 11434 1953 Kuzmin 2010 Mammuthus primigenius 60.95 68.53 10210 135 11878 532 Kuzmin 2010 Mammuthus primigenius 59.38 62.33 11080 160 12958 306 Kuzmin 2010 Mammuthus primigenius 54.67 80.35 11090 120 12949 269 Kuzmin 2010 Mammuthus primigenius 60.95 68.53 11310 380 13214 804 Kuzmin 2010 Mammuthus primigenius 60.95 68.53 11840 95 13661 227 Kuzmin 2010 Mammuthus primigenius 72.12 104.00 14800 50 18095 398 Lorenzen et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 54.50 80.20 14800 150 18076 450 Lorenzen et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 44.90 1.02 14850 350 17934 764 Lorenzen et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 43.00 104.00 14940 170 18165 419 Lorenzen et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 72.36 139.73 15000 70 18269 277 Lorenzen et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 65.00 171.00 15100 70 18308 282 Lorenzen et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 51.75 33.08 15100 200 18279 431 Lorenzen et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 52.83 30.97 15100 250 18259 530 Lorenzen et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 53.33 34.33 15110 530 18268 1116 Lorenzen et al 2011

Mammuthus primigenius 68.45 150.00 15130 50 18319 285 Lorenzen et al 2011 a22 Mammuthus primigenius 59.24 62.34 15150 280 18283 584 Lorenzen et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 68.45 150.00 15200 80 18353 312 Lorenzen et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 44.15 131.78 15300 140 18436 395 Lorenzen et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 71.00 179.00 15400 100 18684 194 Lorenzen et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 61.05 68.57 15420 215 18629 611 Lorenzen et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 75.00 138.00 15420 100 18688 177 Lorenzen et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 48.52 15.68 15560 200 18792 583 Lorenzen et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 52.67 33.28 15660 180 18951 379 Lorenzen et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 50.07 8.53 15810 410 18955 917 Lorenzen et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 60.37 25.43 15910 155 19103 317 Lorenzen et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 62.42 133.00 16000 300 19220 610 Lorenzen et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 58.50 81.05 16000 385 19299 763 Lorenzen et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 55.29 59.29 16130 310 19326 659 Lorenzen et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 64.40 -147.00 16168 209 19334 503 Lorenzen et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 54.10 61.40 16300 300 19496 656 Lorenzen et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 55.92 92.33 16300 600 19616 1478 Lorenzen et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 53.33 34.33 16300 700 19641 1603 Lorenzen et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 59.24 62.34 16320 450 19518 906 Lorenzen et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 75.30 105.00 16330 100 19421 447 Lorenzen et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 51.70 36.00 16565 270 19663 686 Lorenzen et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 59.24 62.34 16700 240 19890 470 Lorenzen et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 51.70 36.00 16960 420 20375 982 Lorenzen et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 59.38 62.33 17050 160 20276 684 Lorenzen et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 52.85 86.68 17100 390 20397 924 Lorenzen et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 55.92 92.33 17200 230 20452 813 Lorenzen et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 52.01 86.32 17220 245 20468 830 Lorenzen et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 57.23 112.25 17290 100 20670 443 Lorenzen et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 42.17 2.74 17320 290 20654 756 Lorenzen et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 44.15 131.78 17400 150 20780 487 Lorenzen et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 57.22 111.83 17450 100 20813 435 Lorenzen et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 70.11 75.46 17500 300 20821 729 Lorenzen et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 52.01 86.32 17600 500 20913 1306 Lorenzen et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 57.30 112.00 17610 200 20931 534 Lorenzen et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 42.17 2.74 17720 290 21120 808 Lorenzen et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 70.00 125.00 17780 80 21052 470 Lorenzen et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 54.50 80.20 17800 100 21056 483 Lorenzen et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 59.27 62.33 17810 320 21231 869 Lorenzen et al 2011

Mammuthus primigenius 54.25 69.73 17930 100 21395 353 Lorenzen et al 2011 a23 Mammuthus primigenius 53.26 -3.37 18000 1400 21729 3195 Lorenzen et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 49.63 31.40 18020 600 21593 1616 Lorenzen et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 55.64 88.00 18040 175 21635 549 Lorenzen et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 56.00 65.92 18050 95 21636 380 Lorenzen et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 49.42 20.17 18160 260 21718 662 Lorenzen et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 73.60 100.48 18190 60 21758 324 Lorenzen et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 61.05 68.57 18250 1100 21876 2543 Lorenzen et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 55.27 39.45 18300 200 21868 464 Lorenzen et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 65.02 57.38 18320 280 21855 619 Lorenzen et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 75.26 144.00 18500 120 21981 408 Lorenzen et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 55.85 88.05 18580 240 22184 734 Lorenzen et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 59.30 62.38 18600 230 22196 727 Lorenzen et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 55.20 92.05 18600 2000 22689 4858 Lorenzen et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 71.40 119.00 18680 120 22115 500 Lorenzen et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 52.85 33.23 18690 770 22252 1888 Lorenzen et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 70.00 119.00 18700 100 22302 289 Lorenzen et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 55.15 91.10 18930 320 22558 901 Lorenzen et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 57.07 63.57 18990 340 22650 916 Lorenzen et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 50.55 29.23 19000 300 22717 831 Lorenzen et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 51.29 39.00 19010 120 22792 492 Lorenzen et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 55.64 88.00 19190 310 22961 742 Lorenzen et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 56.58 27.50 19200 200 22913 542 Lorenzen et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 45.82 28.58 19200 350 22987 840 Lorenzen et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 49.63 31.40 19280 600 22961 1428 Lorenzen et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 52.44 -2.83 19300 700 23067 1678 Lorenzen et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 44.38 8.98 19400 230 23106 640 Lorenzen et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 53.55 92.00 19500 200 23206 616 Lorenzen et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 39.89 -98.03 19530 80 23198 508 Lorenzen et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 79.90 94.58 19640 330 23389 870 Lorenzen et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 53.55 92.00 19700 200 23410 727 Lorenzen et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 59.38 62.33 19710 205 23431 744 Lorenzen et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 52.00 33.27 19800 350 23529 915 Lorenzen et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 51.29 39.00 19860 200 23780 565 Lorenzen et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 53.00 103.50 19900 800 23809 2015 Lorenzen et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 73.53 105.82 19910 130 23809 423 Lorenzen et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 55.05 90.00 19960 80 23848 375 Lorenzen et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 79.47 96.75 19970 110 23863 404 Lorenzen et al 2011

Mammuthus primigenius 51.55 -4.24 19980 220 23883 546 Lorenzen et al 2011 a24 Mammuthus primigenius 75.00 138.00 19990 110 23883 404 Lorenzen et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 71.00 -179.00 20000 110 23893 403 Lorenzen et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 71.00 -179.00 22400 300 27022 862 Lorenzen et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 71.00 -179.00 22400 200 27011 745 Lorenzen et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 55.64 88.00 22410 200 27020 745 Lorenzen et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 55.64 88.00 22450 200 27054 755 Lorenzen et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 57.30 112.00 22480 420 27033 1081 Lorenzen et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 55.64 88.00 22500 280 27083 828 Lorenzen et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 51.55 -4.24 22620 340 27158 921 Lorenzen et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 51.29 39.00 22700 250 27369 721 Lorenzen et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 55.64 88.00 22750 160 27426 566 Lorenzen et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 74.03 100.00 22750 150 27428 558 Lorenzen et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 51.29 39.00 22760 250 27414 712 Lorenzen et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 51.39 39.04 22780 250 27429 714 Lorenzen et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 57.68 62.20 22860 410 27404 1093 Lorenzen et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 53.00 103.50 22900 240 27556 730 Lorenzen et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 55.64 88.00 22990 170 27657 710 Lorenzen et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 51.29 39.00 23010 300 27675 805 Lorenzen et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 64.94 -147.65 23015 449 27491 1183 Lorenzen et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 50.07 19.95 23020 180 27699 739 Lorenzen et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 50.07 19.95 23040 170 27719 743 Lorenzen et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 67.35 116.00 23100 200 27754 763 Lorenzen et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 48.32 15.40 23180 120 28084 381 Lorenzen et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 64.94 -147.65 23222 453 27945 1185 Lorenzen et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 51.29 39.00 23260 420 27952 1115 Lorenzen et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 51.42 39.00 23260 680 27844 1613 Lorenzen et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 61.00 77.00 23300 500 28036 1256 Lorenzen et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 55.64 88.00 23330 110 28177 339 Lorenzen et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 73.06 102.16 23500 300 28426 719 Lorenzen et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 59.00 101.30 23600 200 28384 510 Lorenzen et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 51.29 39.00 23640 320 28556 722 Lorenzen et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 54.87 70.50 23670 410 28579 871 Lorenzen et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 55.12 84.24 23760 245 28626 631 Lorenzen et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 56.58 27.50 23770 1540 28016 3196 Lorenzen et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 51.29 39.00 23770 200 28621 590 Lorenzen et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 74.50 102.00 23800 400 28666 799 Lorenzen et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 43.00 33.00 23800 150 28632 541 Lorenzen et al 2011

Mammuthus primigenius 64.87 -146.84 23808 487 28622 1042 Lorenzen et al 2011 a25 Mammuthus primigenius 75.26 144.00 23940 150 28819 475 Lorenzen et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 50.07 19.95 23980 280 28812 634 Lorenzen et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 70.50 134.23 24000 1100 28557 2353 Lorenzen et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 66.00 67.00 24000 1500 28171 3083 Lorenzen et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 51.55 -4.24 24140 400 28865 858 Lorenzen et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 75.50 100.50 24170 110 28961 422 Lorenzen et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 72.25 109.75 24250 110 29015 430 Lorenzen et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 55.90 87.95 24360 150 29067 457 Lorenzen et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 52.63 85.67 24400 650 29205 1286 Lorenzen et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 72.47 128.42 24400 650 29205 1286 Lorenzen et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 63.80 23.48 24450 385 29324 869 Lorenzen et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 51.29 39.00 24500 450 29345 948 Lorenzen et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 57.23 112.25 24600 730 29404 1411 Lorenzen et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 47.65 31.10 24600 150 29486 567 Lorenzen et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 50.50 72.75 24650 305 29452 787 Lorenzen et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 56.30 90.40 24650 340 29438 819 Lorenzen et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 74.03 100.00 24900 500 29618 1051 Lorenzen et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 79.52 96.92 24960 210 29861 432 Lorenzen et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 53.33 34.12 24960 400 29716 893 Lorenzen et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 52.45 128.11 25040 200 29896 415 Lorenzen et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 72.50 87.00 25100 500 29881 1044 Lorenzen et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 75.26 144.00 25180 150 29957 393 Lorenzen et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 75.26 144.00 25200 180 29969 420 Lorenzen et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 70.45 131.00 25300 600 29999 1112 Lorenzen et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 56.85 53.23 25300 400 30165 749 Lorenzen et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 64.40 -147.00 25362 584 30084 1059 Lorenzen et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 68.92 71.00 25400 300 30175 635 Lorenzen et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 75.26 144.00 25540 170 30263 568 Lorenzen et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 55.90 87.95 25660 200 30398 608 Lorenzen et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 53.00 103.50 25700 260 30397 652 Lorenzen et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 72.83 106.75 25800 130 30629 312 Lorenzen et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 75.26 144.00 25800 200 30639 367 Lorenzen et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 47.14 5.57 25800 700 30341 1110 Lorenzen et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 70.72 135.42 25800 600 30380 908 Lorenzen et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 46.99 -104.19 26000 120 30754 300 Lorenzen et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 71.05 127.30 26000 1600 31021 3442 Lorenzen et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 74.03 100.00 26100 170 30801 326 Lorenzen et al 2011

Mammuthus primigenius 73.60 100.48 26200 150 30871 295 Lorenzen et al 2011 a26 Mammuthus primigenius 52.67 33.28 26470 420 30923 556 Lorenzen et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 43.11 128.91 26560 550 31104 919 Lorenzen et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 49.35 117.58 26695 1300 31596 2821 Lorenzen et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 53.26 -1.20 26700 550 31216 958 Lorenzen et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 73.60 100.48 26700 700 31266 1476 Lorenzen et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 75.26 144.00 27100 300 31450 426 Lorenzen et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 52.10 -7.50 27150 350 31571 579 Lorenzen et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 71.02 79.20 27200 500 31834 954 Lorenzen et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 73.35 97.00 27300 200 31511 344 Lorenzen et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 56.13 40.48 27460 310 31838 663 Lorenzen et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 68.33 161.50 27470 310 31847 667 Lorenzen et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 73.28 97.88 27500 300 31862 662 Lorenzen et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 70.45 131.00 27500 300 31862 662 Lorenzen et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 51.75 33.08 27500 800 32239 1674 Lorenzen et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 53.00 104.40 27615 2015 32392 4009 Lorenzen et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 50.00 38.00 27700 500 32165 982 Lorenzen et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 75.26 144.00 28000 200 32208 657 Lorenzen et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 76.00 113.00 28270 210 32496 714 Lorenzen et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 71.00 66.50 28300 350 32510 968 Lorenzen et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 74.32 100.33 28310 170 32555 650 Lorenzen et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 62.45 150.30 28400 300 32587 931 Lorenzen et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 73.55 118.50 28400 340 32706 1148 Lorenzen et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 48.38 9.75 28400 200 32634 689 Lorenzen et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 50.11 118.00 28525 200 32754 719 Lorenzen et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 52.22 -8.58 34100 840 38918 2011 Lorenzen et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 43.11 128.91 34310 1850 38742 3535 Lorenzen et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 75.00 138.00 34400 400 39565 991 Lorenzen et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 75.26 144.00 34500 500 39714 1205 Lorenzen et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 51.87 -1.68 34500 500 39714 1205 Lorenzen et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 70.08 135.33 34600 470 39749 1098 Lorenzen et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 68.45 150.45 34700 400 39780 995 Lorenzen et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 51.84 -2.66 34850 1500 39432 2872 Lorenzen et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 73.35 97.00 35000 500 40012 1138 Lorenzen et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 70.45 131.00 35000 300 40043 916 Lorenzen et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 51.17 0.89 35200 1600 39650 3017 Lorenzen et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 75.26 144.00 35210 500 40164 1160 Lorenzen et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 75.63 135.83 35800 700 40603 1413 Lorenzen et al 2011

Mammuthus primigenius 68.58 147.08 35830 630 40677 1309 Lorenzen et al 2011 a27 Mammuthus primigenius 73.60 117.00 35900 500 40841 1114 Lorenzen et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 75.26 144.00 36000 500 41031 992 Lorenzen et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 55.00 159.00 36000 500 41031 992 Lorenzen et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 73.35 97.00 36200 500 41213 894 Lorenzen et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 71.20 150.30 36450 420 41474 692 Lorenzen et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 72.10 111.00 36600 500 41558 800 Lorenzen et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 75.26 144.00 36700 500 41658 776 Lorenzen et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 75.30 105.00 36800 500 41732 755 Lorenzen et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 74.42 107.58 36950 450 41829 671 Lorenzen et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 73.37 110.25 37000 500 41866 737 Lorenzen et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 56.85 53.23 37000 500 41866 737 Lorenzen et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 72.50 109.00 37080 460 41920 683 Lorenzen et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 56.85 53.23 37300 1000 41973 1693 Lorenzen et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 21.38 55.30 37600 400 42272 602 Lorenzen et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 72.16 103.00 38000 1500 42313 2569 Lorenzen et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 73.35 97.00 38300 600 42783 932 Lorenzen et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 73.50 105.00 38400 700 42911 1072 Lorenzen et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 56.85 53.23 38400 1000 42908 1450 Lorenzen et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 50.90 108.48 38460 1100 42935 1590 Lorenzen et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 73.06 102.16 38500 500 42902 822 Lorenzen et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 73.06 102.16 38500 600 42952 954 Lorenzen et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 69.60 164.80 38500 900 42982 1308 Lorenzen et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 73.08 98.75 38800 400 43135 723 Lorenzen et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 75.63 101.80 38800 1300 43162 1870 Lorenzen et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 73.35 97.00 38900 600 43231 951 Lorenzen et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 74.42 107.58 39050 580 43329 919 Lorenzen et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 73.30 105.00 39100 1000 43351 1422 Lorenzen et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 74.05 93.10 39300 500 43491 812 Lorenzen et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 73.60 100.55 39300 600 43487 929 Lorenzen et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 53.00 128.68 39340 1170 43524 1645 Lorenzen et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 70.45 131.00 39400 1000 43544 1429 Lorenzen et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 75.50 100.50 39560 910 43649 1322 Lorenzen et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 68.45 158.30 39570 870 43655 1272 Lorenzen et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 68.45 158.30 39590 770 43669 1143 Lorenzen et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 73.06 102.16 39800 600 43803 933 Lorenzen et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 73.54 114.00 40100 500 44000 837 Lorenzen et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 73.35 97.00 40200 600 44076 965 Lorenzen et al 2011

Mammuthus primigenius 73.53 100.48 40200 600 44076 965 Lorenzen et al 2011 a28 Mammuthus primigenius 72.10 111.00 40300 400 44158 734 Lorenzen et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 71.20 150.30 40350 880 44181 1299 Lorenzen et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 75.10 110.30 40500 800 44279 1209 Lorenzen et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 74.53 100.50 40560 700 44323 1095 Lorenzen et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 68.45 158.30 40600 700 44351 1096 Lorenzen et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 55.00 159.00 40600 600 44365 980 Lorenzen et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 74.42 107.58 40790 970 44457 1424 Lorenzen et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 68.45 158.30 41000 900 44598 1345 Lorenzen et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 68.45 158.30 41000 1100 44596 1631 Lorenzen et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 73.06 102.16 41200 1000 44730 1505 Lorenzen et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 59.00 26.00 10100 100 11667 379 Lougas et al 2002 Mammuthus primigenius 59.00 26.00 10200 100 11890 489 Lougas et al 2002 Mammuthus primigenius 59.00 26.00 30640 830 35042 1718 Lougas et al 2002 Mammuthus primigenius 52.00 20.00 13180 60 15962 643 Nadachowski et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 52.00 20.00 13220 70 16054 633 Nadachowski et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 52.00 20.00 13370 80 16262 595 Nadachowski et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 52.00 20.00 13500 80 16611 308 Nadachowski et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 52.00 20.00 14080 165 17214 398 Nadachowski et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 52.00 20.00 14140 70 17228 312 Nadachowski et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 52.00 20.00 14150 70 17236 313 Nadachowski et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 52.00 20.00 14510 70 17590 342 Nadachowski et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 52.00 20.00 14620 80 17898 485 Nadachowski et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 52.00 20.00 18700 270 22383 863 Nadachowski et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 52.00 20.00 20200 350 24155 851 Nadachowski et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 52.00 20.00 20320 120 24194 350 Nadachowski et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 52.00 20.00 20600 1050 24919 2688 Nadachowski et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 52.00 20.00 22800 150 27461 563 Nadachowski et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 52.00 20.00 23020 180 27699 739 Nadachowski et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 52.00 20.00 23070 130 27766 706 Nadachowski et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 52.00 20.00 23540 150 28287 362 Nadachowski et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 52.00 20.00 23750 150 28544 527 Nadachowski et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 52.00 20.00 23750 150 28544 527 Nadachowski et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 52.00 20.00 23750 140 28526 509 Nadachowski et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 52.00 20.00 23770 160 28592 548 Nadachowski et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 52.00 20.00 23790 160 28623 551 Nadachowski et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 52.00 20.00 24000 300 28816 652 Nadachowski et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 52.00 20.00 24240 160 29007 456 Nadachowski et al 2011

Mammuthus primigenius 52.00 20.00 24460 160 29102 494 Nadachowski et al 2011 a29 Mammuthus primigenius 52.00 20.00 24470 150 29112 486 Nadachowski et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 52.00 20.00 24600 170 29490 631 Nadachowski et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 52.00 20.00 24625 180 29536 631 Nadachowski et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 52.00 20.00 24700 180 29682 527 Nadachowski et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 52.00 20.00 24850 200 29797 454 Nadachowski et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 52.00 20.00 24980 200 29871 418 Nadachowski et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 52.00 20.00 25000 200 29879 416 Nadachowski et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 52.00 20.00 25220 200 29985 445 Nadachowski et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 52.00 20.00 25300 300 30098 606 Nadachowski et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 52.00 20.00 25650 190 30394 600 Nadachowski et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 52.00 20.00 25910 160 30693 330 Nadachowski et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 52.00 20.00 26910 130 31267 183 Nadachowski et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 52.00 20.00 26940 180 31289 215 Nadachowski et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 52.00 20.00 27440 250 31718 534 Nadachowski et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 52.00 20.00 30500 900 34897 1920 Nadachowski et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 52.00 20.00 32280 220 36887 517 Nadachowski et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 52.00 20.00 32500 400 37422 1037 Nadachowski et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 52.00 20.00 32500 400 37422 1037 Nadachowski et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 52.00 20.00 32500 700 37063 1715 Nadachowski et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 52.00 20.00 33640 250 38264 786 Nadachowski et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 52.00 20.00 35790 550 40690 1191 Nadachowski et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 52.00 20.00 35900 700 40692 1406 Nadachowski et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 52.00 20.00 39000 1000 43288 1421 Nadachowski et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 52.00 20.00 40000 1000 43953 1441 Nadachowski et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 52.00 20.00 43000 2000 46867 3117 Nadachowski et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 52.00 20.00 44100 1200 47567 2184 Nadachowski et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 52.00 20.00 45400 1700 47906 2094 Nadachowski et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 71.00 179.00 3685 60 4037 187 Orlova 2004 Mammuthus primigenius 71.00 179.00 3730 40 4082 148 Orlova 2004 Mammuthus primigenius 71.00 179.00 3920 30 4337 90 Orlova 2004 Mammuthus primigenius 71.00 179.00 4010 50 4543 246 Orlova 2004 Mammuthus primigenius 71.00 179.00 4040 30 4602 179 Orlova 2004 Mammuthus primigenius 71.00 179.00 4370 70 5057 225 Orlova 2004 Mammuthus primigenius 71.00 179.00 4400 40 5062 205 Orlova 2004 Mammuthus primigenius 71.00 179.00 4410 50 5069 211 Orlova 2004 Mammuthus primigenius 71.00 179.00 4740 40 5456 130 Orlova 2004 Mammuthus primigenius 71.00 179.00 4900 40 5652 65 Orlova 2004

Mammuthus primigenius 71.00 179.00 5110 40 5838 92 Orlova 2004 a30 Mammuthus primigenius 71.00 179.00 5200 30 5953 44 Orlova 2004 Mammuthus primigenius 71.00 179.00 5250 40 6050 128 Orlova 2004 Mammuthus primigenius 71.00 179.00 5310 90 6101 179 Orlova 2004 Mammuthus primigenius 71.00 179.00 5480 50 6293 104 Orlova 2004 Mammuthus primigenius 71.00 179.00 6260 50 7147 139 Orlova 2004 Mammuthus primigenius 71.00 179.00 6360 60 7296 124 Orlova 2004 Mammuthus primigenius 71.00 179.00 6610 50 7502 70 Orlova 2004 Mammuthus primigenius 71.00 179.00 6750 30 7618 45 Orlova 2004 Mammuthus primigenius 71.00 179.00 6760 50 7601 84 Orlova 2004 Mammuthus primigenius 71.00 179.00 6890 50 7728 106 Orlova 2004 Mammuthus primigenius 71.00 179.00 7040 60 7850 123 Orlova 2004 Mammuthus primigenius 71.00 179.00 7250 60 8071 106 Orlova 2004 Mammuthus primigenius 71.00 179.00 7295 95 8140 186 Orlova 2004 Mammuthus primigenius 71.00 179.00 7360 50 8177 140 Orlova 2004 Mammuthus primigenius 71.00 179.00 7710 40 8498 83 Orlova 2004 Mammuthus primigenius 74.83 106.17 10070 60 11648 314 Orlova 2004 Mammuthus primigenius 73.58 101.13 10200 40 11910 155 Orlova 2004 Mammuthus primigenius 76.80 104.58 10270 40 12097 274 Orlova 2004 Mammuthus primigenius 75.35 105.50 10270 120 11969 559 Orlova 2004 Mammuthus primigenius 70.55 149.05 10370 70 12257 268 Orlova 2004 Mammuthus primigenius 74.57 98.50 10790 100 12735 186 Orlova 2004 Mammuthus primigenius 61.05 68.57 10820 170 12759 368 Orlova 2004 Mammuthus primigenius 74.42 107.58 11940 40 13803 136 Orlova 2004 Mammuthus primigenius 55.33 92.47 11980 155 13814 403 Orlova 2004 Mammuthus primigenius 71.00 179.00 12010 110 13874 277 Orlova 2004 Mammuthus primigenius 60.95 68.53 12830 350 15370 1276 Orlova 2004b Mammuthus primigenius 60.95 68.53 12970 160 15756 741 Orlova 2004b Mammuthus primigenius 60.95 68.53 13205 60 16034 623 Orlova 2004b Mammuthus primigenius 60.95 68.53 13450 50 16590 293 Orlova 2004b Mammuthus primigenius 60.95 68.53 13455 60 16575 315 Orlova 2004b Mammuthus primigenius 60.95 68.53 13465 50 16613 269 Orlova 2004b Mammuthus primigenius 60.95 68.53 13490 155 16298 667 Orlova 2004b Mammuthus primigenius 60.95 68.53 13720 160 16801 408 Orlova 2004b Mammuthus primigenius 76.07 99.80 9670 60 11000 216 Stuart et al 2002 Mammuthus primigenius 59.13 37.90 9760 40 11189 55 Stuart et al 2002 Mammuthus primigenius 72.27 112.37 9780 40 11207 45 Stuart et al 2002 Mammuthus primigenius 59.13 37.90 9810 100 11203 411 Stuart et al 2002

Mammuthus primigenius 59.13 37.90 9840 50 11281 100 Stuart et al 2002 a31 Mammuthus primigenius 76.07 99.80 9860 50 11295 98 Stuart et al 2002 Mammuthus primigenius 71.16 76.92 10000 70 11506 261 Stuart et al 2002 Mammuthus primigenius 75.10 110.30 10100 100 11667 379 Stuart et al 2002 Mammuthus primigenius 76.07 99.80 10300 100 12117 409 Stuart et al 2002 Mammuthus primigenius 70.31 68.16 10350 50 12208 198 Stuart et al 2002 Mammuthus primigenius 71.36 71.70 10420 130 12217 392 Stuart et al 2002 Mammuthus primigenius 71.16 76.92 10460 120 12302 318 Stuart et al 2002 Mammuthus primigenius 74.65 100.52 10680 70 12587 158 Stuart et al 2002 Mammuthus primigenius 55.00 82.64 11090 120 12949 269 Stuart et al 2002 Mammuthus primigenius 74.15 100.00 11140 180 12991 336 Stuart et al 2002 Mammuthus primigenius 75.15 96.00 11450 250 13286 519 Stuart et al 2002 Mammuthus primigenius 79.44 98.00 11500 610 13445 1789 Stuart et al 2002 Mammuthus primigenius 48.65 2.48 12000 220 14099 744 Stuart et al 2002 Mammuthus primigenius 74.15 100.00 12100 80 13963 195 Stuart et al 2002 Mammuthus primigenius 54.00 -4.00 12170 130 14297 561 Stuart et al 2002 Mammuthus primigenius 53.21 34.32 12200 300 14295 865 Stuart et al 2002 Mammuthus primigenius 75.50 112.00 12260 120 14370 531 Stuart et al 2002 Mammuthus primigenius 52.59 13.27 12270 210 14417 660 Stuart et al 2002 Mammuthus primigenius 54.00 -4.00 12300 180 14430 608 Stuart et al 2002 Mammuthus primigenius 54.00 -4.00 12320 120 14449 527 Stuart et al 2002 Mammuthus primigenius 54.00 -4.00 12330 120 14462 525 Stuart et al 2002 Mammuthus primigenius 75.50 112.00 12450 120 14580 501 Stuart et al 2002 Mammuthus primigenius 54.00 -4.00 12460 160 14582 562 Stuart et al 2002 Mammuthus primigenius 53.24 34.19 12630 360 15142 1305 Stuart et al 2002 Mammuthus primigenius 50.04 31.89 12700 200 15107 992 Stuart et al 2002 Mammuthus primigenius 70.80 106.50 12780 80 15278 567 Stuart et al 2002 Mammuthus primigenius 49.62 31.42 12900 200 15576 959 Stuart et al 2002 Mammuthus primigenius 53.24 34.19 12970 140 15749 696 Stuart et al 2002 Mammuthus primigenius 62.00 15.00 13090 120 15847 674 Stuart et al 2002 Mammuthus primigenius 62.00 15.00 13260 110 16097 683 Stuart et al 2002 Mammuthus primigenius 62.00 15.00 13360 95 16234 613 Stuart et al 2002 Mammuthus primigenius 46.08 5.40 13390 300 16071 916 Stuart et al 2002 Mammuthus primigenius 47.74 8.69 13980 110 17118 316 Stuart et al 2002 Mammuthus primigenius 51.50 10.50 14100 100 17200 331 Stuart et al 2002 Mammuthus primigenius 51.50 10.50 14380 100 17501 373 Stuart et al 2002 Mammuthus primigenius 51.50 10.50 14570 90 17639 380 Stuart et al 2002 Mammuthus primigenius 64.00 26.00 15500 200 18692 590 Stuart et al 2002

Mammuthus primigenius 40.00 -4.00 19700 500 23513 1209 Stuart et al 2002 a32 Mammuthus primigenius 53.00 -8.00 20630 220 24548 573 Stuart et al 2002 Mammuthus primigenius 44.89 11.45 33830 690 38628 1784 Stuart et al 2002 Mammuthus primigenius 44.89 11.45 35800 500 40741 1105 Stuart et al 2002 Mammuthus primigenius 57.00 25.00 10310 70 12117 292 Ukkonen et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 52.00 20.00 12585 70 14709 470 Ukkonen et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 57.00 25.00 12875 70 15519 541 Ukkonen et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 62.00 15.00 13310 60 16208 593 Ukkonen et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 56.00 24.00 13800 80 16920 199 Ukkonen et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 51.50 10.50 14470 140 17566 419 Ukkonen et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 56.00 10.00 19940 120 23835 413 Ukkonen et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 52.00 20.00 20600 1050 24919 2688 Ukkonen et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 56.00 24.00 21400 120 25545 447 Ukkonen et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 56.00 10.00 21530 430 25739 1231 Ukkonen et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 64.00 26.00 22420 315 27036 882 Ukkonen et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 52.00 20.00 22800 150 27461 563 Ukkonen et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 56.00 10.00 22900 150 27527 590 Ukkonen et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 64.00 26.00 23340 350 27991 1021 Ukkonen et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 52.00 20.00 23750 150 28544 527 Ukkonen et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 52.00 20.00 23750 150 28544 527 Ukkonen et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 51.50 10.50 23900 130 28785 471 Ukkonen et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 56.00 10.00 24190 420 29079 1039 Ukkonen et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 64.00 26.00 24450 385 29324 869 Ukkonen et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 52.00 20.00 24625 180 29536 631 Ukkonen et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 52.00 20.00 24700 180 29682 527 Ukkonen et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 62.00 15.00 24750 200 29720 519 Ukkonen et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 56.00 10.00 25110 440 29965 930 Ukkonen et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 56.00 10.00 25480 560/520 30224 942 Ukkonen et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 59.00 26.00 25630 170 30382 583 Ukkonen et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 56.00 10.00 25760 840 30101 1440 Ukkonen et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 57.00 25.00 25800 170 30634 340 Ukkonen et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 62.00 15.00 25900 200 30686 357 Ukkonen et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 56.00 10.00 26060 1070 30634 2122 Ukkonen et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 62.00 15.00 26150 200 30818 343 Ukkonen et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 56.00 10.00 26400 200 30969 304 Ukkonen et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 51.50 10.50 27340 160 31504 299 Ukkonen et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 56.00 10.00 27810 610 32342 1253 Ukkonen et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 57.00 25.00 27850 200 32082 619 Ukkonen et al 2011

Mammuthus primigenius 51.50 10.50 27950 550 32386 1192 Ukkonen et al 2011 a33 Mammuthus primigenius 56.00 10.00 28120 760 32843 1596 Ukkonen et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 51.50 10.50 28180 180 32386 672 Ukkonen et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 51.50 10.50 28500 550 33026 1417 Ukkonen et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 64.00 26.00 28740 670 33120 1491 Ukkonen et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 59.00 26.00 28780 160 33541 861 Ukkonen et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 62.00 15.00 29450 300 34011 691 Ukkonen et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 62.00 15.00 29500 250 34065 634 Ukkonen et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 56.00 10.00 29570 950 33985 2267 Ukkonen et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 56.00 24.00 30350 250 34920 389 Ukkonen et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 57.00 25.00 30420 770 34934 1617 Ukkonen et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 62.00 15.00 31050 300 35658 712 Ukkonen et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 56.00 10.00 31840 1010 36685 2067 Ukkonen et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 64.00 26.00 31970 950 36732 1963 Ukkonen et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 51.50 10.50 32300 700 36925 1676 Ukkonen et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 56.00 10.00 32460 970 37087 2138 Ukkonen et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 56.00 10.00 33270 350 37864 938 Ukkonen et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 56.00 24.00 33650 300 38276 920 Ukkonen et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 56.00 24.00 33740 380 38415 1191 Ukkonen et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 62.00 15.00 33850 700 38648 1802 Ukkonen et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 62.00 15.00 34500 400 39629 977 Ukkonen et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 56.00 10.00 34640 1830 39011 3591 Ukkonen et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 59.00 26.00 34810 340 39849 943 Ukkonen et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 51.50 10.50 35710 440 40700 1024 Ukkonen et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 62.00 15.00 36000 1550 40296 2977 Ukkonen et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 62.00 15.00 37700 600 42334 853 Ukkonen et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 56.00 24.00 38050 700 42614 1054 Ukkonen et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 51.50 10.50 39080 570 43349 906 Ukkonen et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 62.00 15.00 40200 800 44083 1200 Ukkonen et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 56.00 24.00 40600 800 44344 1211 Ukkonen et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 57.00 25.00 40700 800 44409 1213 Ukkonen et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 57.00 25.00 40850 750 44519 1155 Ukkonen et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 59.00 26.00 40900 600 44609 959 Ukkonen et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 56.00 24.00 40900 650 44586 1027 Ukkonen et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 62.00 15.00 41000 1400 44662 2208 Ukkonen et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 56.00 24.00 41350 800 44899 1207 Ukkonen et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 56.00 10.00 41500 700 45068 1013 Ukkonen et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 59.00 26.00 42200 650 45510 991 Ukkonen et al 2011

Mammuthus primigenius 56.00 24.00 42300 1000 45888 1810 Ukkonen et al 2011 a34 Mammuthus primigenius 51.50 10.50 43230 980 46807 1997 Ukkonen et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 51.50 10.50 44820 1210 48011 1990 Ukkonen et al 2011 Mammuthus primigenius 56.00 24.00 46300 1100 48478 1523 Ukkonen et al 2011 Megaloceros giganteus 56.84 62.71 6816 35 7642 55 Stuart et al 2004 Megaloceros giganteus 56.84 62.71 6881 38 7708 86 Stuart et al 2004 Megaloceros giganteus 56.09 64.49 6968 33 7812 112 Stuart et al 2004 Megaloceros giganteus 56.09 64.49 7034 34 7867 74 Stuart et al 2004 Megaloceros giganteus 55.72 60.07 7990 45 8831 176 Stuart et al 2004 Megaloceros giganteus 56.32 57.65 9960 55 11468 227 Stuart et al 2004 Megaloceros giganteus 55.35 86.08 10055 45 11575 236 Stuart et al 2004 Megaloceros giganteus 54.00 -4.00 10257 75 12051 335 Stuart et al 2004 Megaloceros giganteus 55.15 58.47 10260 55 12070 306 Stuart et al 2004 Megaloceros giganteus 54.00 -4.00 10585 65 12454 216 Stuart et al 2004 Megaloceros giganteus 53.00 -8.00 10610 495 12135 1312 Stuart et al 2004 Megaloceros giganteus 56.00 10.00 10670 115 12521 351 Stuart et al 2004 Megaloceros giganteus 54.25 -4.50 10780 95 12726 175 Stuart et al 2004 Megaloceros giganteus 57.48 60.20 10825 65 12735 149 Stuart et al 2004 Megaloceros giganteus 56.00 10.00 10870 110 12823 244 Stuart et al 2004 Megaloceros giganteus 62.00 15.00 10900 100 12834 234 Stuart et al 2004 Megaloceros giganteus 53.00 -8.00 10920 250 12737 581 Stuart et al 2004 Megaloceros giganteus 53.00 -8.00 10960 110 12866 232 Stuart et al 2004 Megaloceros giganteus 53.00 -8.00 10985 45 12873 196 Stuart et al 2004 Megaloceros giganteus 53.00 -8.00 11110 110 12965 262 Stuart et al 2004 Megaloceros giganteus 54.25 -4.50 11130 45 12982 178 Stuart et al 2004 Megaloceros giganteus 54.25 -4.50 11159 64 13023 214 Stuart et al 2004 Megaloceros giganteus 62.00 15.00 11330 110 13181 239 Stuart et al 2004 Megaloceros giganteus 56.00 10.00 11340 80 13239 151 Stuart et al 2004 Megaloceros giganteus 62.00 15.00 11345 60 13227 119 Stuart et al 2004 Megaloceros giganteus 56.00 10.00 11350 115 13197 246 Stuart et al 2004 Megaloceros giganteus 53.00 -8.00 11380 280 13229 550 Stuart et al 2004 Megaloceros giganteus 62.00 15.00 11490 105 13367 229 Stuart et al 2004 Megaloceros giganteus 54.25 -4.50 11495 95 13369 214 Stuart et al 2004 Megaloceros giganteus 54.25 -4.50 11495 65 13342 149 Stuart et al 2004 Megaloceros giganteus 53.00 -8.00 11510 100 13386 225 Stuart et al 2004 Megaloceros giganteus 54.25 -4.50 11550 60 13422 157 Stuart et al 2004 Megaloceros giganteus 51.50 10.50 11555 100 13442 230 Stuart et al 2004 Megaloceros giganteus 54.25 -4.50 11575 60 13442 163 Stuart et al 2004

Megaloceros giganteus 51.50 10.50 11600 105 13490 230 Stuart et al 2004 a35 Megaloceros giganteus 56.00 10.00 11630 120 13513 246 Stuart et al 2004 Megaloceros giganteus 54.25 -4.50 11650 55 13511 172 Stuart et al 2004 Megaloceros giganteus 53.00 -8.00 11730 70 13582 181 Stuart et al 2004 Megaloceros giganteus 53.00 -8.00 11750 90 13597 204 Stuart et al 2004 Megaloceros giganteus 56.00 10.00 11800 90 13629 208 Stuart et al 2004 Megaloceros giganteus 53.00 -8.00 11820 120 13656 260 Stuart et al 2004 Megaloceros giganteus 56.00 10.00 11850 70 13661 197 Stuart et al 2004 Megaloceros giganteus 56.00 10.00 11875 70 13683 206 Stuart et al 2004 Megaloceros giganteus 54.00 -4.00 11985 70 13848 176 Stuart et al 2004 Megaloceros giganteus 56.00 10.00 12005 65 13873 158 Stuart et al 2004 Megaloceros giganteus 54.25 -4.50 12020 65 13883 156 Stuart et al 2004 Megaloceros giganteus 51.50 10.50 12050 70 13913 172 Stuart et al 2004 Megaloceros giganteus 54.25 -4.50 12130 60 13982 173 Stuart et al 2004 Megaloceros giganteus 54.00 -4.00 12180 100 14281 514 Stuart et al 2004 Megaloceros giganteus 54.00 -4.00 12210 80 14299 491 Stuart et al 2004 Megaloceros giganteus 54.25 -4.50 12275 50 14388 455 Stuart et al 2004 Megaloceros giganteus 54.25 -4.50 12455 65 14585 435 Stuart et al 2004 Megaloceros giganteus 54.00 -4.00 12850 250 15372 1132 Stuart et al 2004 Megaloceros giganteus 40.00 -4.00 21000 40 25085 355 Stuart et al 2004 Megaloceros giganteus 54.00 -4.00 23080 260 27732 767 Stuart et al 2004 Megaloceros giganteus 50.83 4.00 23840 260 28688 640 Stuart et al 2004 Megaloceros giganteus 44.89 11.45 25000 180 29877 399 Stuart et al 2004 Megaloceros giganteus 51.50 10.50 26110 310 30765 432 Stuart et al 2004 Megaloceros giganteus 54.00 -4.00 30450 750 34966 1574 Stuart et al 2004 Megaloceros giganteus 50.83 4.00 31590 200 35949 647 Stuart et al 2004 Megaloceros giganteus 56.00 10.00 31720 980 36623 2022 Stuart et al 2004 Megaloceros giganteus 46.62 1.48 32000 900 36752 1893 Stuart et al 2004 Megaloceros giganteus 53.00 -8.00 32060 630 36756 1629 Stuart et al 2004 Megaloceros giganteus 44.89 11.45 32060 710 36775 1680 Stuart et al 2004 Megaloceros giganteus 47.27 15.33 32200 2100 36934 4430 Stuart et al 2004 Megaloceros giganteus 53.00 -8.00 32300 1600 37195 3544 Stuart et al 2004 Megaloceros giganteus 44.89 11.45 33700 350 38370 1079 Stuart et al 2004 Megaloceros giganteus 45.54 10.88 34650 450 39770 1061 Stuart et al 2004 Megaloceros giganteus 53.00 -8.00 37200 2000 41286 3619 Stuart et al 2004 Megaloceros giganteus 50.73 19.30 37500 450 42206 663 Stuart et al 2004 Megaloceros giganteus 53.18 44.02 39290 350 43489 657 Stuart et al 2004 Megaloceros giganteus 53.18 44.02 41350 450 44963 686 Stuart et al 2004

Megaloceros giganteus 40.00 -4.00 42200 2400 46238 3633 Stuart et al 2004 a36 Megaloceros giganteus 52.00 20.00 42700 700 45981 1269 Stuart et al 2004 Megaloceros giganteus 52.00 20.00 43300 2700 46567 3434 Stuart et al 2004 Megaloceros giganteus 52.00 20.00 43900 1000 47378 2027 Stuart et al 2004 Panthera spelaea 48.87 2.15 12248 66 14351 480 Stuart & Lister 2011 Panthera spelaea 48.09 9.16 12375 50 14496 422 Stuart & Lister 2011 Panthera spelaea 72.00 127.00 12450 60 14580 430 Stuart & Lister 2011 Panthera spelaea 62.20 146.78 12525 50 14660 430 Stuart & Lister 2011 Panthera spelaea 47.15 5.73 12565 50 14702 459 Stuart & Lister 2011 Panthera spelaea 59.30 57.83 13500 65 16636 263 Stuart & Lister 2011 Panthera spelaea 58.87 57.60 13560 70 16689 237 Stuart & Lister 2011 Panthera spelaea 59.80 57.67 13570 70 16699 234 Stuart & Lister 2011 Panthera spelaea 70.85 153.70 13770 55 16891 170 Stuart & Lister 2011 Panthera spelaea 43.28 -2.32 13770 120 16899 267 Stuart & Lister 2011 Panthera spelaea 54.80 32.00 14055 60 17155 295 Stuart & Lister 2011 Panthera spelaea 58.67 57.57 14750 70 18057 420 Stuart & Lister 2011 Panthera spelaea 48.45 15.40 15400 130 18523 372 Stuart & Lister 2011 Panthera spelaea 50.58 115.40 17910 75 21345 240 Stuart & Lister 2011 Panthera spelaea 56.15 93.11 17915 70 21353 227 Stuart & Lister 2011 Panthera spelaea 51.79 102.67 18350 75 21883 356 Stuart & Lister 2011 Panthera spelaea 70.70 143.04 19725 75 23585 307 Stuart & Lister 2011 Panthera spelaea 70.70 143.04 19755 80 23610 304 Stuart & Lister 2011 Panthera spelaea 55.30 92.47 20085 80 24027 332 Stuart & Lister 2011 Panthera spelaea 52.90 103.60 21500 100 25646 453 Stuart & Lister 2011 Panthera spelaea 53.49 85.92 22080 80 26524 376 Stuart & Lister 2011 Panthera spelaea 51.40 39.00 23080 100 28018 409 Stuart & Lister 2011 Panthera spelaea 51.40 39.00 23190 120 28091 379 Stuart & Lister 2011 Panthera spelaea 51.40 39.00 23400 100 28216 325 Stuart & Lister 2011 Panthera spelaea 50.83 20.50 25190 350 30055 677 Stuart & Lister 2011 Panthera spelaea 55.15 91.54 25700 130 30565 306 Stuart & Lister 2011 Panthera spelaea 50.22 4.90 25980 340 30708 512 Stuart & Lister 2011 Panthera spelaea 70.72 135.08 26050 240 30753 378 Stuart & Lister 2011 Panthera spelaea 70.56 149.71 27720 140 31896 482 Stuart & Lister 2011 Panthera spelaea 68.00 156.00 27950 140 32133 578 Stuart & Lister 2011 Panthera spelaea 42.82 10.82 28310 50 32550 505 Stuart & Lister 2011 Panthera spelaea 71.81 129.35 28450 140 32710 593 Stuart & Lister 2011 Panthera spelaea 48.50 44.00 28480 200 32708 700 Stuart & Lister 2011 Panthera spelaea 71.81 129.35 28550 140 32838 580 Stuart & Lister 2011

Panthera spelaea 68.00 156.00 28720 160 33300 762 Stuart & Lister 2011 a37 Panthera spelaea 60.04 60.05 29120 230 33850 687 Stuart & Lister 2011 Panthera spelaea 60.40 60.05 30140 240 34823 349 Stuart & Lister 2011 Panthera spelaea 43.05 23.40 31200 330 35737 721 Stuart & Lister 2011 Panthera spelaea 49.51 6.26 31690 500 36079 1086 Stuart & Lister 2011 Panthera spelaea 47.58 12.17 31890 300 36150 833 Stuart & Lister 2011 Panthera spelaea 45.08 22.80 32500 450 37434 1135 Stuart & Lister 2011 Panthera spelaea 45.08 22.80 33150 500 37769 1107 Stuart & Lister 2011 Panthera spelaea 51.76 10.84 34645 365 39717 939 Stuart & Lister 2011 Panthera spelaea 55.30 92.47 35390 280 40465 816 Stuart & Lister 2011 Panthera spelaea 53.26 -1.20 35650 450 40619 1057 Stuart & Lister 2011 Panthera spelaea 55.30 92.47 35750 400 40865 900 Stuart & Lister 2011 Panthera spelaea 69.60 167.73 36550 290 41578 481 Stuart & Lister 2011 Panthera spelaea 46.55 22.57 38600 1000 43038 1435 Stuart & Lister 2011 Panthera spelaea 51.13 22.28 38650 600 43063 958 Stuart & Lister 2011 Panthera spelaea 50.07 19.72 38800 1100 43163 1564 Stuart & Lister 2011 Panthera spelaea 46.55 22.57 39000 1000 43288 1421 Stuart & Lister 2011 Panthera spelaea 50.30 107.90 40210 350 44098 668 Stuart & Lister 2011 Panthera spelaea 54.90 57.78 41900 1200 45473 2172 Stuart & Lister 2011 Panthera spelaea 52.02 3.82 42230 570 45522 882 Stuart & Lister 2011 Panthera spelaea 48.67 40.86 42400 1800 46285 3114 Stuart & Lister 2011 Panthera spelaea 50.47 -3.53 43600 3600 45998 4003 Stuart & Lister 2011 Panthera spelaea 51.99 6.02 44850 650 48043 1633 Stuart & Lister 2011 Panthera spelaea 68.00 156.00 46200 1500 48207 1793 Stuart & Lister 2011 Ursus spelaeus 41.97 12.48 27440 130 31587 309 Bon et al 2011 Ursus spelaeus 41.97 12.48 28230 140 32458 612 Bon et al 2011 Ursus spelaeus 41.97 12.48 28950 150 33750 688 Bon et al 2011 Ursus spelaeus 44.38 4.41 29050 190 33821 675 Bon et al 2011 Ursus spelaeus 44.38 4.41 29560 160 34162 531 Bon et al 2011 Ursus spelaeus 41.97 12.48 30180 160 34817 251 Bon et al 2011 Ursus spelaeus 41.97 12.48 30220 170 34834 257 Bon et al 2011 Ursus spelaeus 44.38 4.41 30460 250 35365 789 Bon et al 2011 Ursus spelaeus 44.38 4.41 30690 180 35462 740 Bon et al 2011 Ursus spelaeus 44.38 4.41 30760 280 35495 779 Bon et al 2011 Ursus spelaeus 44.38 4.41 30900 270 35574 711 Bon et al 2011 Ursus spelaeus 44.38 4.41 31130 170 35694 613 Bon et al 2011 Ursus spelaeus 44.38 4.41 31300 180 35784 620 Bon et al 2011 Ursus spelaeus 44.38 4.41 31320 180 35796 621 Bon et al 2011

Ursus spelaeus 44.38 4.41 31360 190 35820 628 Bon et al 2011 a38 Ursus spelaeus 44.38 4.41 31870 300 36127 818 Bon et al 2011 Ursus spelaeus 44.38 4.41 34790 250 39807 828 Bon et al 2011 Ursus spelaeus 44.38 4.41 35160 650 40134 1337 Bon et al 2011 Ursus spelaeus 44.38 4.41 37300 340 42074 542 Bon et al 2011 Ursus spelaeus 48.11 20.63 22107 130 26682 677 Kovacs 2012 Ursus spelaeus 48.06 20.46 27932 224 32164 668 Kovacs 2012 Ursus spelaeus 48.06 20.46 29035 237 33779 740 Kovacs 2012 Ursus spelaeus 48.06 20.46 31608 295 35932 715 Kovacs 2012 Ursus spelaeus 48.06 20.46 32701 316 37506 907 Kovacs 2012 Ursus spelaeus 48.06 20.46 33101 512 37743 1113 Kovacs 2012 Ursus spelaeus 48.11 20.63 35410 660 40301 1360 Kovacs 2012 Ursus spelaeus 48.11 20.63 35630 630 40492 1330 Kovacs 2012 Ursus spelaeus 48.11 20.63 42960 860 46465 1744 Kovacs 2012 Ursus spelaeus 46.32 16.74 23780 120 28552 493 Pacher & Stuart 2008 Ursus spelaeus 4.27 -7.20 24090 440 28857 933 Pacher & Stuart 2008 Ursus spelaeus 46.68 7.10 24170 230 28967 509 Pacher & Stuart 2008 Ursus spelaeus 48.38 9.75 25560 130 30288 531 Pacher & Stuart 2008 Ursus spelaeus 47.57 14.00 26390 110 31039 190 Pacher & Stuart 2008 Ursus spelaeus 48.40 9.77 26530 120 31106 165 Pacher & Stuart 2008 Ursus spelaeus 48.40 9.77 26740 120 31191 164 Pacher & Stuart 2008 Ursus spelaeus 46.44 14.67 26900 100 31258 167 Pacher & Stuart 2008 Ursus spelaeus 46.47 7.03 26980 260 31321 295 Pacher & Stuart 2008 Ursus spelaeus 46.93 6.98 27190 250 31467 371 Pacher & Stuart 2008 Ursus spelaeus 47.92 14.38 27230 140 31413 221 Pacher & Stuart 2008 Ursus spelaeus 48.40 9.77 27240 200 31451 306 Pacher & Stuart 2008 Ursus spelaeus 48.40 9.77 27340 180 31527 333 Pacher & Stuart 2008 Ursus spelaeus 50.45 5.01 27440 165 31617 361 Pacher & Stuart 2008 Ursus spelaeus 48.22 9.45 27840 190 32065 603 Pacher & Stuart 2008 Ursus spelaeus 48.40 9.77 27870 190 32092 612 Pacher & Stuart 2008 Ursus spelaeus 48.22 9.45 28040 200 32243 666 Pacher & Stuart 2008 Ursus spelaeus 48.22 9.45 28060 170 32253 636 Pacher & Stuart 2008 Ursus spelaeus 47.57 14.00 28130 600 32682 1405 Pacher & Stuart 2008 Ursus spelaeus 48.22 9.45 28170 180 32372 670 Pacher & Stuart 2008 Ursus spelaeus 48.22 9.45 28170 220 32376 721 Pacher & Stuart 2008 Ursus spelaeus 48.22 9.45 28350 220 32578 727 Pacher & Stuart 2008 Ursus spelaeus 48.40 9.77 28780 730 33122 1544 Pacher & Stuart 2008 Ursus spelaeus 44.53 5.90 28850 170 33634 788 Pacher & Stuart 2008

Ursus spelaeus 44.53 5.90 28930 160 33725 710 Pacher & Stuart 2008 a39 Ursus spelaeus 46.44 14.67 29130 530 33478 1277 Pacher & Stuart 2008 Ursus spelaeus 46.44 14.67 29310 750 33459 1665 Pacher & Stuart 2008 Ursus spelaeus 48.40 9.77 29390 210 34019 604 Pacher & Stuart 2008 Ursus spelaeus 46.44 14.67 29600 290 34106 682 Pacher & Stuart 2008 Ursus spelaeus 46.44 14.67 29810 270 34300 668 Pacher & Stuart 2008 Ursus spelaeus 46.55 15.52 30050 340 34458 752 Pacher & Stuart 2008 Ursus spelaeus 44.53 5.90 30360 180 34892 274 Pacher & Stuart 2008 Ursus spelaeus 44.53 5.90 30360 180 34892 274 Pacher & Stuart 2008 Ursus spelaeus 44.53 5.90 30430 190 34927 309 Pacher & Stuart 2008 Ursus spelaeus 47.92 14.38 30550 260 35406 793 Pacher & Stuart 2008 Ursus spelaeus 44.53 5.90 30690 190 35462 746 Pacher & Stuart 2008 Ursus spelaeus 46.44 14.67 30980 310 35617 730 Pacher & Stuart 2008 Ursus spelaeus 44.53 5.90 31020 350 35637 757 Pacher & Stuart 2008 Ursus spelaeus 48.40 9.77 31090 200 35675 633 Pacher & Stuart 2008 Ursus spelaeus 47.65 14.25 31140 310 35706 710 Pacher & Stuart 2008 Ursus spelaeus 46.44 14.67 31730 200 36051 655 Pacher & Stuart 2008 Ursus spelaeus 47.22 15.35 31800 3300 36473 6183 Pacher & Stuart 2008 Ursus spelaeus 59.06 57.65 31870 190 36179 618 Pacher & Stuart 2008 Ursus spelaeus 46.32 16.74 31990 300 36331 914 Pacher & Stuart 2008 Ursus spelaeus 47.68 14.30 32010 320 36373 976 Pacher & Stuart 2008 Ursus spelaeus 47.68 14.30 32190 330 36628 1069 Pacher & Stuart 2008 Ursus spelaeus 47.14 6.22 32400 400 37108 1368 Pacher & Stuart 2008 Ursus spelaeus 46.30 14.55 32550 220 37185 660 Pacher & Stuart 2008 Ursus spelaeus 47.22 15.35 32570 380 37462 984 Pacher & Stuart 2008 Ursus spelaeus 46.92 6.69 33030 420 37702 994 Pacher & Stuart 2008 Ursus spelaeus 48.40 9.77 33350 240 38015 781 Pacher & Stuart 2008 Ursus spelaeus 47.57 14.00 33500 240 38151 751 Pacher & Stuart 2008 Ursus spelaeus 49.55 11.60 34710 300 39744 870 Pacher & Stuart 2008 Ursus spelaeus 42.68 -7.38 35220 1440 39652 2784 Pacher & Stuart 2008 Ursus spelaeus 42.68 -7.13 35230 1430 39661 2771 Pacher & Stuart 2008 Ursus spelaeus 50.45 5.01 35471 780 40341 1511 Pacher & Stuart 2008 Ursus spelaeus 46.68 7.57 35570 650 40428 1355 Pacher & Stuart 2008 Ursus spelaeus 45.68 5.83 35610 300 40787 713 Pacher & Stuart 2008 Ursus spelaeus 46.44 14.67 35720 600 40596 1281 Pacher & Stuart 2008 Ursus spelaeus 48.38 9.75 35770 340 40923 731 Pacher & Stuart 2008 Ursus spelaeus 43.60 22.26 35780 320 40941 686 Pacher & Stuart 2008 Ursus spelaeus 59.06 57.65 36390 270 41485 473 Pacher & Stuart 2008

Ursus spelaeus 47.78 12.50 36610 300 41614 489 Pacher & Stuart 2008 a40 Ursus spelaeus 47.68 14.30 37310 580 42071 830 Pacher & Stuart 2008 Ursus spelaeus 47.22 15.35 37400 1500 41735 2624 Pacher & Stuart 2008 Ursus spelaeus 44.53 5.90 37410 290 42147 487 Pacher & Stuart 2008 Ursus spelaeus 48.40 9.77 38010 550 42540 798 Pacher & Stuart 2008 Ursus spelaeus 50.45 5.01 38770 1030 43145 1467 Pacher & Stuart 2008 Ursus spelaeus 46.32 16.74 38770 500 43137 847 Pacher & Stuart 2008 Ursus spelaeus 47.23 15.34 38810 680 43170 1040 Pacher & Stuart 2008 Ursus spelaeus 57.77 58.42 39190 360 43425 672 Pacher & Stuart 2008 Ursus spelaeus 47.33 15.38 39420 940 43552 1355 Pacher & Stuart 2008 Ursus spelaeus 47.78 12.50 39520 410 43631 708 Pacher & Stuart 2008 Ursus spelaeus 57.77 58.42 39580 360 43670 656 Pacher & Stuart 2008 Ursus spelaeus 57.77 58.42 39630 360 43701 656 Pacher & Stuart 2008 Ursus spelaeus 46.13 14.00 39900 1400 43880 1963 Pacher & Stuart 2008 Ursus spelaeus 46.13 14.00 40300 1000 44147 1444 Pacher & Stuart 2008 Ursus spelaeus 57.77 58.42 40340 370 44198 696 Pacher & Stuart 2008 Ursus spelaeus 46.13 14.00 40600 1000 44336 1453 Pacher & Stuart 2008 Ursus spelaeus 47.68 14.30 41060 920 44638 1376 Pacher & Stuart 2008 Ursus spelaeus 46.32 16.74 41100 930 44664 1392 Pacher & Stuart 2008 Ursus spelaeus 45.05 21.82 42090 388 45428 658 Pacher & Stuart 2008 Ursus spelaeus 47.83 14.17 42290 870 45710 1464 Pacher & Stuart 2008 Ursus spelaeus 47.78 12.50 42360 550 45614 873 Pacher & Stuart 2008 Ursus spelaeus 47.22 15.35 42400 1500 46229 2787 Pacher & Stuart 2008 Ursus spelaeus 46.32 16.74 42620 1150 46375 2203 Pacher & Stuart 2008 Ursus spelaeus 46.32 16.74 42660 900 46147 1711 Pacher & Stuart 2008 Ursus spelaeus 45.05 21.82 42900 1500 46762 2705 Pacher & Stuart 2008 Ursus spelaeus 46.13 14.00 43000 3000 46258 3743 Pacher & Stuart 2008 Ursus spelaeus 48.67 15.86 43000 700 46332 1415 Pacher & Stuart 2008 Ursus spelaeus 46.32 16.74 43230 1200 46908 2296 Pacher & Stuart 2008 Ursus spelaeus 47.65 14.25 43610 800 47057 1762 Pacher & Stuart 2008 Ursus spelaeus 47.65 14.25 43700 1270 47280 2321 Pacher & Stuart 2008 Ursus spelaeus 47.68 14.30 44160 1190 47610 2164 Pacher & Stuart 2008 Ursus spelaeus 46.65 12.13 44260 900 47624 1901 Pacher & Stuart 2008 Ursus spelaeus 47.68 14.30 44400 1380 47791 2210 Pacher & Stuart 2008 Ursus spelaeus 46.30 14.55 44800 1900 47617 2383 Pacher & Stuart 2008 Ursus spelaeus 46.32 16.74 45210 1220 48118 1883 Pacher & Stuart 2008 Ursus spelaeus 46.30 14.55 45400 1600 47963 2038 Pacher & Stuart 2008 Ursus spelaeus 47.68 14.30 45410 1560 47987 2013 Pacher & Stuart 2008

Ursus spelaeus 46.13 14.00 45900 1800 47971 2029 Pacher & Stuart 2008 a41 Ursus spelaeus 45.05 21.82 45958 1162 48348 1653 Pacher & Stuart 2008 Table S5 - Megafaunal dates from Japan that were accepted according to authors' criteria (see Methods; Table 1).

Genus Species 14C error 14C (2σ) error (2σ) Source reference Bison sp. 17900 90 21318 299 Iwase et al 2012 Cervus sp. 13970 90 17106 310 Iwase et al 2012 Mammuthus primigenius 19530 80 23198 508 Iwase et al 2012 Mammuthus primigenius 20243 670 24165 1692 Iwase et al 2012 Mammuthus primigenius 20700 120 24700 331 Iwase et al 2012 Mammuthus primigenius 23680 880 28267 2016 Iwase et al 2012 Mammuthus primigenius 23816 884 28355 2039 Iwase et al 2012 Mammuthus primigenius 25010 120 29876 359 Iwase et al 2012 Mammuthus primigenius 37400 250 42138 447 Iwase et al 2012 Mammuthus primigenius 38920 760 43233 1126 Iwase et al 2012 Mammuthus primigenius 42850 510 45997 926 Iwase et al 2012 Mammuthus primigenius 45110 480 48286 1455 Iwase et al 2012 Palaeoloxodon naumanni 23600 130 28323 357 Iwase et al 2012 Palaeoloxodon naumanni 25780 120 30614 304 Iwase et al 2012 Palaeoloxodon naumanni 27580 490 32078 944 Iwase et al 2012 Palaeoloxodon naumanni 29000 300 33694 865 Iwase et al 2012 Palaeoloxodon naumanni 29200 870 33347 1830 Iwase et al 2012 Palaeoloxodon naumanni 30520 220 35386 770 Iwase et al 2012 Palaeoloxodon naumanni 31270 160 35767 608 Iwase et al 2012 Palaeoloxodon naumanni 33620 810 38508 1913 Iwase et al 2012 Palaeoloxodon naumanni 34010 180 39004 489 Iwase et al 2012 Palaeoloxodon naumanni 34500 670 39436 1678 Iwase et al 2012 Palaeoloxodon naumanni 35330 200 40458 735 Iwase et al 2012 Palaeoloxodon naumanni 37320 1160 41902 2129 Iwase et al 2012 Palaeoloxodon naumanni 37990 250 42509 461 Iwase et al 2012 Palaeoloxodon naumanni 38280 260 42697 475 Iwase et al 2012 Palaeoloxodon naumanni 38310 1400 42747 2184 Iwase et al 2012 Palaeoloxodon naumanni 38500 600 42952 954 Iwase et al 2012 Palaeoloxodon naumanni 38820 1580 43130 2393 Iwase et al 2012 Palaeoloxodon naumanni 39680 290 43735 588 Iwase et al 2012 Palaeoloxodon naumanni 40130 1080 44035 1542 Iwase et al 2012 Palaeoloxodon naumanni 40770 1200 44446 1754 Iwase et al 2012 Palaeoloxodon naumanni 41520 1020 44971 1602 Iwase et al 2012 Palaeoloxodon naumanni 41700 1260 45292 2216 Iwase et al 2012 a42 Palaeoloxodon naumanni 41770 1470 45601 2670 Iwase et al 2012 Palaeoloxodon naumanni 42420 1500 46250 2786 Iwase et al 2012 Palaeoloxodon naumanni 42520 990 46107 1860 Iwase et al 2012 Palaeoloxodon naumanni 42540 1420 46389 2672 Iwase et al 2012 Palaeoloxodon naumanni 42670 1120 46392 2151 Iwase et al 2012 Palaeoloxodon naumanni 43310 1200 46970 2293 Iwase et al 2012 Palaeoloxodon naumanni 43351 1164 46994 2248 Iwase et al 2012 Palaeoloxodon naumanni 43520 1340 47153 2416 Iwase et al 2012 Palaeoloxodon naumanni 45100 1190 48103 1898 Iwase et al 2012 Palaeoloxodon naumanni 45120 1350 48024 1976 Iwase et al 2012 Palaeoloxodon naumanni 45810 1290 48236 1764 Iwase et al 2012 Palaeoloxodon naumanni 46230 2430 47666 2334 Iwase et al 2012 Sinomegaceros yabei 40560 1500 44326 2251 Iwase et al 2012 Sinomegaceros yabei 41250 1190 44789 1854 Iwase et al 2012 a43 Table S6 - Megafaunal dates from Madagascar that were accepted according to authors' criteria (see Methods; Table 1).

Genus Species 14C error 14C (2σ) error (2σ) Source reference Aepyornis sp. 3960 150 4411 421 Burney 2004 Aepyornis sp. 2375 100 2442 285 Burney 2004 Aepyornis sp. 2775 95 2969 229 Burney 2004 Aepyornis maximus 1830 60 1751 144 Burney 2004 Aepyornis sp. 1000 150 964 291 Burney 2004 Aepyornis sp. 1150 90 1100 174 Burney 2004 Aepyornis sp. 1415 40 1333 51 Burney 2004 Aepyornis sp. 2285 40 2256 99 Burney 2004 Aepyornis sp. 2930 85 3101 232 Burney 2004 Aepyornis sp. 5210 140 5972 310 Burney 2004 Aepyornis sp. 4496 40 5141 161 Burney 2004 Archaeoindris fontoynontii 2291 55 2302 154 Burney 2004 Archaeoindris fontoynontii 2402 45 2521 179 Burney 2004 Geochelone abrupta 750 370 652 655 Burney 2004 Geochelone sp. 1540 45 1437 94 Crowley 2010 Geochelone sp. 1745 30 1642 80 Crowley 2010 Geochelone sp. 1755 25 1648 79 Crowley 2010 Geochelone sp. 2500 25 2605 118 Crowley 2010 Geochelone sp. 2535 30 2619 126 Crowley 2010 Geochelone sp. 2535 30 2619 126 Crowley 2010 Geochelone sp. 2605 30 2698 75 Crowley 2010 Geochelone sp. 3025 35 3213 132 Crowley 2010 Geochelone sp. 6300 50 7220 193 Crowley 2010 Geochelone sp. 6450 160 7302 318 Crowley 2010 Hippopotamus sp. 1970 50 1935 117 Burney 2004 Hippopotamus sp. 2370 50 2507 193 Burney 2004 Hippopotamus lemerlei 2517 40 2603 143 Burney 2004 Hippopotamus sp. 2760 60 2876 122 Burney 2004 Hippopotamus lemerlei 3730 70 4113 233 Burney 2004 Hippopotamus lemerlei 5300 60 6100 167 Burney 2004 Hippopotamus lemerlei 1740 50 1675 137 Burney 2004 Hippopotamus sp. 2020 300 2048 677 Burney 2004 Hippopotamus laloumena 99 36 133 137 Burney 2004 Hippopotamus laloumena 213 40 210 212 Burney 2004 Hippopotamus laloumena 2327 40 2316 152 Burney 2004 Hippopotamus lemerlei 1215 25 1151 89 Crowley 2010 a44 Hippopotamus lemerlei 1260 25 1186 93 Crowley 2010 Hippopotamus lemerlei 1440 30 1339 43 Crowley 2010 Hippopotamus lemerlei 1800 35 1720 103 Crowley 2010 Hippopotamus lemerlei 2275 35 2254 96 Crowley 2010 Hippopotamus lemerlei 2300 50 2304 152 Crowley 2010 Hippopotamus lemerlei 2470 25 2538 173 Crowley 2010 Hippopotamus lemerlei 2540 30 2621 126 Crowley 2010 Hippopotamus lemerlei 2550 30 2624 126 Crowley 2010 Hippopotamus lemerlei 2635 40 2781 63 Crowley 2010 Hippopotamus lemerlei 2660 40 2794 55 Crowley 2010 Hippopotamus lemerlei 2745 40 2852 91 Crowley 2010 Hippopotamus lemerlei 2855 35 2972 104 Crowley 2010 Hippopotamus lemerlei 2890 40 3043 157 Crowley 2010 Hippopotamus lemerlei 2905 40 3067 140 Crowley 2010 Hippopotamus lemerlei 3095 30 3313 70 Crowley 2010 Hippopotamus lemerlei 3455 25 3734 94 Crowley 2010 Hippopotamus lemerlei 4055 40 4612 189 Crowley 2010 Hippopotamus lemerlei 4815 40 5555 87 Crowley 2010 Hippopotamus lemerlei 6310 60 7222 195 Crowley 2010 Megaladapis sp. 12760 70 15164 453 Burney 2004 Megaladapis sp. 4566 35 5248 195 Burney 2004 Megaladapis edwardsi 630 50 606 63 Burney 2004 Megaladapis edwardsi 1277 35 1191 99 Burney 2004 Megaladapis madagascariensis 2140 50 2152 157 Burney 2004 Megaladapis sp. 1815 60 1726 155 Burney 2004 Megaladapis sp. 2713 44 2835 86 Burney 2004 Megaladapis sp. 1591 60 1481 133 Burney 2004 Megaladapis sp. 1450 25 1342 40 Crowley 2010 Megaladapis madagascariensis 1620 25 1488 72 Crowley 2010 Megaladapis madagascariensis 1625 30 1506 92 Crowley 2010 Megaladapis edwardsi 1630 25 1508 92 Crowley 2010 Megaladapis edwardsi 1640 30 1515 99 Crowley 2010 Megaladapis madagascariensis 1810 30 1726 98 Crowley 2010 Megaladapis madagascariensis 1815 25 1730 92 Crowley 2010 Megaladapis madagascariensis 2005 30 1960 79 Crowley 2010 Megaladapis edwardsi 2165 30 2185 124 Crowley 2010 Megaladapis madagascariensis 2290 25 2267 84 Crowley 2010 Megaladapis madagascariensis 2600 30 2696 76 Crowley 2010 Megaladapis madagascariensis 2645 30 2788 55 Crowley 2010 Megaladapis edwardsi 2675 40 2799 55 Crowley 2010 a45 Megaladapis madagascariensis 2945 30 3106 109 Crowley 2010 Megaladapis edwardsi 3005 30 3203 125 Crowley 2010 Megaladapis madagascariensis 3025 40 3216 136 Crowley 2010 Megaladapis madagascariensis 3430 30 3707 119 Crowley 2010 Megaladapis sp. 4610 45 5318 251 Crowley 2010 Megaladapis madagascariensis 5420 30 6237 51 Crowley 2010 Megaladapis sp. 11360 70 13241 133 Crowley 2010 Megaladapis sp. 26150 400 30772 554 Crowley 2010 Mullerornis sp. 2380 70 2462 254 Burney 2004 Mullerornis sp. 1280 60 1183 114 Burney 2004 a46 Table S7 - Megafaunal dates from Tasmania that ranked 11 or 12 on the modified Mead-Meltzer scale (see Methods; Table 1).

Genus Species 14C error 14C (2σ) error (2σ) OSL OSL error Source reference Macropus giganteus titan 36210 390 40648 936 Cosgrove et al 2010 Macropus giganteus titan 35610 360 42305 683 Cosgrove et al 2010 Macropus giganteus titan 37650 470 39231 1334 Cosgrove et al 2010 Macropus giganteus titan 34230 460 40031 1297 Cosgrove et al 2010 Macropus giganteus titan 35000 620 43631 900 Cosgrove et al 2010 Macropus giganteus titan 39530 580 46611 3389 Cosgrove et al 2010 Metasthenurus newtonae 56000 4000 Turney et al 2008 Palorchestes azael 36580 310 41067 611 Gillespie et al 2012 Palorchestes azael 35920 290 41276 703 Gillespie et al 2012 Palorchestes azael 56000 4000 Turney et al 2008 Protemnodon anak 36200 300 41322 573 Turney et al 2008 Protemnodon anak 32780 370 37563 951 Turney et al 2008 Protemnodon anak 37920 340 42470 541 Turney et al 2008 Protemnodon anak 30400 270 35345 804 Turney et al 2008 Protemnodon anak 39980 610 43923 959 Turney et al 2008 Protemnodon anak 36350 300 41458 522 Gillespie et al 2012 Protemnodon anak 37010 410 41869 621 Gillespie et al 2012 Protemnodon anak 40170 370 44063 690 Gillespie et al 2012 Protemnodon anak 39660 680 43713 1027 Gillespie et al 2012 Protemnodon anak 37670 360 42316 557 Gillespie et al 2012 Protemnodon anak 38520 300 42857 524 Gillespie et al 2012 Protemnodon anak 41200 1400 44868 2300 Gillespie et al 2012 Protemnodon anak 56000 4000 Turney et al 2008 Simosthenurus occidentalis 44500 1000 47822 1957 Gillespie et al 2012 Simosthenurus occidentalis 44700 3300 Cosgrove et al 2010 Simosthenurus occidentalis 56000 4000 Turney et al 2008 Thylacoleo sp. 56000 4000 Turney et al 2008 Zygomaturus trilobus 33510 210 38179 701 Gillespie et al 2012 Zygomaturus trilobus 36570 460 41558 732 Gillespie et al 2012 Zygomaturus trilobus 34410 300 39511 817 Gillespie et al 2012 Zygomaturus trilobus 46810 560 45711 793 Gillespie et al 2012 Zygomaturus trilobus 42500 480 41595 501 Gillespie et al 2012 Zygomaturus trilobus 56000 4000 Turney et al 2008 a47 Table S8 - Megafaunal dates from New Zealand that ranked 11 or 12 on the modified Mead-Meltzer scale (see Methods; Table 1).

Genus Species 14C error 14C (2σ) error (2σ) Source reference Dinornis robustus 658 30 615 58 Wood et al 2011 Dinornis robustus 680 30 621 60 Wood et al 2011 Dinornis robustus 720 30 645 77 Wood et al 2011 Dinornis robustus 721 30 646 77 Wood et al 2011 Dinornis robustus 841 30 789 103 Wood et al 2011 Dinornis robustus 862 30 798 104 Wood et al 2011 Dinornis robustus 868 30 801 104 Wood et al 2011 Dinornis robustus 1000 30 883 85 Wood et al 2011 Dinornis sp. 1968 71 1924 188 Worthy 1998a Dinornis novaezealandiae 4922 78 5686 206 Worthy 1998b Emeus crassus 10480 120 12319 310 Rawlence et al 2011 Emeus crassus 10470 130 12244 399 Rawlence et al 2011 Euryapteryx geranoides 14,080 100 17185 327 Worthy & Holdaway 1994 Euryapteryx geranoides 13,889 95 16985 242 Worthy & Holdaway 1994 Euryapteryx geranoides 13,400 130 16246 629 Worthy & Holdaway 1994 Euryapteryx geranoides 1,445 50 1382 102 Worthy & Holdaway 1996 Euryapteryx geranoides 1,525 60 1420 111 Worthy & Holdaway 1996 Euryapteryx geranoides 1070 60 986 184 Worthy 1998a Megalapteryx didinus 694 30 625 62 Wood 2012 Megalapteryx didinus 975 30 866 71 Wood 2012 Megalapteryx didinus 997 26 881 82 Wood 2012 Megalapteryx didinus 1000 30 883 85 Wood 2012 Megalapteryx didinus 1060 30 990 63 Wood 2012 Megalapteryx didinus 1879 30 1806 78 Wood 2012 Megalapteryx didinus 1915 30 1844 102 Wood 2012 Megalapteryx didinus 1959 25 1909 77 Wood 2012 Megalapteryx didinus 1964 25 1928 61 Wood 2012 Megalapteryx didinus 4520 28 5178 127 Wood 2012 Megalapteryx didinus 6310 31 7234 67 Wood 2012 Megalapteryx didinus 6368 31 7334 84 Wood 2012 Megalapteryx didinus 719 30 645 77 Wood et al 2011 Megalapteryx didinus 820 30 734 50 Wood et al 2011 Megalapteryx didinus 954 30 861 66 Wood et al 2011 Megalapteryx didinus 24,890 430 29601 946 Worthy & Holdaway 1994 Megalapteryx didinus 646 95 623 119 Worthy 1998a Megalapteryx didinus 690 120 706 201 Worthy 1998a a48 Megalapteryx didinus 2530 60 2560 194 Worthy 1998a Pachyornis australis 19575 80 23261 526 Rawlence et al 2012 Pachyornis australis 20760 90 24743 296 Rawlence et al 2012 Pachyornis australis 17645 60 20967 422 Rawlence et al 2012 Pachyornis australis 19335 70 23025 408 Rawlence et al 2012 Pachyornis australis 16860 75 19956 361 Rawlence et al 2012 Pachyornis australis 14730 170 17995 535 Rawlence et al 2012 Pachyornis australis 14950 150 18193 386 Rawlence et al 2012 Pachyornis australis 28050 300 32296 789 Rawlence et al 2012 Pachyornis australis 10210 45 11919 166 Rawlence et al 2012 Pachyornis australis 18235 80 21793 342 Rawlence et al 2012 Pachyornis australis 10235 45 11940 172 Rawlence et al 2012 Pachyornis australis 10265 45 12093 280 Rawlence et al 2012 Pachyornis australis 10280 45 12101 276 Rawlence et al 2012 Pachyornis elephantopus 32230 380 36786 1269 Rawlence et al 2012 Pachyornis elephantopus 14145 60 17231 305 Rawlence et al 2012 Pachyornis elephantopus 20330 90 24208 298 Rawlence et al 2012 Pachyornis elephantopus 3026 28 3213 129 Rawlence et al 2012 Pachyornis elephantopus 3700 29 4038 108 Rawlence et al 2012 Pachyornis elephantopus 4694 35 5449 130 Rawlence et al 2012 Pachyornis elephantopus 2277 27 2255 94 Rawlence et al 2012 Pachyornis elephantopus 995 24 881 81 Rawlence et al 2012 Pachyornis elephantopus 663 24 616 55 Rawlence et al 2012 Pachyornis elephantopus 668 24 617 55 Rawlence et al 2012 Pachyornis elephantopus 14655 230 17859 647 Rawlence et al 2012 Pachyornis elephantopus 19060 90 22824 464 Rawlence et al 2012 Pachyornis elephantopus 14140 110 17236 350 Rawlence et al 2012 Pachyornis elephantopus 14150 140 17252 388 Rawlence et al 2012 Pachyornis elephantopus 19580 230 23267 680 Rawlence et al 2012 Pachyornis elephantopus 22690 400 27250 1043 Rawlence et al 2012 Pachyornis elephantopus 37820 810 42454 1216 Rawlence et al 2012 Pachyornis elephantopus 38200 980 42781 1443 Rawlence et al 2012 Pachyornis elephantopus 11898 82 13711 228 Rawlence et al 2012 Pachyornis elephantopus 3800 60 4201 209 Rawlence et al 2012 Pachyornis elephantopus 3976 26 4466 56 Rawlence et al 2012 Pachyornis elephantopus 7390 160 8206 329 Rawlence et al 2012 Pachyornis elephantopus 9673 93 10991 245 Rawlence et al 2012 Pachyornis elephantopus 2440 110 2471 288 Rawlence et al 2012 Pachyornis elephantopus 941 27 858 65 Rawlence et al 2012 Pachyornis elephantopus 1488 24 1364 46 Rawlence et al 2012 a49 Pachyornis elephantopus 31090 450 35669 832 Rawlence et al 2012 Pachyornis elephantopus 26457 846 31103 1639 Rawlence et al 2012 Pachyornis elephantopus 3520 95 3825 259 Rawlence et al 2012 Pachyornis elephantopus 3788 79 4175 241 Rawlence et al 2012 Pachyornis elephantopus 5503 69 6286 159 Rawlence et al 2012 Pachyornis elephantopus 2549 68 2565 200 Rawlence et al 2012 Pachyornis elephantopus 1045 20 985 59 Rawlence et al 2012 Pachyornis elephantopus 1100 70 1017 213 Rawlence et al 2012 Pachyornis elephantopus 1731 63 1671 150 Rawlence et al 2012 Pachyornis elephantopus 2550 64 2566 200 Rawlence et al 2012 Pachyornis elephantopus 12565 45 14705 459 Rawlence et al 2012 Pachyornis elephantopus 3790 60 4197 210 Rawlence et al 2012 Pachyornis elephantopus 1710 60 1617 195 Rawlence et al 2012 Pachyornis elephantopus 930 27 855 68 Rawlence et al 2012 Pachyornis elephantopus 620 60 602 69 Rawlence et al 2012 Pachyornis elephantopus 1000 80 899 166 Rawlence et al 2012 Pachyornis elephantopus 1258 25 1185 94 Rawlence et al 2012 Pachyornis elephantopus 1586 24 1470 59 Rawlence et al 2012 Pachyornis elephantopus 4613 29 5375 84 Rawlence et al 2012 Pachyornis elephantopus 1259 25 1186 94 Rawlence et al 2012 Pachyornis elephantopus 965 24 864 68 Rawlence et al 2012 Pachyornis elephantopus 21250 80 25390 374 Rawlence et al 2012 Pachyornis elephantopus 21570 37 25821 332 Rawlence et al 2012 Pachyornis elephantopus 25780 160 30623 333 Rawlence et al 2012 Pachyornis elephantopus 24400 110 29103 434 Rawlence et al 2012 Pachyornis elephantopus 2885 28 3018 123 Rawlence et al 2012 Pachyornis elephantopus 12395 45 14520 414 Rawlence et al 2012 Pachyornis elephantopus 10900 200 12827 406 Rawlence et al 2012 Pachyornis elephantopus 35880 660 40702 1348 Rawlence et al 2012 Pachyornis elephantopus 1336 24 1243 58 Rawlence et al 2012 Pachyornis elephantopus 710 70 654 110 Wood et al 2011 Pachyornis elephantopus 850 70 796 119 Wood et al 2011 Pachyornis elephantopus 1000 70 901 157 Wood et al 2011 Pachyornis elephantopus 742 30 694 33 Wood et al 2011 Pachyornis elephantopus 938 30 857 68 Wood et al 2011 Pachyornis elephantopus 11230 210 13059 406 Rawlence et al 2011 Pachyornis elephantopus 10750 80 12700 152 Rawlence et al 2011 Pachyornis elephantopus 10510 80 12370 237 Rawlence et al 2011 Pachyornis elephantopus 9070 80 10208 282 Rawlence et al 2011 Pachyornis elephantopus 10680 70 12587 158 Rawlence et al 2011 a50 Pachyornis elephantopus 11490 80 13338 184 Rawlence et al 2011 Pachyornis elephantopus 11180 70 13058 214 Rawlence et al 2011 Pachyornis elephantopus 10980 70 12875 204 Rawlence et al 2011 Pachyornis elephantopus 11390 130 13249 312 Rawlence et al 2011 Pachyornis elephantopus 10580 90 12412 265 Rawlence et al 2011 Pachyornis elephantopus 10760 70 12694 139 Rawlence et al 2011 Pachyornis elephantopus 10610 80 12468 245 Rawlence et al 2011 Pachyornis australis 28,520 290 32868 1074 Worthy & Holdaway 1994 Pachyornis elephantopus 19,520 130 23196 527 Worthy & Holdaway 1994 Pachyornis australis 29,011 312 33691 879 Worthy & Holdaway 1994 Pachyornis elephantopus 13,470 94 16489 422 Worthy & Holdaway 1994 Pachyornis elephantopus 18,950 230 22741 622 Worthy & Holdaway 1994 Pachyornis australis 564 26 584 57 Rawlence & Cooper 2012 Pachyornis australis 1021 26 939 105 Rawlence & Cooper 2012 Pachyornis australis 1928 27 1881 61 Rawlence & Cooper 2012 a51 Table S9 - Megafaunal dates from Australia that ranked 11 or 12 on the modified Mead-Meltzer scale (see Methods; Table 1).

Genus Species OSL OSL error U/Th U/Th error CSUS-ESR CSUS-ESR error 14C error 14C (2σ) error (2σ) Source reference Diprotodon optatum 46000 6000 Roberts 2001 Diprotodon optatum 47000 6000 Roberts 2001 Diprotodon optatum 53000 5000 Roberts 2001 Diprotodon optatum 54000 6000 Roberts 2001 Diprotodon optatum 50000 6000 Roberts 2001 Diprotodon optatum 51000 4000 Roberts 2001 Diprotodon optatum 53000 4000 Roberts 2001 Diprotodon optatum 58000 4000 Roberts 2001 Diprotodon optatum 75000 9000 Roberts 2001 Diprotodon sp. 130000 10000 Grun 2008 Diprotodon sp. 118000 9000 Grun 2008 Diprotodon sp. 114000 9000 Grun 2008 Diprotodon sp. 98000 8000 Grun 2008 Diprotodon sp. 87000 7000 Grun 2008 Diprotodon sp. 84000 7000 Grun 2008 Diprotodon sp. 84000 7000 Grun 2008 Diprotodon sp. 56000 13000 Grun 2008 Diprotodon sp. 54000 11000 Grun 2008 Diprotodon sp. 66000 9000 Grun 2008 Diprotodon sp. 44000 6000 Grun 2008 Diprotodon sp. 47000 6000 Grun 2008 Diprotodon sp. 51000 3000 Grun 2008 Diprotodon sp. 47000 2000 Grun 2008 Diprotodon sp. 60000 3000 Grun 2008 Diprotodon sp. 49000 2000 Grun 2008 Diprotodon sp. 58000 2000 Grun 2008 Diprotodon sp. 61000 3000 Grun 2008 Genyornis newtoni 60000 9000 Roberts 2001 Genyornis newtoni 75000 9000 Roberts 2001 Genyornis sp. 56000 13000 Grun 2008 Genyornis sp. 54000 11000 Grun 2008 Genyornis sp. 66000 9000 Grun 2008 Genyornis sp. 51000 3000 Grun 2008 Genyornis sp. 47000 2000 Grun 2008 Genyornis sp. 60000 3000 Grun 2008 Genyornis sp. 49000 2000 Grun 2008 a52 Genyornis sp. 58000 2000 Grun 2008 Genyornis sp. 61000 3000 Grun 2008 Macropus giganteus titan 46000 6000 Roberts 2001 Macropus giganteus titan 47000 6000 Roberts 2001 Macropus ferragus 52000 8000 Roberts 2001 Macropus ferragus 54000 7000 Roberts 2001 Macropus giganteus titan 82000 9000 Roberts 2001 Macropus giganteus titan 70000 8000 Roberts 2001 Macropus giganteus titan 82000 10000 Roberts 2001 Macropus giganteus titan 75000 9000 Roberts 2001 Macropus fuliginosus 55000 9000 Roberts 2001 Macropus fuliginosus 63000 9000 Roberts 2001 Macropus fuliginosus 74000 10000 Roberts 2001 Macropus fuliginosus 131000 14000 Roberts 2001 Macropus sp. nov. 156000 2700 Ayliffe 2008 Macropus sp. nov. 119500 3700 Ayliffe 2008 Macropus sp. nov. 142500 1100 Ayliffe 2008 Macropus sp. nov. 136800 2600 Ayliffe 2008 Metasthenurus newtonae 135000 7000 Prideaux 2010 Metasthenurus newtonae 89000 6000 Prideaux 2010 Metasthenurus newtonae 95000 7000 Prideaux 2010 Metasthenurus newtonae 98000 8000 Prideaux 2010 Metasthenurus newtonae 103000 7000 Prideaux 2010 Metasthenurus newtonae 156000 2700 Ayliffe 2008 Metasthenurus newtonae 119500 3700 Ayliffe 2008 Metasthenurus newtonae 142500 1100 Ayliffe 2008 Metasthenurus newtonae 136800 2600 Ayliffe 2008 Metasthenurus newtonae 151000 13000 Prideaux 2010 Metasthenurus newtonae 146300 8400 Prideaux 2010 Metasthenurus newtonae 112000 11000 Prideaux 2010 Phascolonus gigas 52000 8000 Roberts 2001 Phascolonus gigas 54000 7000 Roberts 2001 Phascolonus gigas 97000 11000 Roberts 2001 Phascolonus gigas 70000 8000 Roberts 2001 Phascolonus gigas 75000 9000 Roberts 2001 Phascolonus sp. 56000 13000 Grun 2008 Phascolonus sp. 54000 11000 Grun 2008 Phascolonus sp. 66000 9000 Grun 2008 Phascolonus sp. 51000 3000 Grun 2008 Phascolonus sp. 47000 2000 Grun 2008 a53 Phascolonus sp. 60000 3000 Grun 2008 Phascolonus sp. 49000 2000 Grun 2008 Phascolonus sp. 58000 2000 Grun 2008 Phascolonus sp. 61000 3000 Grun 2008 Procoptodon goliah 67000 6000 Roberts 2001 Procoptodon goliah 52000 8000 Roberts 2001 Procoptodon goliah 54000 7000 Roberts 2001 Procoptodon goliah 171000 14000 Roberts 2001 Procoptodon goliah 157000 16000 Roberts 2001 Procoptodon browneorum 43000 2700 46463 3537 Ayliffe 2008 Procoptodon browneorum 41700 1000 45132 1613 Ayliffe 2008 Procoptodon browneorum 40100 1100 44013 1566 Ayliffe 2008 Procoptodon browneorum 45200 1700 47852.5 2147.5 Ayliffe 2008 Procoptodon browneorum 135000 7000 Prideaux 2010 Procoptodon browneorum 89000 6000 Prideaux 2010 Procoptodon browneorum 95000 7000 Prideaux 2010 Procoptodon browneorum 98000 8000 Prideaux 2010 Procoptodon browneorum 103000 7000 Prideaux 2010 Procoptodon browneorum 70000 4000 Prideaux 2010 Procoptodon browneorum 53000 4000 Prideaux 2010 Procoptodon browneorum 45000 4000 Prideaux 2010 Procoptodon browneorum 47000 3000 Prideaux 2010 Procoptodon browneorum 80800 1000 Ayliffe 2008 Procoptodon browneorum 47800 2800 Ayliffe 2008 Procoptodon browneorum 156000 2700 Ayliffe 2008 Procoptodon browneorum 119500 3700 Ayliffe 2008 Procoptodon browneorum 142500 1200 Ayliffe 2008 Procoptodon browneorum 136800 2600 Ayliffe 2008 Procoptodon browneorum 151000 13000 Prideaux 2010 Procoptodon browneorum 146300 8400 Prideaux 2010 Procoptodon browneorum 112000 11000 Prideaux 2010 Procoptodon browneorum 48700 3000 Prideaux 2010 Procoptodon browneorum 44900 1300 Prideaux 2010 Procoptodon sp. 56000 13000 Grun 2008 Procoptodon sp. 54000 11000 Grun 2008 Procoptodon sp. 66000 9000 Grun 2008 Protemnodon roechus 46000 6000 Roberts 2001 Protemnodon roechus 47000 6000 Roberts 2001 Protemnodon sp. indet. 55000 6000 Roberts 2001 Protemnodon brehus 52000 8000 Roberts 2001 a54 Protemnodon brehus 54000 7000 Roberts 2001 Protemnodon brehus 60000 7000 Roberts 2001 Protemnodon anak 70000 8000 Roberts 2001 Protemnodon brehus 75000 9000 Roberts 2001 Protemnodon sp. cf. roechus 135000 7000 Prideaux 2010 Protemnodon sp. cf. roechus 89000 6000 Prideaux 2010 Protemnodon sp. cf. roechus 95000 7000 Prideaux 2010 Protemnodon sp. cf. roechus 98000 8000 Prideaux 2010 Protemnodon sp. cf. roechus 103000 7000 Prideaux 2010 Protemnodon sp. cf. roechus 70000 4000 Prideaux 2010 Protemnodon sp. cf. roechus 53000 4000 Prideaux 2010 Protemnodon sp. cf. roechus 45000 4000 Prideaux 2010 Protemnodon sp. cf. roechus 47000 3000 Prideaux 2010 Protemnodon brehus 156000 2700 Ayliffe 2008 Protemnodon brehus 119500 3700 Ayliffe 2008 Protemnodon brehus 142500 1300 Ayliffe 2008 Protemnodon brehus 136800 2600 Ayliffe 2008 Protemnodon sp. cf. roechus 151000 13000 Prideaux 2010 Protemnodon sp. cf. roechus 146300 8400 Prideaux 2010 Protemnodon sp. cf. roechus 112000 11000 Prideaux 2010 Protemnodon sp. cf. roechus 48700 3000 Prideaux 2010 Protemnodon sp. cf. roechus 44900 1300 Prideaux 2010 Protemnodon sp. 91000 13000 Grun 2008 Protemnodon sp. 84000 9000 Grun 2008 Protemnodon sp. 56000 13000 Grun 2008 Protemnodon sp. 54000 11000 Grun 2008 Protemnodon sp. 66000 9000 Grun 2008 Protemnodon sp. 51000 3000 Grun 2008 Protemnodon sp. 47000 2000 Grun 2008 Protemnodon sp. 60000 3000 Grun 2008 Protemnodon sp. 49000 2000 Grun 2008 Protemnodon sp. 58000 2000 Grun 2008 Protemnodon sp. 61000 3000 Grun 2008 Simosthenurus brownei 171000 14000 Roberts 2001 Simosthenurus brownei 157000 16000 Roberts 2001 Simosthenurus gilli 171000 14000 Roberts 2001 Simosthenurus gilli 157000 16000 Roberts 2001 Simosthenurus occidentalis 171000 14000 Roberts 2001 Simosthenurus occidentalis 157000 16000 Roberts 2001 Simosthenurus brownei 46000 2000 Roberts 2001 a55 Simosthenurus brownei 46000 6000 Roberts 2001 Simosthenurus brownei 55000 9000 Roberts 2001 Simosthenurus brownei 63000 9000 Roberts 2001 Simosthenurus brownei 74000 10000 Roberts 2001 Simosthenurus brownei 131000 14000 Roberts 2001 Simosthenurus occidentalis 44000 1200 47493 2205 Ayliffe 2008 Simosthenurus occidentalis 43000 2700 46463 3537 Ayliffe 2008 Simosthenurus pales 41700 1000 45132 1613 Ayliffe 2008 Simosthenurus pales 40100 1100 44013 1566 Ayliffe 2008 Simosthenurus pales 45200 1700 47852.5 2147.5 Ayliffe 2008 Simosthenurus occidentalis 135000 7000 Prideaux 2010 Simosthenurus pales 135000 7000 Prideaux 2010 Simosthenurus occidentalis 89000 6000 Prideaux 2010 Simosthenurus pales 89000 6000 Prideaux 2010 Simosthenurus occidentalis 95000 7000 Prideaux 2010 Simosthenurus pales 95000 7000 Prideaux 2010 Simosthenurus occidentalis 98000 8000 Prideaux 2010 Simosthenurus pales 98000 8000 Prideaux 2010 Simosthenurus occidentalis 103000 7000 Prideaux 2010 Simosthenurus pales 103000 7000 Prideaux 2010 Simosthenurus occidentalis 70000 4000 Prideaux 2010 Simosthenurus pales 70000 4000 Prideaux 2010 Simosthenurus occidentalis 53000 4000 Prideaux 2010 Simosthenurus pales 53000 4000 Prideaux 2010 Simosthenurus occidentalis 45000 4000 Prideaux 2010 Simosthenurus pales 45000 4000 Prideaux 2010 Simosthenurus occidentalis 47000 3000 Prideaux 2010 Simosthenurus pales 47000 3000 Prideaux 2010 Simosthenurus occidentalis 46500 800 Ayliffe 2008 Simosthenurus occidentalis 44200 2000 Ayliffe 2008 Simosthenurus occidentalis 47500 400 Ayliffe 2008 Simosthenurus occidentalis 45300 1000 Ayliffe 2008 Simosthenurus occidentalis 49600 600 Ayliffe 2008 Simosthenurus occidentalis 47000 1400 Ayliffe 2008 Simosthenurus occidentalis 156000 2700 Ayliffe 2008 Simosthenurus pales 156000 2700 Ayliffe 2008 Simosthenurus occidentalis 119500 3700 Ayliffe 2008 Simosthenurus pales 119500 3700 Ayliffe 2008 Simosthenurus occidentalis 142500 1000 Ayliffe 2008 Simosthenurus pales 142500 1100 Ayliffe 2008 a56 Simosthenurus occidentalis 136800 2600 Ayliffe 2008 Simosthenurus pales 136800 2600 Ayliffe 2008 Simosthenurus occidentalis 151000 13000 Prideaux 2010 Simosthenurus pales 151000 13000 Prideaux 2010 Simosthenurus occidentalis 146300 8400 Prideaux 2010 Simosthenurus pales 146300 8400 Prideaux 2010 Simosthenurus occidentalis 112000 11000 Prideaux 2010 Simosthenurus pales 112000 11000 Prideaux 2010 Simosthenurus occidentalis 48700 3000 Prideaux 2010 Simosthenurus pales 48700 3000 Prideaux 2010 Simosthenurus occidentalis 44900 1300 Prideaux 2010 Simosthenurus pales 44900 1300 Prideaux 2010 Sthenurus andersoni 75000 9000 Roberts 2001 Sthenurus stirlingi 75000 9000 Roberts 2001 Sthenurus tindalei 75000 9000 Roberts 2001 Sthenurus andersoni 89000 6000 Prideaux 2010 Sthenurus andersoni 95000 7000 Prideaux 2010 Sthenurus andersoni 98000 8000 Prideaux 2010 Sthenurus andersoni 103000 7000 Prideaux 2010 Sthenurus andersoni 146300 8400 Prideaux 2010 Sthenurus andersoni 112000 11000 Prideaux 2010 Sthenurus sp. 48000 6000 Grun 2008 Sthenurus sp. 44000 5000 Grun 2008 Sthenurus sp. 84000 7000 Grun 2008 Sthenurus sp. 68000 7000 Grun 2008 Sthenurus sp. 72000 8000 Grun 2008 Sthenurus sp. 130000 10000 Grun 2008 Sthenurus sp. 118000 9000 Grun 2008 Sthenurus sp. 114000 9000 Grun 2008 Sthenurus sp. 98000 8000 Grun 2008 Sthenurus sp. 87000 7000 Grun 2008 Sthenurus sp. 84000 7000 Grun 2008 Sthenurus sp. 84000 7000 Grun 2008 Sthenurus sp. 56000 13000 Grun 2008 Sthenurus sp. 54000 11000 Grun 2008 Sthenurus sp. 66000 9000 Grun 2008 Sthenurus sp. 51000 3000 Grun 2008 Sthenurus sp. 47000 2000 Grun 2008 Sthenurus sp. 60000 3000 Grun 2008 Sthenurus sp. 49000 2000 Grun 2008 a57 Sthenurus sp. 58000 2000 Grun 2008 Sthenurus sp. 61000 3000 Grun 2008 Thylacoleo carnifex 171000 14000 Roberts 2001 Thylacoleo carnifex 157000 16000 Roberts 2001 Thylacoleo carnifex 41700 1000 45132 1613 Ayliffe 2008 Thylacoleo carnifex 40100 1100 44013 1566 Ayliffe 2008 Thylacoleo carnifex 45200 1700 47852.5 2147.5 Ayliffe 2008 Thylacoleo carnifex 135000 7000 Prideaux 2010 Thylacoleo carnifex 89000 6000 Prideaux 2010 Thylacoleo carnifex 95000 7000 Prideaux 2010 Thylacoleo carnifex 98000 8000 Prideaux 2010 Thylacoleo carnifex 103000 7000 Prideaux 2010 Thylacoleo carnifex 70000 4000 Prideaux 2010 Thylacoleo carnifex 53000 4000 Prideaux 2010 Thylacoleo carnifex 45000 4000 Prideaux 2010 Thylacoleo carnifex 47000 3000 Prideaux 2010 Thylacoleo carnifex 156000 2700 Ayliffe 2008 Thylacoleo carnifex 119500 3700 Ayliffe 2008 Thylacoleo carnifex 142500 1400 Ayliffe 2008 Thylacoleo carnifex 136800 2600 Ayliffe 2008 Thylacoleo carnifex 151000 13000 Prideaux 2010 Thylacoleo carnifex 146300 8400 Prideaux 2010 Thylacoleo carnifex 112000 11000 Prideaux 2010 Thylacoleo carnifex 48700 3000 Prideaux 2010 Thylacoleo carnifex 44900 1300 Prideaux 2010 Thylacoleo sp. 50000 4000 Grun 2008 Thylacoleo sp. 56000 13000 Grun 2008 Thylacoleo sp. 54000 11000 Grun 2008 Thylacoleo sp. 66000 9000 Grun 2008 Zygomaturus trilobus 171000 14000 Roberts 2001 Zygomaturus trilobus 157000 16000 Roberts 2001 Zygomaturus trilobus 55000 9000 Roberts 2001 Zygomaturus trilobus 63000 9000 Roberts 2001 Zygomaturus trilobus 74000 10000 Roberts 2001 Zygomaturus trilobus 131000 14000 Roberts 2001 Zygomaturus trilobus 135000 7000 Prideaux 2010 Zygomaturus trilobus 89000 6000 Prideaux 2010 Zygomaturus trilobus 95000 7000 Prideaux 2010 Zygomaturus trilobus 98000 8000 Prideaux 2010 Zygomaturus trilobus 103000 7000 Prideaux 2010 a58 Zygomaturus trilobus 70000 4000 Prideaux 2010 Zygomaturus trilobus 53000 4000 Prideaux 2010 Zygomaturus trilobus 45000 4000 Prideaux 2010 Zygomaturus trilobus 47000 3000 Prideaux 2010 Zygomaturus trilobus 156000 2700 Ayliffe 2008 Zygomaturus trilobus 119500 3700 Ayliffe 2008 Zygomaturus trilobus 142500 1500 Ayliffe 2008 Zygomaturus trilobus 136800 2600 Ayliffe 2008 Zygomaturus trilobus 151000 13000 Prideaux 2010 Zygomaturus trilobus 146300 8400 Prideaux 2010 Zygomaturus trilobus 112000 11000 Prideaux 2010 Zygomaturus trilobus 48700 3000 Prideaux 2010 Zygomaturus trilobus 44900 1300 Prideaux 2010 Zygomaturus sp. 130000 10000 Grun 2008 Zygomaturus sp. 118000 9000 Grun 2008 Zygomaturus sp. 114000 9000 Grun 2008 Zygomaturus sp. 98000 8000 Grun 2008 Zygomaturus sp. 87000 7000 Grun 2008 Zygomaturus sp. 84000 7000 Grun 2008 Zygomaturus sp. 84000 7000 Grun 2008 Zygomaturus sp. 56000 13000 Grun 2008 Zygomaturus sp. 54000 11000 Grun 2008 Zygomaturus sp. 66000 9000 Grun 2008 a59 Table S10 - Human dates from South America that ranked 13 or higher on the modified Mead-Meltzer scale (see Methods; Table 1).

Latitude Longitude 14C error 14C (2σ) error (2σ) Source reference -45.20 -71.50 8880 50 9980 203 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) -45.20 -71.50 8945 40 10065 149 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) -45.20 -71.50 8950 60 10067 168 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) -45.20 -71.50 8950 50 10070 156 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) -45.20 -71.50 8975 20 10096 128 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) -45.20 -71.50 8990 30 10091 143 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) -45.20 -71.50 8850 50 9952 216 Barnosky and Lindsey (2010) -45.20 -71.50 9116 8 10244 11 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) -38.40 -60.20 8980 100 10039 334 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) -38.40 -60.20 8990 90 10069 303 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) -19.58 -43.90 9780 70 11128 259 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) -38.40 -60.20 8560 320 9518 861 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) -9.10 -77.70 9980 120 11587 382 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) -9.10 -77.70 9930 300 11549 964 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) -9.10 -77.70 10180 130 11855 529 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) -9.10 -77.70 10340 130 12113 466 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) -31.50 -71.23 11060 80 12913 212 Barnosky and Lindsey (2010) -31.50 -71.23 11023 46 12901 189 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) -37.02 -58.63 10725 90 12649 216 Barnosky and Lindsey (2010) -37.02 -58.63 10270 85 12033 375 Barnosky and Lindsey (2010) -37.02 -58.63 10675 110 12549 328 Barnosky and Lindsey (2010) -37.02 -58.63 10480 70 12356 228 Barnosky and Lindsey (2010) -37.93 -58.59 10610 180 12379 534 Barnosky and Lindsey (2010) -36.84 -57.70 10045 95 11616 356 Barnosky and Lindsey (2010) -36.84 -57.70 10375 90 12199 358 Barnosky and Lindsey (2010) -37.85 -58.05 10465 65 12348 226 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) -37.85 -58.05 10415 70 12307 240 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) -37.20 -58.30 10410 30 12312 198 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) -48.05 -68.90 10915 65 12828 217 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) 9.55 -69.96 10710 60 12645 98 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) -9.10 -77.70 9600 130 10908 323 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) -9.10 -77.70 9430 150 10720 430 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) -9.10 -77.70 9520 150 10820 401 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) -9.10 -77.70 9280 150 10627 449 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) -9.10 -77.70 9340 150 10658 429 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) -9.10 -77.70 9400 150 10687 433 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) a60 -9.10 -77.70 9350 150 10662 428 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) -9.10 -77.70 9700 45 11021 208 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) -30.34 -57.46 9120 40 10305 97 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) -1.33 -53.68 10450 60 12338 222 Barnosky and Lindsey (2010) -1.33 -53.68 10290 80 12085 321 Barnosky and Lindsey (2010) -1.33 -53.68 10300 60 12110 283 Barnosky and Lindsey (2010) -1.33 -53.68 10280 70 12079 310 Barnosky and Lindsey (2010) -1.33 -53.68 10370 70 12257 268 Barnosky and Lindsey (2010) -1.33 -53.68 10330 70 12172 344 Barnosky and Lindsey (2010) -1.33 -53.68 10510 60 12378 230 Barnosky and Lindsey (2010) -1.33 -53.68 10480 70 12356 228 Barnosky and Lindsey (2010) -1.33 -53.68 10570 70 12444 224 Barnosky and Lindsey (2010) -1.33 -53.68 10260 70 12069 316 Barnosky and Lindsey (2010) -1.33 -53.68 10210 60 11880 250 Barnosky and Lindsey (2010) -1.33 -53.68 10250 70 12049 333 Barnosky and Lindsey (2010) -1.33 -53.68 10180 60 11798 290 Barnosky and Lindsey (2010) -1.33 -53.68 10190 60 11856 237 Barnosky and Lindsey (2010) -1.33 -53.68 10190 50 11862 214 Barnosky and Lindsey (2010) -1.33 -53.68 10330 70 12172 344 Barnosky and Lindsey (2010) -1.33 -53.68 10120 70 11711 313 Barnosky and Lindsey (2010) -1.33 -53.68 10310 70 12117 292 Barnosky and Lindsey (2010) -1.33 -53.68 10210 70 11938 433 Barnosky and Lindsey (2010) -1.33 -53.68 10360 60 12253 260 Barnosky and Lindsey (2010) -1.33 -53.68 10220 60 11887 257 Barnosky and Lindsey (2010) -1.33 -53.68 10470 70 12349 230 Barnosky and Lindsey (2010) -1.33 -53.68 10350 70 12183 338 Barnosky and Lindsey (2010) -1.33 -53.68 10390 70 12283 248 Barnosky and Lindsey (2010) -1.33 -53.68 10000 60 11506 244 Barnosky and Lindsey (2010) -1.33 -53.68 10390 60 12286 238 Barnosky and Lindsey (2010) -1.33 -53.68 10230 60 12009 361 Barnosky and Lindsey (2010) -1.33 -53.68 10470 70 12349 230 Barnosky and Lindsey (2010) -1.33 -53.68 10000 60 11506 244 Barnosky and Lindsey (2010) -1.33 -53.68 10490 80 12357 239 Barnosky and Lindsey (2010) -31.50 -71.23 11090 80 12935 219 Barnosky and Lindsey (2010) -31.50 -71.23 10920 80 12841 224 Barnosky and Lindsey (2010) -18.00 -70.80 10290 200 11964 615 Barnosky and Lindsey (2010) -18.00 -70.80 10510 50 12394 216 Barnosky and Lindsey (2010) -18.00 -70.80 10750 80 12700 152 Barnosky and Lindsey (2010) -18.00 -70.80 10580 42 12525 104 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) -53.60 -68.80 10580 50 12524 109 Barnosky and Lindsey (2010) a61 -53.60 -68.80 10617 33 12553 113 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) -29.50 -51.50 8,290 130 9264 266 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) -29.50 -51.50 8,020 150 8941 456 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) -29.50 -51.50 9,439 360 10813 1137 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) -32.57 -69.04 9210 70 10398 159 Barnosky and Lindsey (2010) -32.57 -69.04 10240 60 12043 331 Barnosky and Lindsey (2010) -32.57 -69.04 10350 220 11992 640 Barnosky and Lindsey (2010) -32.57 -69.04 9840 90 11287 405 Barnosky and Lindsey (2010) -32.57 -69.04 9760 160 11177 568 Barnosky and Lindsey (2010) -32.57 -69.04 10950 90 12863 218 Barnosky and Lindsey (2010) -45.20 -71.50 8695 25 9626 74 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) -45.20 -71.50 9070 25 10224 24 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) -45.20 -71.50 9155 25 10318 79 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) -45.20 -71.50 9245 25 10402 107 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) -45.20 -71.50 9435 25 10660 75 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) -45.20 -71.50 9530 25 10890 179 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) -37.85 -58.15 10000 120 11597 378 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) -37.85 -58.05 9570 150 10845 402 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) -6.50 -36.50 9,400 90 10686 387 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) -6.50 -36.50 8,280 30 9271 134 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) -8.05 -36.42 8495 70 9446 139 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) -8.05 -36.42 9150 70 10352 147 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) -6.70 -36.60 9640 100 10968 257 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) -8.05 -36.42 9340 50 10552 144 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) -48.05 -68.90 11560 140 13447 286 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) -48.05 -68.90 10850 150 12778 332 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) -48.05 -68.90 10260 110 11966 555 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) -13.50 -43.90 8860 115 9912 310 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) -13.50 -43.90 9110 100 10249 316 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) -13.50 -43.90 9002 76 10101 270 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) -48.40 -69.10 8050 90 8941 306 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) -40.60 -71.10 9285 313 10411 850 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) -14.45 -44.44 10000 255 11591 823 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) -14.45 -44.44 11000 300 12795 661 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) -31.45 -64.80 9790 80 11098 304 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) -31.45 -64.80 11010 80 12890 209 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) -34.75 -68.40 10530 140 12342 347 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) -34.75 -68.40 10440 220 12058 654 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) -34.75 -68.40 10195 80 11888 483 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) -34.75 -68.40 10170 70 11751 344 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) a62 -34.75 -68.40 10135 95 11708 378 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) -34.75 -68.40 10215 43 11921 160 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) -9.10 -77.70 9660 150 10979 415 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) -9.10 -77.70 9790 240 11281 767 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) -9.10 -77.70 9140 90 10368 193 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) -9.10 -77.70 9475 130 10797 384 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) -9.10 -77.70 12560 360 15077 1304 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) -9.10 -77.70 8175 95 9108 326 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) -9.10 -77.70 8910 90 9967 263 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) -9.10 -77.70 10535 290 12213 848 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) -9.10 -77.70 9580 135 10897 338 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) -9.10 -77.70 10475 300 12094 815 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) -9.10 -77.70 10240 110 11910 503 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) -41.50 -73.45 12740 440 15273 1414 Barnosky and Lindsey (2010) -41.50 -73.45 12450 150 14575 543 Barnosky and Lindsey (2010) -41.50 -73.45 12780 240 15289 1111 Barnosky and Lindsey (2010) -41.50 -73.45 12470 65 14600 436 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) -30.34 -57.46 9280 200 10548 617 Barnosky and Lindsey (2010) -30.34 -57.46 8570 150 9651 501 Barnosky and Lindsey (2010) -1.33 -53.68 10560 60 12438 212 Barnosky and Lindsey (2010) -1.33 -53.68 10392 78 12278 268 Barnosky and Lindsey (2010) -1.33 -53.68 10230 60 12009 361 Barnosky and Lindsey (2010) -1.33 -53.68 10260 60 12070 309 Barnosky and Lindsey (2010) -1.33 -53.68 10320 70 12122 296 Barnosky and Lindsey (2010) -1.33 -53.68 10390 70 12283 248 Barnosky and Lindsey (2010) -1.33 -53.68 10450 60 12338 222 Barnosky and Lindsey (2010) -1.33 -53.68 10330 60 12128 285 Barnosky and Lindsey (2010) -1.33 -53.68 10380 60 12280 242 Barnosky and Lindsey (2010) -1.33 -53.68 10420 70 12311 238 Barnosky and Lindsey (2010) -1.33 -53.68 10370 60 12264 254 Barnosky and Lindsey (2010) -1.33 -53.68 10110 60 11691 290 Barnosky and Lindsey (2010) -1.33 -53.68 10290 70 12088 309 Barnosky and Lindsey (2010) -1.33 -53.68 10290 70 12088 309 Barnosky and Lindsey (2010) -1.33 -53.68 10250 70 12049 333 Barnosky and Lindsey (2010) -1.33 -53.68 10410 60 12301 228 Barnosky and Lindsey (2010) -1.33 -53.68 10210 60 11880 250 Barnosky and Lindsey (2010) -1.33 -53.68 10360 50 12224 189 Barnosky and Lindsey (2010) -1.33 -53.68 10450 60 12338 222 Barnosky and Lindsey (2010) -1.33 -53.68 10315 10 12110 102 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) -18.00 -70.80 9090 110 10235 322 Barnosky and Lindsey (2010) a63 -18.00 -70.80 10090 130 11674 433 Barnosky and Lindsey (2010) -18.00 -70.80 10420 110 12221 376 Barnosky and Lindsey (2010) -18.00 -70.80 10530 140 12342 347 Barnosky and Lindsey (2010) -18.00 -70.80 10770 150 12661 428 Barnosky and Lindsey (2010) 2.40 -76.90 9530 100 10876 295 Barnosky and Lindsey (2010) 2.40 -76.90 10050 100 11618 357 Barnosky and Lindsey (2010) 2.40 -76.90 9790 70 11133 257 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) -8.80 -42.50 8050 170 8982 439 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) -8.80 -42.50 12200 600 14739 1772 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) -8.80 -42.50 12440 230 14621 823 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) -6.00 -50.00 8,065 360 9028 859 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) -6.00 -50.00 8,140 130 9041 391 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) -6.00 -50.00 8,119 50 9039 224 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) -6.00 -50.00 8,340 50 9312 168 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) -6.00 -50.00 8,520 50 9502 49 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) -6.00 -50.00 8,260 50 9229 192 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) -6.00 -50.00 9,000 50 10086 161 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) -6.00 -50.00 8,470 50 9480 62 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) -18.45 -52.00 9060 65 10173 238 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) -18.45 -52.00 9020 70 10139 230 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) -18.45 -52.00 9510 60 10840 250 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) -18.45 -52.00 8915 115 9938 312 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) -18.45 -52.00 8805 100 9865 304 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) -18.45 -52.00 8740 90 9845 305 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) -18.45 -52.00 9195 75 10394 163 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) -18.45 -52.00 9765 75 11063 270 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) -18.45 -52.00 8880 90 9953 269 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) -18.45 -52.00 8370 85 9332 196 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) -18.45 -52.00 10580 115 12402 289 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) -18.45 -52.00 10740 85 12706 165 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) -18.45 -52.00 10400 130 12207 393 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) -18.45 -52.00 10120 80 11700 344 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) -18.45 -52.00 10440 50 12331 213 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) -53.60 -68.80 10600 90 12429 274 Barnosky and Lindsey (2010) -53.60 -68.80 10130 210 11863 659 Barnosky and Lindsey (2010) -47.10 -70.55 9320 90 10492 238 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) -47.10 -70.55 9300 90 10476 225 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) -47.00 -70.50 9410 70 10745 323 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) -47.00 -70.50 8610 70 9620 146 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) -47.00 -70.50 8410 70 9401 135 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) a64 -45.20 -71.50 8530 160 9610 518 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) -45.20 -71.50 8890 90 9960 265 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) -45.20 -71.50 9200 80 10398 168 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) -45.20 -71.50 9260 25 10424 127 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) -37.95 -57.85 9670 120 10941 332 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) -40.40 -70.15 9970 100 11581 373 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) -51.47 -72.60 10860 160 12779 344 Barnosky and Lindsey (2010) -51.47 -72.60 11040 250 12923 494 Barnosky and Lindsey (2010) -51.47 -72.60 10430 100 12297 288 Barnosky and Lindsey (2010) -51.47 -72.60 10601 80 12462 241 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) -51.40 -72.50 11570 60 13438 161 Barnosky and Lindsey (2010) -44.50 -71.70 8250 60 9224 192 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) -44.50 -71.70 10010 60 11511 244 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) -51.68 -70.03 9100 150 10214 446 Barnosky and Lindsey (2010) -51.68 -70.03 9030 230 10130 591 Barnosky and Lindsey (2010) -51.68 -70.03 8480 135 9460 425 Barnosky and Lindsey (2010) -51.68 -70.03 8180 135 9098 374 Barnosky and Lindsey (2010) -51.68 -70.03 10080 160 11791 583 Barnosky and Lindsey (2010) -23.70 -65.50 9230 70 10407 161 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) -23.70 -65.50 9650 110 10969 275 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) -27.09 -53.35 8640 95 9790 324 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) -19.58 -43.90 9580 200 10833 564 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) -41.50 -73.45 12230 140 14349 557 Barnosky and Lindsey (2010) -41.50 -73.45 12650 130 14849 660 Barnosky and Lindsey (2010) -41.50 -73.45 12420 130 14551 517 Barnosky and Lindsey (2010) -1.33 -53.68 10905 295 12716 670 Barnosky and Lindsey (2010) -1.33 -53.68 11110 310 13040 651 Barnosky and Lindsey (2010) -1.33 -53.68 10875 295 12678 685 Barnosky and Lindsey (2010) -1.33 -53.68 11145 135 12994 289 Barnosky and Lindsey (2010) -1.33 -53.68 10275 275 11931 718 Barnosky and Lindsey (2010) -1.33 -53.68 10655 285 12332 825 Barnosky and Lindsey (2010) -1.33 -53.68 10305 275 11946 717 Barnosky and Lindsey (2010) -47.90 -67.90 10400 80 12292 263 Barnosky and Lindsey (2010) -18.00 -70.87 9790 740 11274 1842 Barnosky and Lindsey (2010) -18.00 -70.87 8730 70 9829 289 Barnosky and Lindsey (2010) -53.60 -68.80 10630 70 12553 138 Barnosky and Lindsey (2010) -53.60 -68.80 10685 70 12590 159 Barnosky and Lindsey (2010) a65 Table S11 - Human dates from North America that ranked 13 or higher on the modified Mead-Meltzer scale (see Methods; Table 1).

Latitude Longitude 14C error 14C (2σ) error (2σ) Source reference 19.30 -99.00 10755 75 12696 144 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) 19.30 -99.00 10200 65 11822 312 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) 46.00 -110.50 10240 120 11911 507 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) 46.00 -110.50 10820 100 12749 191 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) 46.00 -110.50 10710 100 12637 217 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) 46.00 -110.50 10940 90 12857 219 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) 46.00 -110.50 10370 130 12173 416 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) 46.00 -110.50 10705 35 12631 74 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) 42.90 -120.70 12293 25 14413 419 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) 34.00 -120.00 10960 80 12866 211 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) 46.00 -110.50 10780 40 12681 111 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) 34.00 -120.00 10800 810 12523 2281 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) 46.00 -110.50 11040 60 12908 194 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) 46.00 -110.50 11040 40 12912 182 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) 46.00 -110.50 11040 35 12913 180 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) 43.40 -102.50 11140 140 12990 294 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) 41.00 -82.50 11060 120 12923 261 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) 41.00 -82.50 10800 185 12643 483 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) 41.00 -82.50 10980 110 12875 232 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) 41.00 -82.50 10980 75 12876 207 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) 34.00 -120.00 10400 2000 12414 4983 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) 29.50 -82.90 11050 50 12917 186 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) 68.50 -147.80 10490 70 12363 227 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) 68.10 -147.40 10360 60 12253 260 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) 68.10 -147.40 10415 45 12309 214 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) 40.15 -114.10 10795 25 12686 108 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) 44.30 -105.20 10400 600 11908 1490 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) 34.40 -103.40 10914 72 12834 223 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) 34.40 -103.40 11300 240 13154 484 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) 34.40 -103.40 10947 69 12857 212 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) 43.95 -108.00 10790 30 12684 108 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) 43.95 -108.00 10950 30 12802 142 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) 43.95 -108.00 10870 20 12755 131 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) 40.00 -104.90 10980 90 12876 216 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) 40.00 -104.90 10660 170 12492 439 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) 40.00 -104.90 10800 110 12789 253 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) a66 40.00 -104.90 10600 90 12429 274 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) 40.00 -104.90 10710 90 12629 204 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) 40.00 -104.90 10670 120 12515 359 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) 40.00 -104.90 11065 35 12930 173 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) 40.00 -104.90 10940 30 12796 138 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) 40.00 -104.90 10990 25 12870 193 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) 35.30 -98.00 10810 420 12404 1057 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) 35.30 -98.00 10860 450 12487 1133 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) 35.30 -98.00 11480 450 13627 1209 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) 35.30 -98.00 10960 30 12808 149 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) 36.90 -99.70 10750 40 12657 92 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) 36.90 -99.70 10840 45 12738 139 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) 36.90 -99.70 10700 45 12631 79 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) 36.90 -99.70 10765 25 12662 89 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) 36.15 -85.90 12690 970 15181 2478 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) 36.15 -85.90 11700 980 14001 2754 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) 36.15 -85.90 11980 110 13801 303 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) 43.40 -102.50 10710 130 12553 379 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) 43.40 -102.50 11110 40 12962 170 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) 43.40 -102.50 11080 40 12939 173 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) 31.50 -110.00 11170 140 13007 297 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) 31.50 -110.00 10940 100 12857 225 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) 31.50 -110.00 10770 140 12738 332 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) 31.50 -110.00 11080 200 12959 351 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) 31.50 -110.00 10950 110 12862 232 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) 31.50 -110.00 10860 280 12678 647 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) 31.50 -110.00 10950 90 12863 218 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) 31.50 -110.00 11080 230 12978 402 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) 31.50 -110.00 10620 300 12265 858 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) 31.50 -110.00 10710 90 12629 204 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) 31.50 -110.00 11170 200 13020 369 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) 31.50 -110.00 11470 110 13351 231 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) 31.50 -110.00 10980 37 12866 197 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) 41.00 -104.50 10500 80 12364 238 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) 41.00 -104.50 10560 100 12395 263 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) 41.00 -104.50 10780 135 12742 323 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) 41.00 -104.50 10569 57 12519 124 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) 31.90 -109.20 11190 180 13027 349 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) 31.90 -109.20 11150 450 12893 1116 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) 31.90 -109.20 11080 180 12959 326 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) a67 31.90 -109.20 10930 170 12865 307 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) 31.90 -109.20 10890 180 12804 376 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) 31.90 -109.20 10840 70 12745 156 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) 31.90 -109.20 10840 140 12819 274 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) 31.90 -109.20 10710 160 12540 423 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) 31.90 -109.20 10885 50 12767 146 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) 40.90 -83.20 10680 80 12587 165 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) 45.05 -70.90 10550 800 12001 2085 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) 45.05 -70.90 10460 325 12097 858 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) 45.05 -70.90 10610 330 12249 887 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) 63.00 -149.90 10500 60 12371 227 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) 63.00 -149.90 11190 60 13074 192 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) 63.90 -149.00 11010 230 12898 459 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) 63.90 -149.00 11170 180 13012 344 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) 63.90 -149.00 11300 120 13151 264 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) 63.90 -149.00 11199 50 13081 177 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) 64.00 -144.70 10250 380 11798 1031 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) 64.20 -146.10 10290 70 12088 309 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) 64.20 -146.10 11420 70 13280 143 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) 64.20 -146.10 11500 80 13368 195 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) 64.80 -147.90 11827 35 13647 162 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) 68.00 -154.00 10050 90 11618 353 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) 68.00 -154.00 10060 70 11638 329 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) 68.00 -154.00 10070 60 11648 314 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) 68.00 -154.00 10080 50 11665 299 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) 68.00 -154.00 10080 60 11659 312 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) 68.00 -154.00 10080 120 11654 402 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) 68.00 -154.00 10090 110 11656 388 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) 68.00 -154.00 10130 60 11716 311 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) 68.00 -154.00 10150 120 11822 551 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) 68.00 -154.00 10230 60 12009 361 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) 68.00 -154.00 10240 80 12006 379 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) 68.00 -154.00 10260 110 11966 555 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) 68.00 -154.00 11190 70 13070 208 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) 68.00 -154.00 11660 80 13526 200 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) 68.00 -154.00 11395 53 13261 124 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) 40.00 -106.50 10722 68 12662 119 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) 40.00 -106.50 10914 50 12785 152 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) 37.80 -93.80 10710 85 12624 197 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) 37.80 -93.80 10832 58 12737 145 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) a68 29.90 -101.50 10280 430 11882 1171 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) 29.90 -101.50 10000 80 11529 289 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) 36.90 -77.20 10920 250 12737 581 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) 44.95 -63.80 10590 50 12530 111 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) 36.20 -114.87 10455 340 12145 914 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) 42.80 -104.50 11190 50 13073 180 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) 43.00 -78.20 10810 50 12719 137 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) 43.00 -78.20 10990 100 12879 223 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) 43.00 -78.20 10795 39 12697 122 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) 31.50 -110.00 11290 500 13163 1384 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) 42.30 -72.50 10210 60 11880 250 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) 41.05 -75.05 10970 50 12864 202 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) 41.05 -75.05 10915 25 12782 131 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) 41.05 -75.05 11020 30 12899 182 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) 41.05 -75.05 10935 15 12792 129 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) 40.90 -83.20 10600 60 12536 123 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) 40.90 -83.20 10550 70 12401 244 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) 40.90 -83.20 10570 70 12444 224 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) 40.90 -83.20 10620 70 12548 140 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) 40.90 -83.20 10840 80 12749 166 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) 40.90 -83.20 10960 60 12861 206 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) 40.90 -83.20 10920 50 12790 155 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) 39.00 -114.00 10644 80 12563 155 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) 45.05 -70.90 10120 180 11810 579 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) 45.05 -70.90 10300 80 12090 322 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) 45.05 -70.90 10530 103 12370 267 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) 42.90 -72.10 11400 250 13246 513 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) 64.20 -146.10 10270 110 11971 553 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) 64.20 -146.10 11510 120 13392 256 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) 64.80 -147.90 11310 120 13159 262 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) 64.80 -147.90 12220 70 14189 362 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) 64.80 -147.90 12270 70 14383 486 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) 68.00 -154.00 10090 85 11658 345 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) 68.20 -161.10 11180 80 13045 229 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) 68.20 -161.10 11200 40 13081 168 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) 68.20 -161.10 11196 35 13075 164 Lima-Ribeiro (2012) a69 Table S12 - Human dates from Eurasia that ranked 13 or higher on the modified Mead-Meltzer scale (see Methods; Table 1).

Latitude Longitude 14C error 14C (2σ) error (2σ) Source reference 51.55 -4.25 25840 280 30661 482 Jacobi & Higham 2008 51.55 -4.25 28400 320 32594 993 Jacobi & Higham 2008 51.55 -4.25 28820 340 33402 1120 Jacobi & Higham 2008 51.55 -4.25 28870 180 33655 773 Jacobi & Higham 2008 44.95 0.94 29000 370 33592 1021 Higham et al 2006 51.55 -4.25 29490 210 34082 594 Jacobi & Higham 2008 55.20 33.45 32070 190 36357 647 Higham et al 2006 44.95 0.94 33610 340 38220 1016 Higham et al 2006 44.93 1.01 35400 750 40297 1473 Higham et al 2006 49.75 15.00 27370 230 31614 438 Jöris et al 2011 49.75 15.00 30680 380 35463 819 Jöris et al 2011 49.75 15.00 31500 420 35870 822 Jöris et al 2011 45.57 23.13 29000 700 33252 1533 Jöris et al 2011 45.19 23.75 30150 800 34713 1775 Jöris et al 2011 55.20 33.45 32600 1100 37425 2500 Higham et al 2006 51.40 39.00 35330 240 40429 764 Jöris et al 2011 51.40 39.00 35870 250 41034 563 Jöris et al 2011 51.40 39.00 36010 250 41162 549 Jöris et al 2011 51.40 39.00 36040 250 41191 543 Jöris et al 2011 51.40 39.00 36320 270 41442 487 Jöris et al 2011 51.40 39.00 36540 270 41574 461 Jöris et al 2011 51.40 39.00 32600 280 37445 918 Jöris et al 2011 49.75 15.00 35320 320 40359 899 Jöris et al 2011 51.40 39.00 35280 330 40315 923 Jöris et al 2011 51.40 39.00 37240 430 42031 646 Jöris et al 2011 45.54 10.88 33640 440 38248 1286 Jöris et al 2011 45.54 10.88 34120 460 39049 1378 Jöris et al 2011 45.54 10.88 31620 500 35992 1028 Jöris et al 2011 43.96 7.66 32280 580 36937 1593 Jöris et al 2011 45.54 10.88 36500 600 41414 1010 Jöris et al 2011 51.40 39.00 34940 630 39999 1321 Jöris et al 2011 40.00 -4.00 36590 640 41479 1069 Jöris et al 2011 39.06 34.91 35670 730 40477 1451 Jöris et al 2011

43.96 7.66 33400 750 38309 1780 Jöris et al 2011 a70 40.00 -4.00 36300 750 41032 1437 Jöris et al 2011 47.33 13.33 37930 750 42525 1122 Jöris et al 2011 43.96 7.66 34680 760 39570 1791 Jöris et al 2011 49.75 15.00 34530 770 39391 1855 Jöris et al 2011 43.96 7.66 34870 800 39786 1799 Jöris et al 2011 45.35 11.50 37900 800 42523 1203 Jöris et al 2011 40.00 -4.00 35400 810 40304 1562 Jöris et al 2011 49.75 15.00 34680 820 39517 1905 Jöris et al 2011 49.75 15.00 34530 830 39357 1958 Jöris et al 2011 49.75 15.00 35080 830 39993 1848 Jöris et al 2011 43.96 7.66 35700 850 40476 1604 Jöris et al 2011 45.54 10.88 34200 900 38989 2084 Jöris et al 2011 41.68 15.58 34300 900 39073 2085 Jöris et al 2011 40.00 -4.00 36740 920 41362 1665 Jöris et al 2011 49.75 15.00 36570 940 41174 1725 Jöris et al 2011 49.75 15.00 36350 990 40935 1818 Jöris et al 2011 49.75 15.00 37270 990 41936 1676 Jöris et al 2011 40.00 -4.00 37290 990 41959 1670 Jöris et al 2011 40.00 -4.00 37700 1000 42435 1582 Jöris et al 2011 40.00 -4.00 37700 1000 42435 1582 Jöris et al 2011 40.00 -4.00 37900 1000 42586 1523 Jöris et al 2011 48.15 23.13 38500 1000 42972 1441 Jöris et al 2011 45.54 10.88 31900 1100 36798 2316 Jöris et al 2011 45.54 10.88 35400 1100 40045 2228 Jöris et al 2011 49.75 15.00 36000 1100 40692 2003 Jöris et al 2011 40.00 -4.00 36590 1100 41085 1990 Jöris et al 2011 49.75 15.00 37900 1100 42562 1708 Jöris et al 2011 49.75 15.00 38200 1100 42765 1626 Jöris et al 2011 49.75 15.00 38300 1100 42830 1610 Jöris et al 2011 39.06 34.91 38900 1100 43230 1560 Jöris et al 2011 39.06 34.91 41400 1100 44882 1723 Jöris et al 2011 47.33 13.33 34100 1200 38980 2496 Jöris et al 2011 45.54 10.88 36800 1200 41217 2172 Jöris et al 2011 51.50 10.50 38600 1200 43022 1732 Jöris et al 2011 40.00 -4.00 38700 1200 43090 1721 Jöris et al 2011 39.06 34.91 39400 1200 43564 1683 Jöris et al 2011 49.75 15.00 40173 1200 44052 1698 Jöris et al 2011 51.50 10.50 37500 1250 42015 2242 Jöris et al 2011

43.00 25.00 36900 1300 41317 2353 Jöris et al 2011 a71 40.00 -4.00 39900 1300 43877 1819 Jöris et al 2011 39.06 34.91 33040 1400 37931 2961 Jöris et al 2011 49.75 15.00 38500 1400 42938 2123 Jöris et al 2011 45.35 11.50 38600 1800 42702 2980 Jöris et al 2011 49.75 15.00 41400 1400 45091 2394 Jöris et al 2011 51.50 10.50 37500 1450 41866 2531 Jöris et al 2011 43.00 25.00 37650 1450 42002 2504 Jöris et al 2011 43.00 25.00 38200 1500 42601 2436 Jöris et al 2011 39.06 34.91 39100 1500 43360 2164 Jöris et al 2011 47.33 13.33 38880 1530 43213 2269 Jöris et al 2011 43.00 25.00 38800 1700 43038 2659 Jöris et al 2011 49.75 15.00 42900 1700 46766 2920 Jöris et al 2011 43.00 25.00 38300 1800 42415 3005 Jöris et al 2011 43.00 25.00 39100 1800 43233 2818 Jöris et al 2011 46.00 2.00 34540 2000 38902 3755 Jöris et al 2011 47.33 13.33 35500 2000 39677 3986 Jöris et al 2011 56.17 159.97 10040 130 11635 404 Hamilton & Buchanan 2010 56.17 159.97 10160 75 11744 340 Hamilton & Buchanan 2010 56.17 159.97 10230 70 12001 375 Hamilton & Buchanan 2010 56.17 159.97 10240 75 12012 369 Hamilton & Buchanan 2010 56.17 159.97 10385 90 12269 294 Hamilton & Buchanan 2010 56.17 159.97 10460 80 12336 243 Hamilton & Buchanan 2010 56.17 159.97 10675 75 12583 158 Hamilton & Buchanan 2010 56.17 159.97 10800 150 12754 332 Hamilton & Buchanan 2010 56.17 159.97 10810 75 12730 154 Hamilton & Buchanan 2010 56.17 159.97 10850 320 12604 782 Hamilton & Buchanan 2010 56.17 159.97 11005 115 12885 240 Hamilton & Buchanan 2010 56.17 159.97 11050 75 12909 206 Hamilton & Buchanan 2010 56.17 159.97 11130 100 12986 255 Hamilton & Buchanan 2010 56.17 159.97 11330 50 13215 106 Hamilton & Buchanan 2010 52.97 91.45 11700 100 13557 219 Hamilton & Buchanan 2010 50.30 130.32 12010 75 13871 182 Hamilton & Buchanan 2010 50.30 130.32 12485 80 14615 451 Hamilton & Buchanan 2010 52.98 91.52 13050 90 15797 630 Hamilton & Buchanan 2010 50.30 130.32 13310 105 16181 635 Hamilton & Buchanan 2010 50.30 130.32 13815 150 17002 399 Hamilton & Buchanan 2010 56.00 92.85 13870 80 16969 209 Hamilton & Buchanan 2010

56.00 92.85 13970 80 17102 306 Hamilton & Buchanan 2010 a72 50.17 108.49 17165 115 20525 513 Hamilton & Buchanan 2010 50.17 108.49 17225 115 20608 466 Hamilton & Buchanan 2010 46.78 142.43 17860 120 21091 522 Hamilton & Buchanan 2010 50.17 108.49 17885 120 21145 561 Hamilton & Buchanan 2010 46.78 142.43 18920 150 22740 537 Hamilton & Buchanan 2010 46.78 142.43 19320 145 23002 494 Hamilton & Buchanan 2010 55.15 91.55 21800 200 26166 680 Hamilton & Buchanan 2010 55.90 87.95 23250 110 28130 355 Hamilton & Buchanan 2010 55.90 87.95 23290 200 28138 432 Hamilton & Buchanan 2010 54.58 91.07 25660 250 30371 644 Hamilton & Buchanan 2010 54.58 91.07 25960 240 30711 384 Hamilton & Buchanan 2010 52.28 109.83 26220 550 30599 876 Hamilton & Buchanan 2010 54.58 91.07 26250 250 30852 375 Hamilton & Buchanan 2010 70.72 135.42 27300 270 31598 476 Hamilton & Buchanan 2010 70.72 135.42 27400 210 31619 417 Hamilton & Buchanan 2010 55.15 91.47 27770 310 32095 743 Hamilton & Buchanan 2010 70.72 135.42 28250 170 32483 658 Hamilton & Buchanan 2010 50.72 85.57 30990 460 35614 845 Hamilton & Buchanan 2010 50.72 85.57 33780 570 38553 1605 Hamilton & Buchanan 2010 50.72 85.57 34180 640 39076 1726 Hamilton & Buchanan 2010 50.72 85.57 43200 1500 46958 2629 Hamilton & Buchanan 2010 50.72 85.57 43300 1600 47049 2694 Hamilton & Buchanan 2010 47.33 13.33 29500 200 34094 582 Jöris et al 2011 47.33 13.33 31530 210 35916 641 Jöris et al 2011 51.50 10.50 30400 240 35330 778 Jöris et al 2011 54.00 -4.00 31730 250 36024 708 Jöris et al 2011 51.50 10.50 32470 270 37183 749 Jöris et al 2011 54.00 -4.00 31550 340 35894 745 Jöris et al 2011 47.33 13.33 32010 510 36496 1387 Jöris et al 2011 58.75 127.18 10300 50 12110 277 Hamilton & Buchanan 2010 58.75 127.18 10740 100 12662 232 Hamilton & Buchanan 2010 50.17 108.50 10755 140 12654 417 Hamilton & Buchanan 2010 50.17 108.50 10975 135 12870 258 Hamilton & Buchanan 2010 58.75 127.18 11150 150 12994 305 Hamilton & Buchanan 2010 55.63 115.87 11280 80 13141 194 Hamilton & Buchanan 2010 55.63 115.87 11280 120 13133 270 Hamilton & Buchanan 2010 50.17 108.50 11340 200 13181 440 Hamilton & Buchanan 2010

50.17 108.50 11395 100 13275 181 Hamilton & Buchanan 2010 a73 54.03 105.82 11400 500 13467 1389 Hamilton & Buchanan 2010 50.17 108.50 11630 50 13488 164 Hamilton & Buchanan 2010 51.78 108.80 11630 300 13467 688 Hamilton & Buchanan 2010 50.17 108.50 11660 400 13753 1085 Hamilton & Buchanan 2010 58.75 127.18 11800 200 13667 409 Hamilton & Buchanan 2010 50.21 108.62 11820 120 13656 260 Hamilton & Buchanan 2010 54.03 105.82 11860 280 13973 845 Hamilton & Buchanan 2010 54.03 105.82 11950 50 13813 150 Hamilton & Buchanan 2010 57.83 114.00 12000 250 14105 764 Hamilton & Buchanan 2010 55.97 92.48 12040 160 13988 535 Hamilton & Buchanan 2010 57.83 114.00 12050 120 13865 363 Hamilton & Buchanan 2010 50.13 108.82 12070 300 14200 848 Hamilton & Buchanan 2010 57.83 114.00 12080 220 14169 723 Hamilton & Buchanan 2010 55.97 92.48 12085 105 13946 283 Hamilton & Buchanan 2010 52.87 103.43 12090 110 14064 411 Hamilton & Buchanan 2010 52.97 91.45 12110 220 14198 727 Hamilton & Buchanan 2010 50.17 108.50 12110 150 14224 624 Hamilton & Buchanan 2010 52.97 91.45 12120 650 14627 1860 Hamilton & Buchanan 2010 50.17 108.50 12130 150 14251 612 Hamilton & Buchanan 2010 50.17 108.50 12140 150 14266 603 Hamilton & Buchanan 2010 54.60 91.02 12180 120 14301 549 Hamilton & Buchanan 2010 57.83 114.00 12200 80 14172 365 Hamilton & Buchanan 2010 52.97 91.45 12280 150 14403 570 Hamilton & Buchanan 2010 50.17 108.50 12290 130 14410 545 Hamilton & Buchanan 2010 50.17 108.50 12300 700 14848 1904 Hamilton & Buchanan 2010 52.97 91.45 12330 150 14458 565 Hamilton & Buchanan 2010 50.17 108.50 12330 60 14453 439 Hamilton & Buchanan 2010 57.83 114.00 12330 250 14448 760 Hamilton & Buchanan 2010 57.83 114.00 12400 150 14535 551 Hamilton & Buchanan 2010 57.83 114.00 12530 90 14654 463 Hamilton & Buchanan 2010 52.37 104.28 12570 180 14767 735 Hamilton & Buchanan 2010 57.83 114.00 12630 230 15021 1033 Hamilton & Buchanan 2010 54.93 90.94 12690 140 14995 827 Hamilton & Buchanan 2010 57.83 114.00 12700 90 15059 535 Hamilton & Buchanan 2010 57.83 114.00 12700 140 15014 830 Hamilton & Buchanan 2010 50.17 108.50 12800 400 15342 1349 Hamilton & Buchanan 2010 51.20 86.07 12850 205 15378 1119 Hamilton & Buchanan 2010

52.97 91.44 12880 60 15520 529 Hamilton & Buchanan 2010 a74 52.98 91.52 12900 150 15676 766 Hamilton & Buchanan 2010 57.83 114.09 12900 300 15437 1198 Hamilton & Buchanan 2010 54.93 90.92 12940 270 15482 1220 Hamilton & Buchanan 2010 59.30 132.60 12960 120 15729 661 Hamilton & Buchanan 2010 52.97 91.44 12970 120 15739 660 Hamilton & Buchanan 2010 52.97 91.45 12980 130 15754 676 Hamilton & Buchanan 2010 52.98 91.52 12980 140 15759 694 Hamilton & Buchanan 2010 59.30 132.60 13070 90 15816 635 Hamilton & Buchanan 2010 55.95 92.40 13100 410 15566 1326 Hamilton & Buchanan 2010 59.30 132.60 13200 250 15970 837 Hamilton & Buchanan 2010 61.63 149.52 13225 230 15986 807 Hamilton & Buchanan 2010 54.94 90.93 13300 100 16173 633 Hamilton & Buchanan 2010 50.17 108.50 13430 150 16254 649 Hamilton & Buchanan 2010 55.95 92.40 13470 285 16129 915 Hamilton & Buchanan 2010 55.03 90.98 13480 140 16303 648 Hamilton & Buchanan 2010 55.95 92.53 13540 500 16230 1565 Hamilton & Buchanan 2010 52.97 91.45 13690 390 16421 1213 Hamilton & Buchanan 2010 55.03 90.98 13800 140 16909 327 Hamilton & Buchanan 2010 54.03 105.78 13900 200 17094 464 Hamilton & Buchanan 2010 59.30 132.60 14000 100 17127 311 Hamilton & Buchanan 2010 55.65 109.35 14150 960 16712 2545 Hamilton & Buchanan 2010 50.30 130.32 14200 130 17291 393 Hamilton & Buchanan 2010 58.30 100.33 14220 110 17304 372 Hamilton & Buchanan 2010 55.16 91.57 14300 100 17402 383 Hamilton & Buchanan 2010 54.93 90.93 14320 330 17634 841 Hamilton & Buchanan 2010 55.16 91.57 14390 100 17509 371 Hamilton & Buchanan 2010 55.50 73.43 14500 50 17587 330 Hamilton & Buchanan 2010 55.16 91.57 14600 200 17826 672 Hamilton & Buchanan 2010 54.58 91.00 14700 150 17977 536 Hamilton & Buchanan 2010 52.45 86.92 14750 250 17904 654 Hamilton & Buchanan 2010 50.25 108.62 14830 390 17914 828 Hamilton & Buchanan 2010 50.17 108.50 14900 200 18115 473 Hamilton & Buchanan 2010 57.83 114.09 15200 300 18295 645 Hamilton & Buchanan 2010 50.25 108.62 15400 400 18585 835 Hamilton & Buchanan 2010 53.95 91.83 15600 495 18759 1095 Hamilton & Buchanan 2010 57.83 114.00 15900 270 19073 467 Hamilton & Buchanan 2010 60.35 134.45 15950 250 19097 443 Hamilton & Buchanan 2010

52.97 91.45 16540 170 19789 378 Hamilton & Buchanan 2010 a75 55.95 92.40 16640 350 19875 969 Hamilton & Buchanan 2010 50.25 108.62 16900 500 20171 1209 Hamilton & Buchanan 2010 50.25 108.62 16980 150 20048 473 Hamilton & Buchanan 2010 50.25 108.62 17190 120 20584 488 Hamilton & Buchanan 2010 52.08 92.35 17200 140 20608 531 Hamilton & Buchanan 2010 50.25 108.62 17600 250 20911 610 Hamilton & Buchanan 2010 57.83 114.00 17840 290 21255 831 Hamilton & Buchanan 2010 58.30 100.33 18035 180 21627 571 Hamilton & Buchanan 2010 56.48 85.00 18300 1000 21806 2338 Hamilton & Buchanan 2010 50.17 108.49 18830 300 22467 858 Hamilton & Buchanan 2010 51.92 129.30 19360 65 23040 407 Hamilton & Buchanan 2010 58.30 100.33 19540 90 23210 521 Hamilton & Buchanan 2010 54.42 89.45 20300 350 24221 837 Hamilton & Buchanan 2010 52.83 103.53 20340 320 24259 771 Hamilton & Buchanan 2010 51.39 84.66 20350 290 24291 714 Hamilton & Buchanan 2010 55.90 87.95 20490 150 24456 474 Hamilton & Buchanan 2010 55.90 87.95 20800 450 24907 1142 Hamilton & Buchanan 2010 54.02 105.67 21190 175 25392 548 Hamilton & Buchanan 2010 53.58 103.42 21260 240 25432 688 Hamilton & Buchanan 2010 51.39 84.66 21280 440 25546 1178 Hamilton & Buchanan 2010 52.83 103.53 21340 340 25558 1037 Hamilton & Buchanan 2010 51.39 84.66 21502 580 25978 1607 Hamilton & Buchanan 2010 55.90 87.95 21560 100 25757 453 Hamilton & Buchanan 2010 52.83 103.53 21700 160 26073 642 Hamilton & Buchanan 2010 55.90 87.95 22340 175 26964 722 Hamilton & Buchanan 2010 57.83 108.37 22415 480 26940 1256 Hamilton & Buchanan 2010 51.39 84.66 22610 140 27325 548 Hamilton & Buchanan 2010 52.97 91.43 22830 530 27340 1297 Hamilton & Buchanan 2010 51.25 112.40 23200 2000 27035 4338 Hamilton & Buchanan 2010 55.90 87.95 23330 110 28177 339 Hamilton & Buchanan 2010 51.39 84.66 23431 1550 27755 3279 Hamilton & Buchanan 2010 53.58 103.42 23500 250 28328 577 Hamilton & Buchanan 2010 53.58 103.42 23508 250 28340 581 Hamilton & Buchanan 2010 53.58 103.42 23760 1100 28326 2435 Hamilton & Buchanan 2010 58.30 100.33 23920 310 28750 677 Hamilton & Buchanan 2010 51.39 84.66 24205 420 29094 1030 Hamilton & Buchanan 2010 55.90 87.95 24360 150 29067 457 Hamilton & Buchanan 2010

50.43 110.00 24360 270 29062 625 Hamilton & Buchanan 2010 a76 55.90 87.95 24590 110 29452 350 Hamilton & Buchanan 2010 51.22 109.33 25200 260 29999 513 Hamilton & Buchanan 2010 51.05 86.30 25630 430 30320 747 Hamilton & Buchanan 2010 55.90 87.95 25660 200 30398 608 Hamilton & Buchanan 2010 52.83 103.53 25760 260 30452 643 Hamilton & Buchanan 2010 50.18 108.55 25825 290 30486 657 Hamilton & Buchanan 2010 52.02 113.43 26110 150 30815 309 Hamilton & Buchanan 2010 51.55 -4.25 26170 150 30852 300 Jacobi et al 2006 51.38 84.68 26305 280 30869 400 Hamilton & Buchanan 2010 51.39 84.66 26810 290 31237 338 Hamilton & Buchanan 2010 51.38 84.68 26920 310 31304 379 Hamilton & Buchanan 2010 51.38 84.68 27020 435 31528 803 Hamilton & Buchanan 2010 51.39 84.66 27125 580 31740 1125 Hamilton & Buchanan 2010 70.72 135.42 27400 600 32052 1134 Hamilton & Buchanan 2010 55.15 91.47 27470 200 31679 440 Hamilton & Buchanan 2010 70.72 135.42 27600 500 32099 962 Hamilton & Buchanan 2010 70.72 135.42 27800 500 32229 1008 Hamilton & Buchanan 2010 51.39 84.66 27930 1590 32831 3335 Hamilton & Buchanan 2010 58.30 100.33 28050 670 32804 1602 Hamilton & Buchanan 2010 51.22 109.33 29200 1000 33773 2376 Hamilton & Buchanan 2010 55.32 92.50 29230 940 33777 2334 Hamilton & Buchanan 2010 54.42 89.45 29450 420 33953 886 Hamilton & Buchanan 2010 54.58 91.07 29550 500 33997 1040 Hamilton & Buchanan 2010 51.38 84.68 29720 360 34181 784 Hamilton & Buchanan 2010 51.38 84.68 29860 355 34298 778 Hamilton & Buchanan 2010 51.38 84.68 29900 2070 34690 4197 Hamilton & Buchanan 2010 58.30 100.33 30100 150 34783 246 Hamilton & Buchanan 2010 51.38 84.68 30460 2035 35247 4204 Hamilton & Buchanan 2010 51.77 108.33 31060 530 35642 906 Hamilton & Buchanan 2010 51.38 84.68 31410 1160 36118 2581 Hamilton & Buchanan 2010 55.32 92.50 32430 1540 37498 3388 Hamilton & Buchanan 2010 50.42 86.52 33350 1145 38151 2716 Hamilton & Buchanan 2010 51.38 84.68 33400 1285 38165 2843 Hamilton & Buchanan 2010 50.72 85.57 33800 600 38583 1654 Hamilton & Buchanan 2010 58.30 100.33 34300 900 39073 2085 Hamilton & Buchanan 2010 51.38 84.68 35100 2850 39373 5250 Hamilton & Buchanan 2010 50.27 107.23 38900 3300 42833 6046 Hamilton & Buchanan 2010

51.77 108.33 40500 3800 44053 5948 Hamilton & Buchanan 2010 a77 51.05 86.30 42165 4170 44612 5388 Hamilton & Buchanan 2010 Table S13 - Human dates from Japan that ranked 13 or higher on the modified Mead-Meltzer scale (see Methods; Table 1).

14C error 14C (2σ) error (2σ) Source reference 27940 200 32158 642 Takashi 2012 27950 210 32172 656 Takashi 2012 28230 210 32448 715 Takashi 2012 28380 240 32594 769 Takashi 2012 28400 210 32630 709 Takashi 2012 28540 220 32765 797 Takashi 2012 28810 290 33467 1039 Takashi 2012 29590 340 34080 746 Takashi 2012 29640 240 34162 621 Takashi 2012 29650 340 34124 752 Takashi 2012 29820 250 34329 637 Takashi 2012 29870 250 34420 616 Takashi 2012 29920 320 34370 721 Takashi 2012 31420 280 35843 684 Takashi 2012 a78 Table S14 - Human dates from Tasmania that ranked 13 or higher on the modified Mead-Meltzer scale (see Methods; Table 1).

14C error 14C (2σ) error (2σ) Source reference 31,610 370 35924 792 Gillespie et al 2012 27,160 250 31437 352 Gillespie et al 2012 30,210 300 34706 617 Gillespie et al 2012 34,790 510 39883 1142 Gillespie et al 2012 33,170 670 37964 1524 Gillespie et al 2012 33,850 450 38684 1402 Gillespie et al 2012 33,260 420 37838 1023 Gillespie et al 2012 27,780 230 32046 640 Gillespie et al 2012 27,770 420 32158 886 Gillespie et al 2012 28,000 720 32791 1627 Gillespie et al 2012 30,420 690 34986 1488 Gillespie et al 2012 30,840 480 35542 871 Gillespie et al 2012 29,000 520 33379 1296 Gillespie et al 2012 28,330 720 32936 1536 Gillespie et al 2012 29,800 720 34410 1855 Gillespie et al 2012 27,250 530 31892 1007 Gillespie et al 2012 a79 Table S15 - Rattus exulans dates from New Zealand that ranked 13 or higher on the modified Mead-Meltzer scale (see Methods; Table 1). These dates were used as a proxy for human colonization (Wilmshurst et al. 2008).

Proxy 14C error 14C (2σ) error (2σ) Source reference Rattus exulans 586 30 593 58 Wilmshurst et al 2008 Rattus exulans 411 25 424 90 Wilmshurst et al 2008 Rattus exulans 534 29 571 59 Wilmshurst et al 2008 Rattus exulans 570 25 587 56 Wilmshurst et al 2008 Rattus exulans 389 26 416 92 Wilmshurst et al 2008 Rattus exulans 369 26 410 91 Wilmshurst et al 2008 Rattus exulans 516 26 565 57 Wilmshurst et al 2008 Rattus exulans 354 26 406 90 Wilmshurst et al 2008 Rattus exulans 475 26 519 18 Wilmshurst et al 2008 Rattus exulans 549 26 576 57 Wilmshurst et al 2008 Rattus exulans 563 26 583 57 Wilmshurst et al 2008 Rattus exulans 518 26 565 56 Wilmshurst et al 2008 Rattus exulans 100 45 134 138 Wilmshurst et al 2008 Rattus exulans 348 26 402 87 Wilmshurst et al 2008 Rattus exulans 156 27 141 144 Wilmshurst et al 2008 Rattus exulans 205 25 150 151 Wilmshurst et al 2008 Rattus exulans 393 25 419 90 Wilmshurst et al 2008 Rattus exulans 170 24 143 145 Wilmshurst et al 2008 Rattus exulans 412 25 425 90 Wilmshurst et al 2008 Rattus exulans 213 24 151 152 Wilmshurst et al 2008 Rattus exulans 175 27 144 146 Wilmshurst et al 2008 Rattus exulans 479 25 520 18 Wilmshurst et al 2008 Rattus exulans 382 28 413 94 Wilmshurst et al 2008 Rattus exulans 458 27 511 24 Wilmshurst et al 2008 Rattus exulans 103 29 132 136 Wilmshurst et al 2008 Rattus exulans 200 30 151 153 Wilmshurst et al 2008 Rattus exulans 121 25 133 136 Wilmshurst et al 2008 Rattus exulans 405 26 423 91 Wilmshurst et al 2008 Rattus exulans 434 25 495 30 Wilmshurst et al 2008 Rattus exulans 223 26 153 154 Wilmshurst et al 2008 Rattus exulans 215 28 152 153 Wilmshurst et al 2008 Rattus exulans 526 27 568 58 Wilmshurst et al 2008 Rattus exulans 223 26 153 154 Wilmshurst et al 2008 Rattus exulans 231 26 155 156 Wilmshurst et al 2008 a80 Rattus exulans 244 26 211 212 Wilmshurst et al 2008 Rattus exulans 278 32 305 151 Wilmshurst et al 2008 Rattus exulans 316 32 385 82 Wilmshurst et al 2008 Rattus exulans 395 34 416 97 Wilmshurst et al 2008 Rattus exulans 281 34 306 152 Wilmshurst et al 2008 Rattus exulans 296 32 376 86 Wilmshurst et al 2008 Rattus exulans 290 37 311 154 Wilmshurst et al 2008 Rattus exulans 153 32 141 144 Wilmshurst et al 2008 Rattus exulans 383 33 413 95 Wilmshurst et al 2008 Rattus exulans 702 32 627 64 Wilmshurst et al 2008 Rattus exulans 324 31 388 82 Wilmshurst et al 2008 a81 a82

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APPENDIX II a91

APPENDIX II

Supplementary Figure 1

Figure S1 - Effects of climatic variation and human arrival time-lapse over the number

of extinct genera.