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frequently reported conditions. For a comprehensive review of bacterial diseases in raptors, the reader is referred to a recent publication on this subject.9

Tuberculosis is a bacterial disease produced by Myco- bacterium avium avium. This condition is considered rare in North American raptors65 but is frequently found in the United Kingdom and continental Europe.9,29 The disease is characterized by the presence of tubercles pri- marily in the liver, spleen, gastrointestinal tract and bones. Subcutaneous tubercles also have been described in raptors.9,29 Diagnosis with the tuberculin test is unre- warding.29 The use of radiology in bone-related infec- tions has proved useful.65 For a more accurate diagnosis, Fig 40.53 | Pseudomonas aeruginosa stomatitis as a sequel to a recent trichomoniasis infection. Note the characteristic multi- suspected birds should be subjected to endoscopic ple caseous masses present in the caudal and lateral aspects of examination and subsequent liver biopsy and histo- the oropharynx and on the tongue. In most cases, the tongue is pathology analysis. Treatment of tuberculosis is not rec- grossly enlarged, preventing birds from eating normally. ommended in raptors, particularly when the birds are in close contact with humans; but if treatment is deemed general depression. In acute cases, clinical signs include appropriate, a number of therapeutic agents have been general depression, reduced appetite, regurgitation, soft proposed.7 The treatment protocol should run parallel brown feces progressing rapidly to reddish and hemor- to an adequate biosecurity program targeted at contain- rhagic, pastel green-colored urates and recumbency.29 ing the disease (see Chapter 28, Implications of Suggested treatments for the acute form include the use Mycobacteria in Clinical Disorders). of oxytetracycline at the dose rate of 100 mg/kg SID for 5 The gram-negative microorganism Chlamydophila days or a single dose of a doxycycline long-acting prepara- psittaci, produces chlamydiosis. This microorganism has tion at the dose rate of 100 mg/kg.29 Three falcons that been detected serologically in both captive15,22 and free- displayed typical clinical signs of clostridial enterotoxemia living raptors,21 but very few cases of actual clinical survived after the administration of a bovine polyvalent chlamydiosis have been recorded in the literature.15,54 gangrene antiserum IV.108 The disease is characterized by unilateral or bilateral periocular swelling and conjunctivitis, rhinitis and lime Pseudomoniasis is an infectious disease produced by the green-colored urates.15 Suggested treatments include the rod-shaped, gram-negative bacterium Pseudomonas administration of doxycycline at the dose rate of 50 aeruginosa. In avian species, P. aeruginosa is considered mg/kg BID PO for 45 days15 or 100 mg/kg IM every 5 to be an opportunistic pathogen and seldom is consid- 12,23 days for a total of six doses,29 or azithromycin at 40 ered the primary source of infection. Pseudomonas mg/kg once a week PO for up to 4 weeks102 (see Chapter aeruginosa is commonly associated with upper respira- 60 27, Update on Chlamydophila psittaci). tory tract infections in psittacine birds and is often iso- lated from respiratory tracts of juvenile ostriches.12 It is There are very few reports in the literature on the inci- believed that predisposing factors such as injuries to dence of clostridial enterotoxemia in raptors.108 This dis- mucosal membranes, general weakness produced by sys- ease is produced mainly by Clostridium perfringens type tematic diseases, immunosuppression and reduced nor- A/B, although C. histolyticum also has been implicated on mal flora might lead to infections with P. aeruginosa.60 a single occasion.108 Clostridium perfringens is character- Recently, stomatitis produced by P. aeruginosa as a ized by the production of potent toxins that are readily sequel to trichomoniasis was described in falcons in the absorbed from the gastrointestinal tract, resulting in Middle East.80 The disease was characterized by the pres- severe illness and death. Mismanagement of food items ence of small, nodular, white-yellow caseous masses, before and after freezing has been blamed as a possible ranging in size from 2 to 5 mm distributed across the cause for the proliferation of the microorganism.29,108 In oropharynx (Fig 40.53). In addition, the tongue displayed addition, the management system used widely by falcon- numerous nodular masses distributed across the dorsal ers — providing meat soaked overnight in water to fal- and lateral aspects, varying in size from 0.5 to 5.0 mm, conry birds — has been proposed as a potential risk for resulting in a gross enlargement of the tongue to the the proliferation of C. perfringens.29 In most cases of infec- extent that the falcon could not close its beak.80 Treat- tion, the course of disease is peracute or acute. In pera- ment includes administering antibiotics such as pipera- cute cases, death occurs after a relatively short period of cillin and amikacin or tobramycin in combination, daily 40_Raptorsnew.qxd 8/24/2005 12:04 PM Page 936

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curetting of caseous masses and the application of oral This treatment tends to arrest the development of first- antiseptics. stage lesions into scabs. Scabs are best treated only with antiseptic solutions. The addition of glycerol or liquid There have been reports in the literature of bacterial paraffin wax to the antiseptic solution is beneficial. findings during microbiology surveys in raptors. Some of Scabs on the cere are treated by surgical removal and the bacteria isolated probably can be considered normal the periodic application of hydrocolloidal dressings86 or transient flora, and therefore their presence will not (Figs 40.56-40.59). Diagnosis of the disease is possible necessarily result in disease. For instance, the culture of by identifying the virus at electron microscopy or by some bacteria, such as Pseudomonas spp., from infected detecting the presence of Bollinger’s intracytoplasmatic wounds is relatively common, but is not necessarily bodies in cytologic or histologic preparations of the skin 9 involved in the infectious process. One such finding of affected individuals.104 Annual vaccination with com- includes Mycoplasma in different species of free-living mercially available live vaccines has been suggested.104 49,50 48 raptors and captive falcons in the Middle East. How- Recently, a new strain of the virus was isolated from fal- ever, as previously stated, “Today’s commensal is tomor- cons in the Middle East, and studies are under way to 9 row’s pathogen”. Under some circumstances, some bac- develop a more species-specific live vaccine.5 teria might be pathogenic due to immunosuppression and stress, resulting in clinical disease. For instance, Raptor herpesvirus infection is a disease that affects mycoplasmosis was recently diagnosed in a free-living captive and free-living Falconiformes and Strigiformes.24 saker falcon nestling affected with skeletal deformity due Three distinct species of the virus have been identified to perosis.14 Other bacteria that have been implicated in to date including Falconid HV1, Strigid HV1 and Accipi- clinical disease include Pasteurella multocida,55 Salmo- trid HV1.24,104 Affected individuals invariably die within 2 nella enteriditis, S. typhimurium,16 Campylobacter or 3 days after manifesting signs, including anorexia, jejuni,16 Yersinia pseudotuberculosis,16 Escherichia coli9 pastel green-colored urates and general depression. The and Staphylococcus aureus.9 infection produces widespread characteristic white-yel- low necrotic foci in the parenchyma of the liver and 29 VIRAL DISEASES spleen (Fig 40.60). Considerations for the production of a vaccine have been extensively discussed.67,68 Recently, The most significant viral diseases in raptors include an attenuated vaccine has been produced and used suc- Newcastle disease, avian pox and raptor herpesvirus cessfully in common kestrels.105 infection. Other viral infections affecting raptors worldwide include Newcastle disease is an infectious viral disease produced the West Nile virus,98 avian influenza51 and avian poly- 53,71,104,107 by avian paramyxovirus serotype 1. In falcons, the omavirus.36 A comprehensive review of the viral diseases disease is characterized by gastrointestinal signs in the affecting raptors has been published elsewhere9 (see earliest stage of the disease, followed by central nervous Chapter 32, Implications of Viruses in Clinical Disorders). system signs including ataxia, head tics and tremors, and 107 wing and leg paralysis. Annual vaccination with inacti- FUNGAL DISEASES vated vaccines is highly recommended.9,29,106 A vaccine derived from local strains in the Middle East has been Aspergillosis is the most common infectious disease 63 used successfully in different species of birds including affecting captive raptors. The disease is caused mainly falcons.107 by Aspergillus fumigatus, although other fungi of the same genus, such as A. flavus and A. niger, also have Avian pox is a viral disease known to affect captive37,82 been implicated.9,29 Some species appear to be more sus- and free-living raptors.95 The interrelationship of the dif- ceptible than others to contracting the disease. For ferent strains is not clearly understood. Pox infections in instance, raptor species that have been identified as raptors are not considered fatal. However, the loss of an prone to contract aspergillosis in captivity include the eye due to scratching, the loss of digital function due to golden eagle (Aquila chrysaetos), goshawk (Accipiter avascular necrosis of digital tendons and the sloughing gentilis), gyrfalcon (Falco rusticolus), immature red- of talons due to distal necrosis are very often observed. tailed hawk (Buteo jamaicencis) and snowy owl (Nyctea In addition, pox infections on the cere can lead to per- scandiaca).63 Aspergillosis is usually contracted through manent damage to the nostrils, the nasal septum, con- heavy or mild spore inhalation over a period of time, chal structures and, in extreme cases, to avascular necro- together with factors that compromise immune function. sis of the nasal bridge (Figs 40.54, 40.55). Treatment of Examples of these factors include recent capture, poorly early-stage lesions consists of cauterizing, debriding the ventilated quarters, neonatal and geriatric conditions, upper layer and application of alcohol-based antiseptic corticosteroids, exposure to respiratory irritants and solutions (eg, merthiolate, mercurochrome or iodine). lead toxicosis.63 After exposure, the disease might follow 40_Raptorsnew.qxd 8/24/2005 12:04 PM Page 937

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Fig 40.54 | A large scab on the cere of a saker falcon produced Fig 40.55 | Avian pox infection on both feet of a peregrine fal- by an infection with avian pox. Note that the naris is completely con. Note that the lesions are still in the pustular stage. The elec- obstructed. The removal of the scab and application of hydrocol- trocauterization of such lesions and the application of an alcohol- loid dressings is indicated. Complete healing has been achieved in based antiseptic are indicated. The primary objective of such ther- 2 to 3 weeks following this technique. apy is to prevent the development of scabbing.

Fig 40.56 | Early stage of the develop- Fig 40.57 | A pustular-type pox lesion on the commis- ment of pox infection in a male saker sure of the mouth of a saker falcon. This type of lesion is falcon. Note that the eyelids and the relatively rare in raptors. cere are equally affected. Pox infections in the Middle East follow a seasonal pat- tern and are relatively common during the spring.

Fig 40.58 | A large fistula in the commissure of the mouth of a Fig 40.59 | An unusual nodular growth produced by avian pox saker falcon created by the presence of a large pox scab. Prompt on an apterium of the neck of a saker falcon. The dry type of and effective treatment is required in order to arrest the develop- avian pox infection tends to develop in unfeathered areas of the ment of early lesions into scabs in this anatomical site. Surgical body, mainly on the cere, eyelids, tarsus and digits. These dry reconstruction of the mouth is indicated in this type of presenta- lesions are infrequently observed on other anatomical sites. tion. 40_Raptorsnew.qxd 8/24/2005 12:04 PM Page 938

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Fig 40.60 | Herpesvirus infection in a saker falcon. The liver is Fig 40.61 | Early lesions of aspergillosis in the coelomic cavity slightly enlarged. Note the presence of characteristic multiple of a saker falcon. Stress associated with overexertion and recent necrotic foci disseminated across the liver. The bird was pre- capture, exposure to decaying vegetable matter and immuno- sented with a history of anorexia and passing pastel green- suppression have all been implicated in the development of this colored urates. fungal disease. Some raptor species appear to be more suscep- tible to developing the disease.

Fig 40.63 | A postmortem examination of the bird in Fig 40.62. Note the size and location of the already sectioned Fig 40.62 | Large aspergilloma in the aspergilloma showing sporulating fungal colonies of Aspergillus coelomic cavity of a saker falcon as observed fumigatus. on a ventrodorsal radiograph. It is very com- mon for raptors to develop a single, large aspergillosis lesion. James Carpenter, reprinted with permission James Carpenter, Fig 40.64 | A dissection of the aspergilloma and the lungs of Fig 40.65 | Unilateral obstruction of one primary the bird in Figs 40.62 and 40.63. Note the numerous smaller bronchus in a saker falcon produced by infection with aspergillomas developing in the lungs. Aspergillus fumigatus. Severe bilateral obstruction requires the placement of an air sac cannula to alleviate dyspnea. 40_Raptorsnew.qxd 8/24/2005 12:04 PM Page 939

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an acute or a more chronic course depending on expo- sure and immunosuppression. The acute form is charac- terized by the development of extensive miliary granulo- mas throughout the lungs. The more chronic forms might include the development of small to large granu- lomas mainly in the tracheobronchial syrinx, peri- cardium, lungs and air sac system63 (Figs 40.61-40.65). At the onset of the disease, clinical signs typically include subtle changes in behavior, reduced appetite, shredding and flicking of food, lack of stamina and decreased flight performance. Respiratory signs including dyspnea, wet rales and change of voice, and usually follow behavioral changes. Diagnosis is made through a detailed clinical history, tracheal and air sac swabs submitted for cyto- Fig 40.66 | Infection with Candida albicans in the crop of a logic examination and culture, endoscopy examination, saker falcon. Candidiasis is often associated with immune hematology, enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay depression, delay in emptying of the crop and nutritional defi- ciencies. Note the typical “Turkish towel” appearance of the 63 (ELISA) and antigen capture test. Treatment typically mucosal membrane of the crop. consists of itraconazoleu PO at the dose rate of 5 to 10 mg/kg BID for 5 days then decreased to q24h for 2 to 3 been described88 (see Chapter 29, Implications of Mycoses months, amphotericin Bv intratracheally (IT), 1 mg/kg in Clinical Disorders). diluted to 1 ml volume BID for 5 days, and nebulization with clotrimazole for 1 hour BID for 2 to 3 months.63 Surgery is usually recommended to remove aspergillo- mas located at the syrinx and within the coelomic cavity. Non-infectious Diseases A 1:10 solution of enilconazolew 0.5 ml/kg BID intratra- cheally (IT) and nebulization with a 1:10 dilution for 20 Non-infectious diseases include a diverse group of med- minutes QID also have been recommended.17 Recently, ical conditions caused by a single or multifactorial etiol- nebulization with a quaternary ammonium and biguana- ogy. While for some of these conditions the etiology is dine compound disinfectantn has been proposed.4,103 clearly understood, such as in the case of metabolic bone disease, the causes of others such as amyloidosis Candidiasis, or thrush, is a fungal disease produced pri- are not known. marily by the yeast Candida albicans. The disease is usu- Palpation of the pectoral muscles, weighing the bird and ally endogenous in origin and can be triggered by predis- assessing its behavior are commonly performed to deter- posing factors including immunosuppression, stress, pro- mine body condition in captive raptors. The assessment longed use of antibiotics and nutritional deficiencies.57 In of pectoral muscle mass on its own is not a reliable indi- raptors, candidiasis is characterized by the presence of cator of body condition, as most of the body fat is amorphous diphtheritic membranes that are whitish gray deposited within the coelomic cavity, under the wings to gray-green in color and affect mainly the crop88 (Fig around the scapular areas and in the lower abdomen. The 40.66). There are several other diseases that affect the best way of assessing body condition in captive raptors is upper digestive tract in raptors. These include vitamin A a combination of the three parameters mentioned above. deficiency, Pseudomonas aeruginosa stomatitis, trichomo- niasis and capillariasis. The importance of establishing a complete list of differential diagnoses prior to instituting METABOLIC BONE DISEASE therapy is stressed.88 Raptors affected with candidiasis Metabolic bone disease is a term that encompasses a demonstrate clinical signs including reduced appetite or series of medical conditions that affect mainly the miner- anorexia, shredding and flicking of food, regurgitation alization of bones, including osteoporosis, osteomalacia, and progressive weight loss.88 The diagnosis is suggested rickets, fibrous osteodystrophy and nutritional second- through the clinical history and observation via endo- ary hyperparathyroidism. These conditions are usually scopic examination of the characteristic “Turkish towel” related to mineralization disorders of the osteoid due to

appearance of the crop. The blastospores of C. albicans Ca and/or vitamin D3 deficiencies. Other diseases affect- can be demonstrated in stained cytological preparations ing the growth, mineralization, maturation and mainte- obtained from affected areas. Traditionally, the treatment nance of bone include the twisting and bending of long of candidiasis in raptors has included nystatin, ketocona- bones and slipped tendon, which are commonly seen in zole, itraconazole or fluconazole. Topical use of a micona- fast-growing birds.39 Correct diet, adequate feeding man- zole preparationx applied BID for 3 to 5 days has recently agement and vitamin/mineral supplementation are 40_Raptorsnew.qxd 8/24/2005 12:04 PM Page 940

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essential in breeding raptors in captivity.29 Excellent analysis and recommendations for raptor nutrition have been published elsewhere.18 (Ed. Note: While the Author does not do so, this reference advocates day-old chicks which may have an acceptable Ca:P but there is insuffi- cient calcium. At the University of Guelph they fed chicks to growing Northern Harriers and they all devel- oped metabolic bone disease). Treatment is usually indi- cated and includes changes in the diet and vitamin/min- eral supplementation.29 However, individuals already exhibiting folding fractures and severe bending of long bones should be humanely destroyed, as treatment is seldom successful.

Disorders of the Fig 40.67 | Ventrodorsal radiograph of a saker falcon showing Digestive System the presence of foreign material in the gizzard. The ventriculus was repeatedly flushed retrieving a large amount of red desert sand. The bird was presented with a history of delay in emptying SOUR CROP the crop, reduced appetite and progressive weight loss. Sour crop in raptors is a medical emergency condition caused by the retention of food in the crop, resulting in GASTROINTESTINAL content decomposition leading to rapid bacterial prolifer- FOREIGN BODIES ation, septicemia and death. The condition might result simply from over-feeding. This is a common occurrence in Gastrointestinal tract (GIT) foreign bodies are a rela- falconry birds when enthusiastic falconers allow a particu- tively common occurrence in raptors. One of the most lar bird to gorge itself to rapidly increase the body weight. significant findings includes lead pellets or lead frag- Factors that might influence crop stasis include low body ments in the GIT, usually the ventriculus, of raptors fed condition, gizzard impaction with casting or foreign mate- on shot prey. A full account of the diagnosis and man- rial, or general disease. Usually birds with sour crop are agement of lead toxicosis will be addressed later in this presented in a state of endotoxic shock with a swollen chapter. Other foreign materials that have been found crop that is filled with macerated and foul-smelling, include grass, synthetic strands from artificial turf, sand and grit (Fig 40.67). In general, these are materials that decomposing food. Affected birds tolerate general anes- tend to adhere to the offered food when it falls on the thesia with isoflurane very well. An endotracheal tube ground. Small quantities of these materials are usually should be placed carefully to avoid aspiration pneumonia. cast out (grass, artificial turf strands) or passed out with Gently massaging the crop contents toward the mouth fecal material (sand and grit). However, large quantities and retrieving this material with blunt-tipped forceps of foreign material can significantly reduce the capacity should remove the food. Extreme care should be exer- of the proventriculus and ventriculus or cause impaction cised during the massaging process to avoid lacerations or in these sites. penetrating wounds to the crop if there are bones present in the crop. In extreme cases, an ingluviotomy can be per- Falconry birds appear to be the most commonly affected. formed to remove impacted contents. After removal of the In the Middle East, it is very common to be presented decomposing food, a tube should be passed down to the with a falcon with a history of reduced appetite or com- proventriculus, and approximately 50 ml/kg of 0.1% plete anorexia, delayed crop emptying and regurgitation. chlorhexidine or 1:1000 of quaternary ammonium and Radiographically, large amounts of sand and medium- biguanadine compounds disinfectantn solution can be sized grit have been observed in the ventriculus. In some flushed to decrease the bacterial load present in the cases, it has been estimated that approximately 50 to 75% upper GIT. The author favors the use of marbofloxaciny of the total capacity of the ventriculus has been occupied 15 to 20 mg/kg PO or IM for 3 to 5 days SID in the post- by foreign material. In one case involving a wild-caught operative care of sour crop. Depending on the bird’s con- gyrfalcon, the ventriculus and proventriculus were com- dition, force-feeding might be necessary for 2 to 3 days. pletely impacted with grass. This bird died before any An excellent account of the medical management of sour treatment could be instituted. The wet weight of the crop has been previously described.61 grass retrieved from the ventriculus was 40 g. It also is 40_Raptorsnew.qxd 8/24/2005 12:04 PM Page 941

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Fig 40.68 | A unusual case of a penetrating wound on the wall Fig 40.69 | Severe sinusitis and associated conjunctivitis in a of the gizzard of a saker falcon caused by a sharp, bony splinter saker falcon. Note the large amount of clear discharge originat- (arrow). The bird died of acute peritonitis. Other bone fragments ing from the nares and the nasolacrimal duct. Sinusitis may be with sharp edges also are present. Under normal circumstances, the result of systemic (eg, chlamydiosis), localized infections (eg, bones are cast out the following day after a meal. However, entire trichomoniasis) or secondary bacteria. long bones (eg, femur) should be not be offered to captive raptors.

common to find large amounts of impacted casting mate- captive falcons have been previously described.93 The only rial (fur, feathers, bones). Retrieval of foreign material clinical sign usually observed is fluttering of the skin from the gizzard can be attempted by ventricular lavage. immediately above the affected nares. In severe and For large falcons (1.0 to 1.5 kg), the author favors stom- chronic cases, the presence of foreign material and rhino- ach tubes commonly used to feed neonatal lambs. This liths, and complete obstruction of the nares is obvious on procedure should be undertaken with the bird under physical examination. Treatment consists of the manual isoflurane anesthesia. The placement of an endotracheal removal of obstructing debris with a fine blunt probe or a tube is essential to avoid aspiration. The stomach tube is pair of fine-tipped round forceps, together with the instil- l lubricated with water-soluble gel and passed gently into lation of saline drops. Sometimes, several sessions are the gizzard. A 60-ml syringe is then attached to the tube required to remove all foreign material. Flushing the nasal and the stomach is flushed repeatedly with warm (32-35° cavities of affected individuals is highly recommended, as C) water. The quantity of water used depends on the this tends to dislodge foreign material more efficiently amount of foreign material present. Usually, 180 to 240 (Figs 40.70-40.72). In severe or chronic cases, partial ml is sufficient to dislodge all material. In severe cases of retrieval of foreign material before flushing is often neces- ventricular impaction, surgical removal of foreign bodies sary. The flushing solution is usually prepared with an is indicated. The author has used a rigid endoscope and antiseptic (chlorhexidine 50 ml/kg of 0.1%) or an antibi- 33 cm long modified grasping forceps, to remove casting otic (enrofloxacin or marbofloxacin) in normal saline. The material, lead pellets and other foreign bodies from the author favors a 1:250 solution with quaternary ammo- gizzards of falcons (Fig 40.68). nium and biguanadine compoundsn. Construction of a device for flushing the nares of affected falcons has 81 Disorders of the recently been described in the literature. Respiratory System Sinusitis is the inflammation of the infraorbital sinuses, produced mainly by invading bacteria. In most cases, Rhinitis is the inflammation of the mucosal membrane of sinusitis is produced as a sequel to rhinitis caused prima- the nasal cavities, which may be due to the presence of rily by obstruction and subsequent proliferation of bacte- foreign bodies, rhinoliths, trichomoniasis or bacterial ria. Supraorbital trichomoniasis infection was recently 79 invasion (Fig 40.69). Captive falcons have the tendency to described in saker falcons. Intranasal flushing with antibi- face the wind while tethered out in the open. Sand otics or antiseptics has some effect in mild cases. How- storms are relatively common in the Middle East during ever, intrasinal injection of solutions such as those used the training and hunting season. Very often, fine dusty for rhinitis is highly recommended. Strict aseptic and ster- sand finds its way into the nares, producing mechanical ile measures should be observed when injecting into the occlusion within the nasal cavities.74 Trichomoniasis and sinus. The use of antibiotics such as marbofloxacin 15 to associated invading bacteria affecting the nasal cavities of 20 mg/kg PO, IM SID for 5 to 7 days is indicated. 40_Raptorsnew.qxd 8/24/2005 12:05 PM Page 942

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Fig 40.70 | One of the most effective collateral treatments in the Fig 40.71 | Small round-tipped probes are very useful to therapeutic management of rhinitis and sinusitis is the systematic remove rhinoliths from the nares and relieve obstructions. It is flushing of antiseptic, disinfectant or antibiotic solutions through important to soak rhinoliths with saline solution drops during the nares of affected individuals. The equipment commonly used to the removal process. Extreme care must be exercised to avoid clean the nares and to flush the nasal cavities is shown here. injuries to the concha.

Fig 40.72 | A nasal flushing of a saker falcon in progress. Large syringes (eg, 20 ml) fitted with a small rubber plunger at the end are useful for this procedure. Note that the falcon has Fig 40.73 | Amyloidosis and related ascites in a saker falcon. been wrapped with a towel in order to avoid damage to the The etiology of amyloidosis in raptors is poorly understood. feathers. Therapeutic management of amyloidosis is still in its infancy. Some success has been obtained by removal of the ascitic fluid and the administration of glucose and ascorbic acid, and gen- eral support therapy.

Non-infectious Diseases seen by the author have been in falcons that have under- gone dietary changes such as the removal of one of the Amyloidosis (Greek: Amylon = starch, eidos = form) is a main food items (eg, day-old chicks) several weeks before the onset of disease (Fig 40.73). disorder affecting primarily the liver, although the spleen, kidneys and even the brain99 can be involved. The condi- tion is characterized by the deposition of amyloid within the parenchyma of the liver, engulfing and obliterating Disorders of the the hepatocytes.30 Amyloid deposition appears to be stim- Nervous System ulated by chronic disease involving antibody-antigen pro- duction, such as aspergillosis, bumblefoot or tuberculo- There is a series of disorders involving the nervous sis. However, the author has encountered several mild to system in captive raptors, produced by nutritional defi- severe cases of amyloidosis in falcons with no previous ciencies, infectious diseases, toxicosis and lesions of the history or evidence of disease. It is possible, therefore, central and peripheral nervous systems.9 For a compre- that subclinical disease might also stimulate deposition of hensive review of the different neurological disorders amyloid in the liver. Nutrition or nutritional management affecting raptors, the reader is referred to a recent publi- also may play an important role, as the majority of cases cation.9 However, an account of some of the most 40_Raptorsnew.qxd 8/24/2005 12:05 PM Page 943

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recently described disorders and those commonly observed by the author in falcons in the Middle East is presented here.

Progressive paralysis of the hind limbs might be the result of lead toxicosis, botulism (G. Harrison, personal communication, 2003), aspergillosis, kidney disease, trauma, arthritic changes in the vertebral synsacral joint due to trauma,25 Newcastles disease107 and atypical para- sitic migration.28 The latter finding might be a more com- mon occurrence that has gone largely undiagnosed in geographical areas, including the Middle East, where parasitic infections with different species of the genus Serratospiculum are very common. Fish-eating raptors such as the osprey, fed frozen/thawed fish, require sup-

plementation with thiamine (vitamin B1) as part of dietary management to avoid paralysis of the hind limbs.65 In addition, lumbosacral plexus avulsion has Fig 40.74 | Saker falcon presented with severe torticollis. The been suspected in tethered falcons presented with uni- problem was present only when the bird had its hood in place. Severe torticollis may lead to falcons falling from the perch due lateral paresis or paralysis. Some of these cases have to loss of balance. The etiology of this condition is believed to responded well to non-steroidal anti-inflammatory be the result of vitamin B complex deficiency. agents such as meloxicamz (0.1 mg/kg SID PO or IM for aa 3 to 5 days) and administration of 25 mg/kg vitamin B1 bb IM for 3 to 5 days or 25 mg/kg vitamin B1 PO for the same period or longer. Stargazing, convulsions and seizures have been observed in captive raptors, primarily in falcons29 (Figs 40.74, 40.75).

In the Middle East, falcons are commonly presented with CNS signs including moderate to severe tilting of the head or opisthotonos. These signs are exacerbated when the hood is in place. In severe cases, these falcons might even fall backward from the perch when disturbed. In addition, falcons are often presented with a history of having expe- rienced a “fit during a training session or while simply standing on the perch”. The etiology might be multifactor- Fig 40.75 | Saker falcon displaying opisthotonos, a common central nervous sign associated with vitamin B complex defi- 29 9 ial, but deficiencies of B-vitamin complex and vitamin E ciency in raptors. have been implicated. In such cases, the author favors administering 1 ml/kg IM of a multivitamin preparation

(providing 15,000 IU vitamin A, 25 µg vitamin D3, 20 mg

vitamin E, 10 mg vitamin B1, 5 mg vitamin B2, 25 µg vita- cc min B12, nicotinamide 35 mg, 25 mg d-panthenol ). This is usually followed by administering PO tablets of a multi- vitamin preparationdd (providing 2000 IU vitamin A, 250

IU vitamin D3, 5 IU vitamin E, 2 mg vitamin K, 10 mg niacin, 2.5 mg pantothenic acid, 0.4 mg iodine, 1 mg vita-

min B1, 8 µg pyridoxine, 0.1 µg vitamin B12, 0.5 mg folic acid, 80 µg choline bitartrate, 0.2 µg biotin, 0.4 mg riboflavin) administered directly or within the food for 1 or 2 weeks, in powder form (containing per 1 g 1000 IU

vitamin A, 125 IU vitamin D3, 2.5 IU vitamin E, 1 mg vita- min K, 5 mg niacin, 1.2 mg pantothenic acid, 1.2 mg Fig 40.76 | Unilateral flaccid paralysis of the foot in a saker riboflavin, 0.4 mg vitamin B , 0.4 mg pyridoxine, 0.5 µg falcon. The etiology of this condition is not clearly understood, 1 but avulsion of the nervous plexus or injury to individual nerves vitamin B12, 0.2 mg folic acid, 0.4 µg choline bitartrate, 0.1 has been suggested as the possible cause. µg biotin, 2 µg iodine) administered daily in drinking 40_Raptorsnew.qxd 8/24/2005 12:05 PM Page 944

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water for 1 or 2 weeks. Success in treating such cases Uveitis is the inflammation of the vascular middle area appears to be related to how promptly the treatment is of the eye including the iris, ciliary body and choroid. instituted. Recovery and full cessation of clinical signs Uveitis and tears in the iris are commonly seen in raptors have been observed when treatment was administered involved in collision accidents and trauma to the head.38 within 24 to 48 hours after the initial signs were noticed. Mild to severe cases of uveitis can be resolved successfully However, the etiology of this and other diseases remains with the use of a non-steroidal anti-inflammatory agent unclear and there is, therefore, a need to conduct further such as meloxicamz at the dose rate of 0.1 mg/kg SID PO research into the etiology, diagnosis and pathogenesis of or IM for 5 to 7 days, and the instillation of corticosteroid neurological disorders affecting raptors (Fig 40.76) (see and antibiotic dropsgg BID for 2 to 3 days. Chapter 4, Nutritional Considerations). Otitis is the inflammation of the ear and is relatively rare in raptors. In falcons, otitis is usually produced by the presence of foreign material, ectoparasites or trichomo- Disorders of the niasis. Affected individuals usually present with a mild to Eye and Ear severe head tilt, feather matting and a thick purulent dis- charge around the ear opening. The treatment of otitis Conjunctivitis is the inflammation of the membrane that consists of removing caseous and purulent material with lines the eyelid and the exposed surface of the sclera, normal saline and cotton swabs and the instillation of gg characterized by hyperemia and, in severe cases, dis- corticosteroid and antibiotic drops BID for 3 to 5 days. charge. The condition in raptors is usually associated Trichomoniasis should be treated with metronidazole with the presence of foreign bodies such as feather parti- 100 mg/kg SID PO for 3 days. The author has observed cles, sand or dust. Foreign material also can be lodged severe cases of trichomoniasis causing marked injury under the nictitating membrane or lower eyelid. If the and destruction of vital structures of the middle and presence of foreign material is suspected, the bird inner ear. These cases carry a poor prognosis. should be examined under general anesthesia and the eye repeatedly flushed with normal saline solution or a proprietary eye solutionee and any visible foreign mate- Miscellaneous Medical rial removed with the aid of sterile cotton swabs. The treatment of conjunctivitis might include ophthalmic Disorders dropsff BID for 3 to 5 days. In more severe cases and in the presence of inflammation, the use of corticosteroid TOXICOSIS (betamethasone) and antibiotic (neomycin) dropsgg BID Ammonium chloride toxicosis is a common medical dis- for 2 to 3 days might be considered. order in falcons in the Middle East. At the end of the molting season, many falconers routinely administer Corneal lacerations and keratitis are probably the most ammonium chloride to their falcons. The theory behind common types of injuries seen in raptors. Most of the this practice is belief that ammonium chloride dissolves injuries are caused by trauma. Lacerating wounds to the the fatty layer accumulated in the stomach throughout cornea are often observed in falcons in the Middle East. the long molting season, resulting in a hungrier bird. Falcon trappers use a procedure called “sealing” to tame Other falconers prefer to administer this substance only newly caught free-living falcons. The procedure consists if a falcon failed to make a kill or showed little interest of placing a stitch on the proximal edge of the lower eye- in a chase. lids with a standard stitching needle and a fine cotton thread. The two threads are then secured with a knot on This toxic agent is usually administered to falcons in the the top of the head to close shut or “seal” the eyes. form of a large crystal. Three to five minutes after admin- During the process it is very common to produce pene- istration, falcons vomit violently, bringing up large quanti- trating wounds and lacerations to the cornea while stitch- ties of thick white to green-yellow mucus. However, often ing. Mild to severe injuries to the cornea usually benefit the large crystal breaks down into smaller fragments from temporary tarsorrhaphy and the use of antibiotic eye within the crop, resulting in only partial vomition of the drops.58 Corneal injuries also can result when one of the crystal originally swallowed, an event that usually goes laces used to close and open the hood is inadvertently left unnoticed by the falconer. Acute ammonium chloride tox- inside and in direct contact with the eye. The use of fluo- icity can cause death within 10 to 15 minutes after admin- rescein stain in the assessment of the integrity of the istration. Rapid loss of appetite, progressive weight loss cornea is recommended, as eye drops or ointments con- and the passing of characteristic dark metallic green taining corticosteroids should not be used in the presence mutes characterize chronic toxicosis. Terminal signs of corneal lacerations since these might delay healing. include incoordination, inability to stand, seizures and 40_Raptorsnew.qxd 8/24/2005 12:05 PM Page 945

Chapter 40 | MANAGEMENT OF RAPTORS 945

Fig 40.77 | Lead toxicosis in a peregrine falcon. Common clin- Fig 40.78 | A large lead pellet found in the gizzard of a saker ical signs of lead toxicosis include ataxia, hock sitting, hyperes- falcon. The bird was presented in a state of collapse and dis- thesia and convulsions. Falcons in the Middle East are com- playing severe convulsions. The pellet was retrieved using a flex- monly affected by ingesting lead pellets or lead fragments found ible endoscope. in the carcasses of shot prey offered by falconers.

opisthotonos, followed by death. The severity of clinical Pesticide toxicosis is a general term used to encompass signs depends on the total amount of ammonium chlo- groups of chemicals used to eradicate unwanted and ride ingested.94 Mild toxicosis cases respond well to fluid destructive animals and plants. These different chemicals therapy and force-feeding for 3 to 5 days. can be classified under three main groups: herbicides, insecticides and rodenticides. In captivity, most cases of Falconers in North America and Europe have used toxicosis are due to negligence or accident. Often the “rangle” since medieval times to produce the same effect instructions provided by the manufacturer are not ade- as that obtained using ammonium chloride by falconers quately followed or are ignored, and products are placed in the Middle East. “Rangle” are small stones commonly in direct or indirect contact with the birds or their food, found along river banks. Field biologists have observed water or living quarters. In the Middle East, the author many species of falcons and other birds of prey, in many has observed several cases of toxicosis in which falconers different parts of the world, ingesting these stones as have sprayed falcons with products commonly used part of their normal behavior. The stones are commonly against mosquitoes, flies and cockroaches. In a recent cast out the following day. This phenomenon also has case a saker falcon was presented with hyperesthesia, been observed in captivity, and the provision of such ataxia, paresis of wings and legs and anorexia. The bird in stones within aviaries should be promoted. question was sprayed with a productjj containing pral- lethrin 0.055%, tetramethrin 0.216% and d-phenothrin Clinical lead toxicosis in raptors is characterized by 0.095%. The bird survived and made a successful recovery ataxia, paresis or paralysis of the wings and legs, amau- with supportive therapy including the administration of rosis and convulsions (Figs 40.77, 40.78). In addition, 20 ml/kg lactated Ringer’s SC SID for 5 days, vitamin B1 the author has consistently observed the presence of IM SID for 5 days, vitamin B complex IM and force-feed- hyperesthesia in falcons affected by clinical lead toxico- ing via a stomach tube with a mixture of whole ground sis. Diagnosis of lead toxicosis is carried out by detecting quail, chicken liver and a carbohydrate/electrolyte solu- the presence of lead pellets or lead fragments within the tion (see Table 40.15). gastrointestinal tract through radiography and/or the measurement of lead levels in whole blood. The use of a Pesticides have produced a significant negative impact novel diagnostic systemhh was recently published.87 Lead on free-living raptor populations in different parts of the pellets are normally removed either by gastric lavage or world. In some areas, whole populations of raptors have via endoscopy-assisted retrieval with rigid or flexible been decimated due to the indiscriminate use of pesti- endoscopes and long grasping forceps. Lead fragments cides via direct toxicosis, the production of thin-shelled are normally removed through gastric lavage only (Figs eggs or breeding disorders. Most incidents are related to 40.79-40.81). In falcons, the treatment recommended by the use of pesticides to control unwanted insects such as the author is disodium calcium edetateii at the dose rate grasshoppers, or rodents such as voles and rats, or birds of 50 mg/kg administered undiluted BID IM. Retesting is such as the red-billed quelea (Quelea quelea). In gen- carried out every 5 days until the lead level is lower than eral, raptors are the species most commonly affected in 20 µg/dl. Falcons have been treated for up to 23 days most geographical areas of the world by the widespread without observing any deleterious effect.87 use of pesticides, as they occupy a prominent place at 40_Raptorsnew.qxd 8/24/2005 12:05 PM Page 946

946 Clinical Avian Medicine - Volume II

Fig 40.79 | A radiograph showing lead dust and lead frag- Fig 40.80 | The recommended way to remove lead dust and ments in the gizzard of a saker falcon. Often, lead pellets strike lead fragments is by repeatedly flushing the gizzard. It is impor- a bone, producing small lead fragments. Shot prey always con- tant to place an endotracheal tube in order to avoid inhalation tains this potential health hazard and should not be offered to pneumonia during the process. raptors.

Fig 40.81 | Small blunt-end tubes commonly used to feed Fig 40.82 | A large lipoma near the neonate lambs are useful for flushing the ventriculus of small to shoulder joint of a saker falcon. This type medium-sized raptors. Note the large syringe (60 ml) attached to of neoplasia is rare in raptors. The growth the tube. Warm water (32-35º C) is commonly used as the flush- was successfully removed using standard ing solution. A total volume of 180 to 240 ml is often necessary surgical procedures. to dislodge all lead particles.

the pinnacle of the food chain9 (see Chapter 31, UROPYGIAL GLAND IMPACTION Implications of Toxic Substances in Clinical Disorders). The uropygial gland, also known as preen or oil gland, is a bilobed gland located near the base of the tail. The NEOPLASIAS gland secretes a lipoid sebaceous liquid, thick and trans- parent in appearance and with a characteristic light A recent publication lists that 122 neoplasms of 39 types musky smell. The oil is spread on the plumage by the recorded from 120 birds were identified in 44 species of birds during preening to provide waterproofing. The raptors.20 The most common types found in the survey secretion is carried by a number of ducts to an external include fibrosarcomas (17 cases), adenocarcinomas (16 papilla covered by a tuft of down feathers forming what cases), squamous cell carcinomas (13 cases) and papillo- is commonly known as the wick. One of the most com- mas (6 cases). A thyroid adenocarcinoma in a bald eagle mon disorders affecting the uropygial gland is impac- 6 (Haliaeetus leucocephalus) and a thyroid cystadenocarci- tion. This is usually characterized by moderate to severe noma in a saker falcon90 have recently been described. bilateral enlargement of the gland and a dry wick. Often These findings suggest that the incidence of neoplasms in the ducts of the wick are obstructed with hardened captive raptors is not as rare as previously believed (Fig secretion forming a plug (Fig 40.83). The application of 40.82). More research is needed to determine the inci- hot water compresses over the area and a gentle milking dence of neoplasms in free-living raptors (see Chapter 20, massage usually resolves the obstruction. More severe Overview of Tumors). cases might require surgical intervention. In these cases, 40_Raptorsnew.qxd 8/24/2005 12:05 PM Page 947

Chapter 40 | MANAGEMENT OF RAPTORS 947

two small incisions are made parallel to the wick, the contents are expressed and the area is irrigated with an antibiotic solution. Usually no suturing is required.

Molting Disorders Molting is a natural process involving the periodic shed- ding and replacement of feathers within an annual cycle. In Falconiformes, the molt usually begins with the loss of primary feather No 4 progressing sequentially inward and outward from this point. Accipiters, harriers, Harris hawks, New World vultures and kites, however, follow a descending pattern similar to that of Passeriformes, in which the shortest innermost primary is shed first, pro- Fig 40.83 | Falconers in the Middle East often use needles in ceeding sequentially toward the longer outermost an attempt to open obstructed ducting of the uropygial gland. feather. Large vultures and eagles tend to have a more Poor asepsis and inadequate procedure often leads to infection erratic molting pattern, in which feathers from different and necrosis. locations are shed without following a particular order.29

Raptors in captivity often suffer from molting disorders including delayed molt, sudden shedding of a large num- ber of feathers from one particular area, twisted feathers, stress or fret bars, “pin” feather and “pinched” feathers (Fig 40.84). Molting disorders might be the result of ecto- and endoparasitism, trauma, follicular infection or use of certain pharmacological agents during molting, but are most frequently the result of nutritional deficiencies.52 The need to provide a suitable environment, an appropriately diverse diet and adequate vitamin/mineral supplementa- tion during the molting period cannot be overstated. (Ed. Note: If the proper diet is fed, supplementation can lead to toxicities).

Molting can be induced by confining raptors to secluded environmental chambers and gradually modifying the photoperiod, temperature and humidity. The molting process also can be induced and accelerated with 1 mg/kg Fig 40.84 | A saker falcon without the main flight feathers. The falcon was administered one of the numerous commercial levothyroxine sodium (thyroxine) SID PO until molt is ini- products widely available in the Middle East to induce molting. 5 tiated. Other authors have suggested doses of 25 µg SID The powder is believed to be desiccated thyroid gland. PO for 1 week, followed by 50 µg SID for 1 week, then 75 µg SID for 1 week, then 50 µg SID for 1 week and finally 25 µg SID for 1 week for a red-tailed hawk (Buteo jamai- cencis) weighing 1.4 kg.52 It has long been recognized in the ancient Arab literature that feeding sheep thyroid gland can induce molting in raptors. Caution has been expressed about how to satisfy the voracious appetite of raptors for the first few days after they have consumed approximately 25 g of beef thyroid gland. The use of thy- roxine to induce and accelerate molting in raptors is pre- scribed only in selected cases of delayed molt (Fig 40.85). This therapy should be accompanied by an adequate and balanced diet and suitable housing conditions throughout the entire molting period. Fig 40.85 | Feathers molted prematurely during growth and development. The presence of such feathers, commonly called “pinched feathers,” is the result of follicular infection, nutritional deficiencies or high stress during the molting period. 40_Raptorsnew.qxd 8/24/2005 12:05 PM Page 948

948 Clinical Avian Medicine - Volume II Physiological Reference Values

Table 40.20 | Hematological Reference Values of Selected Species of Raptors2 Assay Red–tailed Great Bald eagle Peregrine Gyrfalcon hawk horned owl (Haliaeetus falcon (Falco (Buteo (Bubo leucocephalus) (Falco rusticolus) jamaicensis) virginianus) peregrinus) n=10 n=10 n=8 n=14 n=12 PCV (%) 44.6 (2.6)† 43.3 (2.9) 44 (4) 44 (4) 49 (2) TP (g/dl) 4.3 (0.5) 5.1 (0.6) 4.0 (1) 2.65 (1.18) 2.94 (0.38) WBC (x103/µl) 6-8 6-8 12.8 (4.8) 8.7 (2.2) 4.6 (1.7) Heterophils (%) 35 (11.1) 47 (10.7) 75 (13) 65 (12) 51 (5) Lymphocytes (%) 44 (8.9) 27 (7.0) 18 (10) 35 (13) 47 (5) Monocytes (%) 6 (3.2) 9 (3.6) 3 (3) 0 (0) 1 (1) Basophils (%) 2 (1.3) Rare Rare 0 (0) Rare Eosinophils (%) 13 (3.8) 1 (1.2) 4 (3) 0 (1) 1 (1) †Standard deviation in parentheses.

Table 40.21 | Hematological Reference Values of Selected Species of Raptors7,34 Assay Lanner Lagger Saker Peregrine Merlin falcon falcon falcon falcon (Falco (Falco (Falco (Falco (Falco columbarius) biarmicus) jugger) cherrug) peregrinus) n=42 n=13 n=50 n=70 n=33 Hb (g/L) 122-171 128-163 115-165 118-188 132-179 RBC (x1012/L) 2.63-3.98 2.65-3.63 2.54-3.96 2.95-3.94 2.85-4.1 PCV (L/L) 0.37-0.53 0.39-0.51 0.38-0.49 0.37-0.53 0.39-0.51 MCV (fl) 127-150 123-145 124-147 118-146 105-130 MCH (pg) 42.3-48.8 38.0-47.7 41.4-45.4 40.0-48.4 36.0-45.9 MCHC (g/L) 317-353 312-350 304-349 319-352 340-360 WBC (x109/L) 3.5-11.0 5-9 3.8-11.5 3.3-11.0 4.0-9.5 Heterophils (x109/L) 1.65-8.8 3.5-6.57 2.6-5.85 1.4-8.55 3.2-4.03 Lymphocytes (x109/L) 1.1-5.13 1.7-4.0 0.8-4.25 1.1-3.3 1.2-1.56 Monocytes (x109/L) 0.0-0.9 0.0-0.85 0.0-0.8 0.1-0.86 0.0-0.5 Eosinophils (x109/L) 0.0-0.2 0.0-0.2 0.0-0.2 0.0-0.3 0.0-0.15 Basophils (x109/L) 0-0.45 0.17-0.83 0.0-0.45 0.0-0.6 0.0-0.15 Thrombocytes (x109/L) 5-40 12-35 12-25 6-46 — Fibrinogen (g/L) <4 <4 <3.5 <4.2 <4

Table 40.22 | Hematological Reference Values of Selected Species of Raptors Assay Saker falcon84 Peregrine falcon13 (Falco cherrug) (Falco peregrinus) n=25 n=48 Hb (g/dl) 15.93±0.38 (13.3-21.2) 14.82±1.32 (11.6-19.1) RBC (x1012/L) 2.65±0.08 (2.05-3.90) 3.49±0.21 (2.76-4.05) PCV (L/L) 0.47±0.59 (0.42-0.53) 0.40±0.38 (0.26-0.58) MCV (fl) 183.16±3.84 (135.8-219.5) 117.51±7.70 (100.8-176.0) MCH (pg) 60.74±1.42 (50.62-78.94) — MCHC (g/dl) 33.28±0.63 (28.33-40.0) — WBC (x109/L) 5.7± 0.31 (2.8-8.4) 12.56±3.06 (7.6-21.2) Heterophils (x109/L) 4.14±0.24 (2.18-5.96) 4.52±1.2 (1.38-7.53) Lymphocytes (x109/L) 1.33±0.09 (0.52-2.29) 5.52±1.36 (1.75-7.53) Monocytes (x109/L) 0.21±0.03 (0.04-0.64) 0.25±0.03 (0.12-0.62) Eosinophils (x109/L) 0 2.3±0.9 (1.0-4.77) Basophils (x109/L) 0.08±0.01 (0-0.32) — Thrombocytes (x109/L) 0.41±0.03 (0.17-0.76) 2.97±1.2 (1.25-7.15) Fibrinogen (g/L) 2.82±0.14 (1.78-4.7) — Saker falcon: Results expressed as mean ± standard error of mean (minimum and maximum in parentheses). Peregrine falcon: Results expressed as mean ± standard deviation (minimum and maximum in parentheses). 40_Raptorsnew.qxd 8/24/2005 12:05 PM Page 949

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Table 40.23 | Hematological Reference Values of Selected Species of Raptors27 Assay Turkey Egyptian Buzzard Golden Caracara Secretary vulture vulture (Buteo buteo) eagle (Polyborus bird (Cathartes (Neophron (Aquila plancus) (Sagittarius aura) percnopterus) chrysaetos) serpentarius) n=10 n=4 n=6 n=4 n=9 n=4 Hb (g/dl) 16.3 14.8 12.9 13.8 16.2 16.7 (15.7-17.3) (13.3-16.5) (11.6-14.6) (12.1-15.2) (13.1-20.6) (15.2-18.6) RBC (x1012/L) 2.7 2.3 2.4 2.4 2.8 2.18 (2.4-2.9) (1.9-2.6) (2.2-2.7) (1.9-2.7) (2.5-3.3) (2.0-2.3) PCV (L/L) 0.54 0.43 0.38 0.41 0.46 0.46 (0.51-0.58) (0.5-0.46) (0.34-0.42) (0.35-0.47) (0.38-0.59) (0.42-0.50) MCV (fl) 204 190 159 174 165 208 (194-224) (183-206) (151-171) (160-184) (149-173) (201-216) MCH (pg) 61.7 67.7 53.8 58.9 57.8 76.7 (58.6-65.0) (65.2-72.9) (48.8-57.5) (56.3-62.7) (51.6-62.4) (73.4-80.8) MCHC (g/dl) 30.2 35.2 33.9 34 35.2 36.9 (28.6-32.0) (35.0-35.5) (31.4-36.0) (32.3-35.9) (34-36) (35.3-5.6) WBC (x109/L) 20.1 7.6 9.1 13.1 6.8 8.1 (10.5-31.9) (4.7-10.6) (4.6-13.9) (11.7-14.7) (3.3-11.6) (6.8-10.0) Heterophils (x109/L) 11.8 4 5.5 10.4 4.2 5.3 (6.7-19.8) (1.2-5.5) (2.3-8.8) (9.5-12.7) (0.6-5.9) (3-9) Lymphocytes (x109/L) 3.3 2.5 1.7 2.2 2.4 2.4 (0.8-5.6) (1.5-3.4) (1.1-2.4) (1.6-3.2) (0.9-5.6) (0.8-4.2) Monocytes (x109/L) (0.0-0.4) (0.0-0.4) 0 0 (0.0-0.6) (0.0-0.4) Eosinophils (x109/L) (1.5-7.5) (0.3-1.4) (0.1-3.1) (0.2-0.6) (0.0-0.3) (0.0-0.2) Basophils (x109/L) (0.0-2.3) 0 (0.0-0.6) (0.0-0.2) (0.0-0.3) (0.0-0.4) Thrombocytes (x109/L) 14 13 27 14 27 9 (7-22) (6-15) (18-36) (4-21) (18-35) (7-10) Fibrinogen (g/L) 1.6 2.3 2.9 2.4 2.7 — (1.0-1.9) (1.3-3.3) (2.0-4.1) (1.2-3.8) (2.0-3.3)

Table 40.24 | Hematological Reference Values of Selected Species of Raptors27 Assay Barn owl European African Spectacled Tawny owl Boobook owl (Tyto alba) eagle owl eagle owl owl (Strix aluco) (Ninox (Bubo bubo) (Bubo (Pulsatrix boobook) africanus) perspicillata) n=10 n=14 n=6 n=4 n=14 n=5 Hb (g/dl) 14.2±1.5 14.2±1.5 15.8 14.2 14.6±1.1 15.1 (12.7-16.4) (11.7-16.8) (13.9-19.9) (12.4-16.3) (12.9-16.4) (14.4-15.9) RBC (x1012/L) 2.7±0.3 1.9±0.2 2.4 1.6 2.5±0.2 2.5 (2.2-3.0) (1.4-2.3) (2.1-2.8) (1.4-1.8) (2.0-2.9) (2.4-2.9) PCV (L/L) 0.46±0.03 0.39±0.04 0.45 0.42 0.40±0.03 0.42 (0.42-0.51) (0.31-0.45) (0.41-0.53) (0.5-0.45) (0.36-0.47) (0.40-0.45) MCV (fl) 176±22 207±17 189 261 158±9 172 (145-216) (178-239) (171-214) (245-267) (147-177) (165-175) MCH (pg) 51.1±5.7 75.1±8.1 66.4 87.8 56.8±4.8 61.5 (44.9-60.7) (67.1-87.1) (58.9-76.2) (86.1-89.1) (49.8-66.6) (60.8-61.6) MCHC (g/dl) 31.8±2.2 36.3±2.0 35.1 33.7 36.3±0.09 36 (28.9-34.9) (33.8-38.4) (33.9-36.6) (32.3-36.2) (34.9-38.0) (34.8-5.3) WBC (x109/L) 16.6±4.2 10.8±4.0 6.2 9.6 6.7±3.3 6.4 (11.5-22.3) (5.3-18.6) (4.7-8.0) (6.9-11.1) (2.4-11.8) (3.7-11.2) Heterophils (x109/L) 8.9±3.0 6.9±3.2 3 4.9 3.4±2.0 4.6 (5.2-12.5) (2.6-11.8) (1.3-5.2) (2.8-7.6) (1.1-7.2) (2.3-9.1) Lymphocytes (x109/L) 5.0±1.7 3.8±1.9 2.3 4.3 3.3±1.4 1.4 (2.5-7.5) (1.9-6.7) (1.9-3.2) (2.7-7.3) (0.9-5.1) (0.9-1.7) Monocytes (x109/L) (0.0-1.0) 0 0 0 (0.0-0.3) (0.0-0.5) Eosinophils (x109/L) (0.0-2.5) (0.0-1.6) (0.0-1.0) (0.0-0.6) (0.0-1.9) (0.0-0.5) Basophils (x109/L) (0.0-0.9) (0.0-0.6) (0.0-0.6) (0.0-0.4) (0.0-0.9) (0.0-0.2) Thrombocytes (x109/L) 33±15 15±3 22 18 17±5 — (14-58) (9-17) (14-29) (10-24) Fibrinogen (g/L) 2.7±0.5 3.3±0.9 5.2 7 3.6±0.7 2.8 (1.9-3.3) (1.4-5.0) (3.6-7.7) (6.4-8.8) (2.6-5.3) (1.6-3.8) 40_Raptorsnew.qxd 8/24/2005 12:05 PM Page 950

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Table 40.25 | Blood Chemistry Reference Values of Selected Species of Raptors73 Assay Gyrfalcon Great Red Peregrine Bald (Falco horned owl shouldered falcon eagle rusticolus) (Bubo hawk (Falco (Haliaeetus virginianus) (Buteo peregrinus) leucocephalus) lineatus) RBC (x1012/L) 3.21 1.7 2.4 3.96 2.46 HCT (%) 50.5 32.0 40.9 60.0 37.9 Hb (g/dl) 18.6 12.2 15.0 23.5 14.6 MCV (fl) 157.0 188.0 171.0 152.0 154.0 MCH (pg) 58.1 71.5 62.6 59.2 59.2 MCHC (g/dl) 36.9 38.0 36.7 39.1 38.4 Automated Hemogram-typical Erythrocytic Data

Table 40.26 | Blood Chemistry Reference Values of Selected Species of Raptors73

35 Lanner Gyrfalcon1 Peregrine Saker Merlin Assay 35 1,35 35,83 falcon (Falco falcon falcon (Falco (Falco rusticolus) (Falco (Falco columbarius) biarmicus) peregrinus) cherrug) n=26 n=12 n=55, 14 n=38 n=39 Total protein (g/L) 33-42 28.9 25-40 27-36 27.5-39 Albumin (g/L) 9.6-16 7.3 8.3-12.5 9-12.3 8.6-16.1 Globulin (g/L) 21.2-28.8 — 16-28 18-28 17.2-25 A:G ratio 0.44-0.57 — 0.4-0.55 0.45-0.57 0.47-0.58 Urea (mmol/L) 1.3-2.7 — 0.9-2.8 0.5-2.6 — Creatinine (µmol/L) 5-75 — 41-91 23-75 16-50 Uric acid (µmol/L) 318-709 828.56 326-675 320-785 174-800 Bile acids (µmol/L) — — 20-118 20-90 — ALT (SGPT) (u/L) — — 15-51 36-55 — ALP (u/L) 180-510 257 97-350 285-450 54-310 GGT (u/L) — — 0-7 0.8-5.9 — AST (SGOT) (u/L) 30-118 97 50-105 45-95 50-125 CK (u/L) 350-650 402 357-850 355-651 521-807 LDH (u/L) 434-897 — 625-1210 551-765 320-630 Glucose (mmol/L) 11-15 17.65 11-16 12-14 9-12 Cholesterol (mmol/L) 3-8.8 — 3.9-10.5 4.5-8.6 3-7.8 Inorg phosphate (mmol/L) 0.68-2 — 0.77-2.1 0.72-2.16 0.95-1.79 Calcium (mmol/L) 2.07-2.45 2.4 2.1-2.56 2.15-2.61 2-2.45 Sodium (mmol/L) 152-164 160 153-164 154-161 155-170 Potassium (mmol/L) 1.0-2.1 1.99 0.9-1.7 0.8-2.3 1.0-1.8 Chloride (mmol/L) — 125 117-127 114-125 — Amylase (u/L) — — — — — Bilirubin (µmol/L) — — 78.15 8.55-27.53 — Blood urea nitrogen (mmol/L) — 3.33 2.32 — — Phosphorus (mg/dl) — 3.57 3.35 — — Triglycerides (mmol/L) — — — 0.79-1.25 — 40_Raptorsnew.qxd 8/24/2005 12:05 PM Page 951

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Table 40.27 | Blood Chemistry Reference Values of Selected Species of Raptors27 Blood Chemistry Assay Red-tailed hawk1,33,41 Harris’ hawk33,35 Northern goshawk35 Golden eagle33 (Buteo jamaicensis) (Parabuteo unicinctus) (Accipiter gentilis) (Aquila chrysaetos) n=10 n=17 n=24 n=7 Total protein (g/L) 33-45 31-45.7 26.3-42.0 25-39 Albumin (g/L) 9-12 13.9-17 8.8-12.4 10-14 Globulin (g/L) — 21-29.4 18.0-29.2 — A:G ratio — 0.46-0.55 0.4-0.57 — Urea (mmol/L) — 0.7-1.9 — — Creatinine (µmol/L) 44.2-106.08 20-59 41-94 53.04-106.08 Uric acid (µmol/L) 446.1-1058.74 mmol/L 535-785 511-854 261.71-713.76 mmol/L Bile acids (µmol/L) — — — — ALT (SGPT) (u/L) 31 — — — ALP (u/L) 45-90 20-96 15.6-87.5 15-36 GGT (u/L) — 2.0-6.9 3.0-7.6 — AST (SGOT) (u/L) 113-180 160-348 176-409 95-210 CK (u/L) 1124 224-650 218-775 — LDH (u/L) 470-775 160-563 120-906 320-690 Glucose (mmol/L) 17.32-22.87 12.2-15.7 11.5-15.9 13.88-22.65 Cholesterol (mmol/L) 2.59-3.88 6.6-13.1 4.0-11.5 2.59-4.91 Inorg phosphate (mmol/L) — 0.8-2.14 0.8-1.97 — Calcium (mmol/L) 2.1-2.5 2.1-2.66 2.15-2.69 1.85-2.38 Sodium (mmol/L) 157 155-171 — — Potassium (mmol/L) 2.6-4.3 0.8-2.3 — — Chloride (mmol/L) 125 113-119 — — Amylase (u/L) — — — — Bilirubin (µmol/L) 8.55-10.26 8.55-20.52 — 5.13-8.55 Blood urea nitrogen (BUN) (mmol/L) 3.33 — — — Phosphorus (mg/dl) 1.8-4.1 3.0-4.4 — 1.9-3.6 Triglycerides (mmol/L) — — — —

Table 40.28 | Blood Chemistry Reference Values of Selected Species of Raptors

Blood Chemistry Assay Bald eagle1,33 Tawny eagle35 Northern eagle owl35 Great-horned owl1 (Haliaeetus leucocephalus) (Aquila rapax) (Bubo bubo) (Bubo virginianus) n=8 n=13 n=20 n=10 Total protein (g/L) 30-41 29-41.4 30.1-34.5 43.3 Albumin (g/L) 8-16 11.5-18.0 11.1-13.5 12.7 Globulin (g/L) — 25.3-28.4 18.7-22.4 — A:G ratio — 0.44-0.55 — — Urea (mmol/L) — 0.8-2.7 0.9-2.9 — Creatinine (µmol/L) 35.36-88.4 31-59 31-49 — Uric acid (µmol/L) 327.14-880.30 mmol/L 413-576 475-832 814.88 mmol/L Bile acids (µmol/L) — — — — ALT (SGPT) (u/L) 25 — — 39 ALP (u/L) 23-30 17.1-69.7 — 31 GGT (u/L) — 1.0-2.7 — — AST (SGOT) (u/L) 153-370 124-226 — 287 CK (u/L) 383 — — 977 LDH (u/L) 250-580 211-369 — — Glucose (mmol/L) 15.82-22.20 10.2-14.5 13.5-21.7 19.76 Cholesterol (mmol/L) 3.88-6.26 7.9-10.7 3.9-7.1 — Inorg phosphate (mmol/L) — 1.2-1.78 1.15-1.94 — Calcium (mmol/L) 2.05-2.65 2.21-2.66 2.16-2.61 2.55 Sodium (mmol/L) 156 153-157 — 156 Potassium (mmol/L) 3 1.5-3.1 — 2.8 Chloride (mmol/L) 120 114-123 — 122 Amylase (u/L) 1158 — — — Bilirubin (µmol/L) 3.42-8.55 — — 1.2 Blood urea nitrogen (BUN) (mmol/L) 2.21 — — 3.57 Phosphorus (mg/dl) 3.03 — — 4.34 Triglycerides (mmol/L) 2.4-3.2 — — — 40_Raptorsnew.qxd 8/24/2005 12:05 PM Page 952

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Table 40.29 | Body Weight of Selected Species of Raptors Name Scientific Name Male (g) Female (g) General (g) Turkey vulture Cathartes aura — — 850-2000 American black vulture Coragyps atratus — — 1100-1900 King vulture Sarcoramphus papa — — 3000-3750 California condor Gymnogyps californianus — — 8000-14000 Andean condor Vultur gryphus 11000-15000 8000-11000 — Osprey Pandion haliaetus 1200-1600 1600-2000 — Long-tailed buzzard Henicopernis longicauda 447-630 570-730 — American swallow-tailed kite Elanoides forficatus — — 375 Mississippi kite Ictinia mississippiensis — — 220-390 Plumbeous kite Ictinia plumbea 190-267 232-280 — Red kite Milvus milvus — — 757-1221 Black kite Milvus migrans — — 567-941 Brahminy kite Haliastur indus — — 320-673 White-bellied sea-eagle Haliaeetus leucogaster 2120-2900 2900-3400 — African fish-eagle Haliaeetus vocifer 1986-2497 3170-3630 — Pallas’s fish-eagle Haliaeetus leucoryphus — — 2040-3700 White-tailed sea-eagle Haliaeetus albicilla 4100 5500 — Bald eagle Haliaeetus leucocephalus — — 3000-6300 Steller’s sea-eagle Haliaeetus pelagicus — — 4900-9000 Palm-nut vulture Gypohierax angolensis — — 1361-1712 Bearded vulture Gypaetus barbatus — — 4500-7100 Egyptian vulture Neophron percnopterus — — 1600-2200 Hooded vulture Necrosyrtes monachus — — 1530-2600 African white-backed vulture Gyps africanus — — 4150-7200 Indian white-backed vulture Gyps bengalensis — — 3500-6000 Long-billed vulture Gyps indicus — — 5500-6300 Rüppell’s griffon Gyps rueppellii — — 6800-9000 Rufous-breasted sparrow hawk Accipiter rufiventris — — 180-210 Sharp-shinned hawk Accipiter striatus 82-125 144-208 — Cooper’s hawk Accipiter cooperii 235-300 413-598 — Black sparrow hawk Accipiter melanoleucus 430-490 650-980 — Northern goshawk Accipiter gentilis 517-1170 820-1509 — Red goshawk Erythrotriorchis radiatus 630-640 1110-1370 — Common black hawk Buteogallus anthracinus 793 1199 — Swainson’s hawk Buteo swainsoni 683-936 937-1367 — White-tailed hawk Buteo albicaudatus — — 850-884 Red-tailed hawk Buteo jamaicensis 690-1300 900-1460 — Eurasian buzzard Buteo buteo 525-1183 625-1364 — Long-legged buzzard Buteo rufinus 590-1281 945-1760 — Ferruginous hawk Buteo regalis 1050 1230 980-2030 Rough-legged buzzard Buteo lagopus 600-1377 783-1660 — Harpy eagle Harpia harpyja 4000-4800 7600-9000 — Great Philippine eagle Pithecophaga jefferyi — — 4700-8000 Lesser spotted eagle Aquila pomarina — — 1100-2000 Greater spotted eagle Aquila clanga — — 1500-2500 Tawny eagle Aquila rapax — — 1696-3100 Steppe eagle Aquila nipalensis — — 2400-3900 Spanish imperial eagle Aquila adalberti — — 2500-3500 Eastern imperial eagle Aquila heliaca — — 2450-4530 Wahlberg’s eagle Aquila wahlbergi — — 437-1400 Golden eagle Aquila chrysaetos 2840-4550 3630-6665 — Wedge-tailed eagle Aquila audax 2025-4000 3180-5300 — Verreaux’s eagle Aquila verreauxii 3000-4150 3100-5800 — Bonelli’s eagle Hieraaetus fasciatus — — 1600-2400 African hawk-eagle Hieraaetus spilogaster 1150-1300 1444-1750 — Booted eagle Hieraaetus pennatus 709 975 — Little eagle Hieraaetus morphnoides 530-810 745-1250 — Martial eagle Polemaetus bellicosus — — 3012-6200 40_Raptorsnew.qxd 8/24/2005 12:05 PM Page 953

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Table 40.30 | Body Weight of Selected Species of Raptors (continued) Name Scientific Name Male (g) Female (g) General (g) Long-crested eagle Lophaetus occipitalis 912-1363 1367-1523 — Ornate hawk-eagle Spizaetus ornatus 1000 1450 — Secretary bird Sagittarius serpentarius — — 2300-4270 Crested caracara Polyborus plancus 834 953 1150-1600 (Chile & Peru) Laughing falcon Herpetotheres cachinnans 567-686 626-800 — African pygmy-falcon Polihierax semitorquatus — — 54-67 Lesser kestrel Falco naumanni 90-172 138-208 — Common kestrel Falco tinnunculus 136-252 154-314 — Mauritius kestrel Falco punctatus 178 231 — Seychelles kestrel Falco araea 73 87 — American kestrel Falco sparverius 80-143 84-165 — Red-necked falcon Falco chicquera 139-178 190-305 — Red-footed falcon Falco vespertinus — — 130-197 Amur falcon Falco amurensis 97-155 111-188 — Eleonora’s falcon Falco eleonorae 350 388 — Aplomado falcon Falco femoralis — — 261 Merlin Falco columbarius 150-210 189-255 — Eurasian hobby Falco subbuteo 131-232 141-340 — African hobby Falco cuvierii 125-178 186-224 — New Zealand falcon Falco novaeseelandiae 252-500 420-594 — Black falcon Falco subniger 510-710 610-1000 — Lanner falcon Falco biarmicus 500-600 700-900 — Lagger falcon Falco jugger — — 525-850 Saker falcon Falco cherrug 730-990 970-1300 — Gyrfalcon Falco rusticolus 961-1321 1262-2100 — Prairie falcon Falco mexicanus 500-650 700-975 — Peregrine falcon Falco peregrinus — — 550-1500 Taita falcon Falco fasciinucha 212 306 — Greater sooty-owl Tyto tenebricosa 500-700 875-1150 — Lesser sooty-owl Tyto multipunctata 430-450 540 — Common barn owl Tyto alba 555 (Malaysia) 612 (Malaysia) 187-455 (Europe, N. Africa), 227-418 (Australia) 220-475 (Australia) 266-470 (S. Africa), 400-700 (N. America), 387-558 (Surinam), 264 (Galapagos Is.) White-fronted scops-owl Otus sagittatus — — 120 Reddish scops-owl Otus rufescens — — 77 Sandy scops-owl Otus icterorhynchus 69-80 61-80 — African scops-owl Otus senegalensis — — 45-123 Eurasian scops-owl Otus scops — — 60-135 Western screech-owl Otus kennicottii 131-210 157-250 — Eastern screech-owl Otus asio 166 194 — Vermiculated screech-owl Otus vermiculatus — — 100-110 Great horned owl Bubo virginianus 680-1450 1000-2500 — Eurasian eagle-owl Bubo bubo 1500-2800 1750-4200 — Spotted eagle-owl Bubo africanus 490-620 640-850 — Brown fish-owl Ketupa zeylonensis — — 1105 Snowy owl Nyctea scandiaca 700-2500 780-2950 — Vermiculated fishing-owl Scotopelia bouvieri 975 975 — Spotted wood-owl Strix seloputo 1011 — — Brown wood-owl Strix leptogrammica — — 500-700 Tawny owl Strix aluco 440 553 — Hume’s owl Strix butleri — — 214-220 Spotted owl Strix occidentalis 520-700 550-760 — Barred owl Strix varia 630 800 — Rusty-barred owl Strix hylophila 285-340 345-395 — Chaco owl Strix chacoensis 360-435 420-500 — 40_Raptorsnew.qxd 8/24/2005 12:05 PM Page 954

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Table 40.31 | Body Weight of Selected Species of Raptors (continued) Name Scientific Name Male (g) Female (g) General (g) Ural owl Strix uralensis 500-950 570-1300 — Great grey owl Strix nebulosa 800-1175 925-1700 — African wood-owl Strix woodfordii 240-270 285-350 — Spectacled owl Pulsatrix perspicillata — — 590-980 1050-1250 (Pulsatrix) Northern hawk-owl Surnia ulula 270-314 320-345 — Eurasian pygmy-owl Glaucidium passerinum 50-65 67-77 — Collared owlet Glaucidium brodiei 53 63 — Pearl-spotted owlet Glaucidium perlatum 36-86 61-147 — Northern pygmy-owl Glaucidium californicum 62 73 — Amazonian pygmy-owl Glaucidium hardyi — — 55-65 Red-chested owlet Glaucidium tephronotum 80-95 75-103 — Elf owl Micrathene whitneyi — — 41 Little owl Athene noctua 162-177 166-206 — Spotted owlet Athene brama — — 115 Burrowing owl Athene cunicularia 130-185 120-250 — Boreal owl Aegolius funereus 90-115 120-195 — Rufous owl Ninox rufa 1200 980 — Southern boobook Ninox boobook 250 315 — Morepork Ninox novaeseelandiae 156 170 — Short-eared owl Asio flammeus 200-450 280-500 — Marsh owl Asio capensis — — 225-375 Note: See literature on body weights presented above10,11 and on body weight of the vermiculated fishing owl (Scotopelia bouvieri).75

Acknowledgments m. Spark, Vetafarm, Wagga Wagga, Australia n. F10, Health and Hygiene (Pty), Ltd, Sunninghill, South Africa, The author extends thanks to HRH Prince Fahad bin www.healthandhygine.co.za/products_select.asp Sultan bin Abdulaziz Al Saud for his support to the o. Falcon Insect Liquidator, Vetafarm, Wagga, Wagga, Australia p. Wormout, Imox, Vetafarm, Wagga Wagga, Australia, advancement of falcon medicine and to Mr. Basil Al www.vetafarm.com.au Abbasi, Director General, for his continuing interest in q. Spartrix, Harkers Ltd, Bury St. Edmunds, Suffolk, UK r. Metronidazole Tablets, Regent-GM Laboratories, Ltd, London, UK the clinical and research program of the Falcon s. Baycox, Bayer Plc, Bury St. Edmunds, Suffolk, UK, www.baycox.com Specialist Hospital and Research Institute; to Shinto K. t. Arlen, Chloroquine phosphate, Primaquine phosphate, Winthrop Pharmaceuticals, New York, New York, USA John for compiling the reference tables; to Generoso u. Sporanox, Itraconazole 10 mg/ml, Janssen-Cilag Ltd, High Wycombe, Quiambao for preparing the photographic material; and Buckinghamshire, UK v. Fungizone, Amphotericin BP 50 mg, ER Suinn & Sons Ltd, Hounslow, UK to Dr. Jesus Naldo for proofreading the manuscript and w. Imaverol, Enilconazole 100mg/ml, Janssen Animal Health, High for providing useful comments. Wycombe, Buckinghamshire, UK x. Daktarin Oral Gel, Janssen-Cilag Ltd, High Wycombe, Buckinghamshire, UK Products Mentioned in the Text y. Marbocyl, Vétoquinol UK Ltd, Bicester, Oxon, UK z. Metacam, Boehringer Ingelheim, Ingelheim/Rhein, Germany a. Vetrap, 3M Health Care, St. Paul, USA b. Tegaderm, 3M Health Care, St. Paul, USA aa. Vitamin B1 Injection, Bimeda UK, Knowsley Industrial Park North, c. Granuflex (DuoDERM), ConvaTec Ltd, Deeside, UK Liverpool, UK d. OpSite, Smith & Nephew Medical Ltd, Hull, UK bb. Benerva, Roche Products Ltd, Welwyn Garden City, UK e. Melolin, Smith & Nephew Medical Ltd, Hull, UK cc. Duphafral Multivitamin 9, Fort Dodge Animal Health Ltd, Southhampton, f. Nu Gauze Sponges, Johnson and Johnson, New Brunswick, USA UK g. Hexcelite, Hexcel Corp, Dublin, CA, USA dd. Multivet, Soluvet, Vetafarm, Wagga Wagga, Australia h. Biotin, Arnolds Veterinary Products Ltd, Shrewsbury, UK ee. Optrex, Crookes Healthcare Ltd, Nottingham, UK i. Steinmann intramedullary pins, positive profile threaded pins, Kirschner ff. Genticin eye drops, Roche Products Ltd. Welwyn Garden City, UK wires, fixator bar and clamps, Veterinary Thermoplastic, Imex Veterinary gg. Betsolan eye and eardrops, Pitman-Moore Ltd, Crewe, Cheshire, UK Inc, Longview TX, USA j. Sam Splint, Moore Medical Corp, New Britain, CT, USA hh. LeadCare Blood Lead Testing System, ESA Inc, Chelmsford, MA, USA k. Technovit, Jorgensen Laboratories Inc, Loveland, CO, USA ii. Sodium Calcium Edetate, Animalcare, Dunnington, UK l. KY Jelly, Johnson & Johnson Medical Ltd, Gargrave, Skipton, UK jj. Pif Paf, Reckitt Benckiser Arabia FZE, Dubai, UAE 40_Raptorsnew.qxd 8/24/2005 12:05 PM Page 955

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67. Remple JD: Falcon herpesvirus London, Harcourt Publishers Ltd, 91. Samour JH, Peirce M: Babesia Education Network Inc, 2000, and immune considerations for 2000, pp 60-72. shortti infection in a saker fal- pp 59-64. the production of a vaccine. In 78. Samour JH: Imping. In Samour con (Falco cherrug altaicus). Vet 101. Valentin A, Haberkorn A, Jakob Samour JH (ed): Proc Specialist Rec 139:167-168, 1996. JH (ed): Avian Medicine. London, W: Massive malaria-infektion mit Workshop. Middle East Falcon Harcourt Publishers Ltd, 2000, pp 92. Samour JH, Silvanose C: Parahaemoproteus sp. in sche- Research Group, Abu Dhabi, 108-111. Parasitological findings in cap- nee-eulen (Nyctea scandiaca) United Arab Emirates, 1995, pp 9- 79. Samour JH: Supraorbital tri- tive falcons in the United Arab und deren behandlung mit pri- 20. chomoniasis infection in two Emirates. In Lumeij JT, et al 68. Remple JD: Considerations on saker falcons (Falco cherrug). Vet (eds): Raptor Biomedicine III. maquin. Verhanlungshericht des the production of a safe and effi- Rec 146:139-140, 2000. Lake Worth, FL, Zoological 36 internationalen symposiums cacious falcon herpesvirus vac- 80. Samour JH: Pseudomonas aerugi- Education Network Inc, 2000, über die erkrankungen der zoo cine. In Lumeij JT, et al (eds): nosa stomatitis as a sequel to tri- pp 117-124. und wiltiere 36:401-404, 1994. Raptor Biomedicine III. Lake chomoniasis in captive saker fal- 93. Samour JH, Bailey TA, Cooper 102. Verwoerd D: Observations of the Worth, FL, Zoological Education cons (Falco cherrug). J Avian Med JE: Trichomoniasis in birds of use of azithromycin in falcons. Network Inc, 2000, pp 13-23. Surg 14(2):113-117, 2000. prey (Falconiformes) in Bahrain. Falco 16:19-20, 2000. 69. Remple JD, Forbes NA: Antibiotic- 81. Samour JH: Making a safe Vet Rec 136:358-362, 1995. 103. Verwoerd D: Aerosol use of a impregnated polymethyl- intranasal flushing device. Exotic 94. Samour JH, Bailey TA, Keymer novel disinfectant as part of an methacrylate beads in the treat- DVM 2(4):16, 2000. IF: The use of ammonium chlo- ment of bumblefoot in raptors. In 82. Samour JH, Cooper JE: Avian pox ride in falconry in the Middle integrated approach to Lumeij JT, et al (eds): Raptor in birds of prey (Order East. Vet Rec 137:269-270, 1995. aspergillosis in falcons in the Biomedicine III. Lake Worth, FL, Falconiformes) in Bahrain. Vet 95. Scope A, Frey H: Diseases and UAE. Falco 17:15-18, 2001. Zoological Education Network Rec 132:343-345, 1993. mortality causes in captive and 104. Wernery U: Viral diseases. In Inc, 2000, pp 255-263. 83. Samour JH, D’Aloia M-A: Normal free-ranging bearded vultures Samour JH (ed): Avian Medicine. 70. Riddle KE, Hoolihan J: Form-fit- blood chemistry of saker falcon (Gypaetus barbatus). In Lumeij London, Harcourt Publishers ting, composite-casting method (Falco cherrug). 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Minnesota, ovirus serotype 1 (Newcastle dis- Inc, 1995, pp 253-311. the Middle East: A review. J Avian 1993, pp 21-27. ease virus) infections in falcons. 72. Rodriguez-Quiroz J: Review of an Med Surg 15(1):2-9, 2001. 97. Smith SA: Parasites of birds of J Vet Med 39:153-158, 1992. intramedullary pin/external skele- 86. Samour JH, Naldo J: Therapeutic prey: Their diagnosis and treat- 107. Wernery U. et al: Newcastle dis- tal fixator tie-in technique for management of pox lesions on ment. Semi Avian Exotic Pet Med repair of bone fractures in birds. the cere of captive falcons. Proc 5(2):97-105, 1996. ease in captive falcons. In Exotic DVM 3(4):14-16, 2001. Assoc Avian Vet, 2001, pp 233- 98. Steele KE, et al: Pathology of Samour JH (ed): Proc Specialist 73. Rosskopf W, Woerpel R (eds): 236. fatal West Nile virus infections in Workshop. Middle East Falcon Diseases of Cage and Aviary Birds 87. Samour JH, Naldo J: Diagnosis native and exotic birds during Research Group, Abu Dhabi, 3rd ed. Maryland, Williams & and therapeutic management of the 1999 outbreak in New York United Arab Emirates, 1995, pp Wilkins, 1996. lead toxicosis in falcons in Saudi City, New York. Vet Pathol 5:208- 24-5. 74. Samour JH: Falcons, falconry and Arabia, J Avian Med Surg 224, 1999. 108. Wernery U, et al: Clostridium veterinary medicine in the Middle 16(1):16-2o, 2002. 99. Swanson JR, Veatch J, Trieb DK: enterotoxemia in Falconiformes East. Proc Avian Vet Assoc, 1996, 88. Samour JH, Naldo JL: Diagnosis CNS symptoms in a tucuman in the United Arab Emirates. In pp 233-239. and therapeutic management of Amazon (Amazona tucumana) Lumeij JT, et al (eds): Raptor 75. Samour JH (ed): Avian Medicine. candidiasis in falcons in Saudi due to amyloidosis in the brain. Biomedicine III. Lake Worth, FL, London, Harcourt Publishers Ltd, Arabia. J Avian Med Surg Proc Assoc Avian Vet, 1994, pp Zoological Education Network 2000. 16(2):129-132, 2002. 275-277. Inc, 2000, pp 35-41. 76. 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