Thresl)oliis 14
Reflections on the Modern Environmental Movement
Panayiota Pyla
"The phrase 'only one earth' was born on the Apollo 8 mission circling
the moon..- The Image of the tiny earth with the moon In the fore-
ground, simultaneously shown on TV sets around the globe, changed
man's cosmic view of his home"'
The environmental consciousness that emerged in the ronmental movement of the 1960s. This book demon-
1960s as scientific research brought to the forefront the strates that far from being "universal," conceptions of
reaUties of the earth's finite resources has in the past few nature are tacitly associated with political structures of
years come under scrutiny, while the ecological movements cultural domination, racial biases, social beliefs, class divi-
of that time now seem unsophisticated in their enthusi- sions or gender politics. Each of the book's articles reveals
asm, and ideologically suspect. Key contributions to earlier the complex entanglement of the "natural" with the
ecological movements, such as Rachel Carson's Silent "human" world and uncovers how the constructed dualism
Spring (1962), known as the "watershed of the modern between the two is not simply false but politically preju-
environmental movement" because it infiltrated public diced. William Cronon's article, for example, demonstrates
sentiment by exposing the excesses of industrial agricul- that wealthy suburbanites who protest the farmers who
ture; Buckminster Fuller's Whole Earth Catalog which "exploit nature," do not represent an untainted concern for
emphasized the fear of ecological crisis; and Constantinos the destruction of nature's "balance." Rather, their "envi-
Doxiades's Ekistics (1968) which aimed to define how built ronmental" arguments are predicated on class biases, and
settlements would be sensitive to the global ecosystem: in their in their righteous protectionism threaten to
each of these positions assumed that the natural environ- deprive the farmer of his/her living.' Similarly, Candace
ment has a stable "ecological balance" which needs to be Slater's article "Amazonia as Edenic Narrative" uncovers
preserved, and each sought to establish a "harmonious" how popular notions which pigeonhole the Yanomani
interdependence among humans and nature. Indians as ah intrinsic part of their "natural" environment
fail to recognize the needs of this tribe as a human culture. The assumptions behind modern environmental move- Dominant tendencies to exoticize this tribe of Amazonia as ments, contemporary critics argue, obscure "the social "natural," Slater argues, are predicated on romantic relations and priorities that go into environmental prac- paradisal and Edenic images, and dehumanize a place with tices"^ and depoliticize environmental matters. The book thousands of inhabitants, (fig. 1) Uncommon Ground: Toward Reinventing Nature (edited by
William Cronon, 1995), which is a collection of essays by Expositions of tacit political and power dynamics, such as
leading environmentalists across disciplines, presents some those of Uncommon Ground, promise to empower those
the most persuasive challenges against the modern envi- who have been suppressed by essentializing concepts of
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By JAMES ROOXE Collor igjKirvd ecoDomK oblK !• hy mining com|Mnte . for e and puniy of cam* raised by governor* ol two iiaie* ritmliuj> It nplOKed in order to kpep where the park will be locatnj. Amaio- dormani the {niefillal of tV SratUtan and Roralma 10 spproval by Indi- Pfwidnil FrrTundo CoHof Jr Mello Amaion, warned a reiml study :icti in gold, (m. by diamoTHlt and rinc. Id medial wn by Bra (ui mov«4 10 ,c,ci, unUtichRj bv RKidam tlvilnairan serves aj ittieraled Bonei ' under irt- wlnw wayi 4«ic (rom ihe Sl siped a d«rr(« mcrving I prrctnl of Bmil'i land mau lor ihraancm'snii natrd 9,IIM Yanomami Ai thr ligning Single'HUndedlv The predicament behind the politics of environmentalism ceremony. Russian representative asserted that nuclear reactors in nature," many of the authors in fig 1 /^ New York Times article that promotes the common preconcep- Russia vifere operating within "established safety specifica- Uncommon Ground, point out that tion that the Yanomani Indians are tions"; the British prime minister, in turn, doubted this "nature" as the non-human world "natural" parts of the land Slater refers to it and also points to the assertion; the French envoy confined himself to impossibly does, after all, exist. Along with her irony that this article is accompanied ambiguous remarks; and "the Environmentalists," the BBC expositions of the gender biases by a Tiffany S Co advertisement, which underlines the rigid juxtaposi- correspondent continued, categorically demanded that behind modern meta-narratives tion between the Yanomani as part most of the nuclear reactors scattered around the former about nature, Carolyn Merchant, of nature, and the "modern civiliza- tion " as part of "culture." USSR countries be closed immediately because they are for instance, also declares that "the older and in worse condition than Chernobyl. environmental crisis is real" and that "the vanishing frogs, fish, songbirds are telling us the It may be a substantial success for those "environmental- truth."' This warning exemplifies the ambivalence of the ists" represented in the summit to have their voice heard author who recognizes that once nature is presented as an along with the opinions of top Government officials from ideologically determined concept, and the protection of many countries. However, by inserting themselves within the environment is perceived as a political tactic, then the international political spectrum, these environmental- there is a danger that we lose sight of threats that are ists were constituted as a political entity, and their position caused by the destruction of the environment, threats that was represented in the media as one of the many political exist beyond the realm of relativity and the politics of voices. In the process, environmental concerns become a knowledge. political posture, which obscures the fact that if another "Chernobyl-type" disaster happens, everybody (whatever To tackle this predicament, I propose to reconsider the their politics) will be affected. premises of the modern environmental movement and to explore how its insights could help rethink environmental- This predicament is acknowledged by the authors of ism as a critical attitude for the present. Using "Ekistics" as Uncommon Ground. Despite their systematic expositions of a representative case for the environmental consciousness "the multiple natures of that thing we are quick to call that emerged in the sixties, I reflect both on the inadequa- 49 Downloaded from http://www.mitpressjournals.org/doi/pdf/10.1162/thld_a_00550 by guest on 01 October 2021 Thresholds 14 Doxiades's Ekistics represents the ideas of architectural modernism in its more critical stage, when it began to temper the optimism for technological progress with envi- ronmental awareness and anxiety about the earth's over- population and finite resources." In his books and in the fig 2 The larger vision of Journal Ekistics,' Doxiades gave a terrifying portrait of the Ekistics was to combine all environmental "catastrophe" that awaits if no systematic disciplines to outline a comprehensive plan for global "plan of action" is taken for a more "sensible" utilization of development earth's resources. He passionately emphasized the need to sustain "the ecological balance." The goal of Ekistics was to outline a global system of development that would make a wise use of the environment, by reconciling, Do.xiades 50 cies of modern environmental thought and on its contri- argued, "the human efforts for growth and development" butions. While rejecting universalistic and essentializing with the limitations of a "finite world." Ekistics intended to conceptions of nature, I try to negotiate between the aspi- respond to massive construction demands around the rations of earlier environmental thought and later critiques world promoting, as Doxiades argued, "social and of it. My goal is not to reinstate an anachronistic ecological economic development" (e.g., post-war reconstruction for approach, but to circumscribe current positions on envi- Europe, housing for South America, urban institutions for ronmentalism in such a way that their liberating force can the emerging states in the Middle East); at the same time, extend to the realm of pra.xis. Ekistics would outline how built environments could remain sensitive to the vulnerability of nature.' (fig. 2) "Ekistics," was one of the first theories that introduced environmental concerns into the realm of architecture and Similar to Rachel Carson's method of analyzing the rela- planning. Developed by the Greek urban planner Constan- tionships between living organisms and their surround- tinos Doxiades (1913-1975) in the late fifties, Ekistics—the ings, Ekistics studied the relationship between built "Science of Human Settlements"—vv^as an interdisciplinary settlements and the natural setting and attempted outline a theory aimed at outlining methods for structuring an problem-solving process for global planning that defined economically and ecologically viable urbanized world for how settlements should be planned in balance with nature. the future. (The term "Ekistics," coined by Doxiades "Human settlements" (notice, the universalistic connota- himself, is derived form the Greek word oikos, meaning tions of the very term) were treated as organisms having a home, and has the same roots as the word "Ecology.") reciprocal relationship with their larger environment. Doxiades's theory of Ekistics had a tremendous impact Resource and environmental management became central around the world: By the mid-sixties, it was taught in to the Ekistic method of planning in order to defend the universities; it formed the basis for government programs natural and built environment. Doxiades created meticu- on urban development in the US, Italy, Greece, Brazil, lous scientific charts that calculated the resources in a place Lebanon, Pakistan, Iraq, and other countries; and it was and specified material-types to be used in different areas, incorporated in the agenda of the Habitat, the United methods for underground water distribution, rules tor Nations conference on Human settlements. land distribution for different regions, etc. Ekistics then inserted these specifications into calculations about the Downloaded from http://www.mitpressjournals.org/doi/pdf/10.1162/thld_a_00550 by guest on 01 October 2021 ecological balance of a specific place and the globe at aim to protect of natural assets, trees and scenery and to large.' (fig. 3) improve local climate, camouflaged the reality of segrega- tion of the poor from the upper classes.'- The widespread acceptance of the Ekistic theory and its worldwide implementation as an environmentally sensitive As we come to see the specifics of the Ekistic theory, we planning method depended very much on the presentation can recognize in it elements emblematic of both the of Doxiades's technical and managerial consulting as a strengths and weaknesses of the modern environmental rational, disinterested analysis, detached from the specific sensibility. The modern environmentalists' attempts to locale it studied. This "detachment" concealed political systematically capture, order and objectify ecological questions of power and inequality into technical issues of processes often overlooked dominant power structures, natural resources and their management. With rhetoric and exacerbated social and cultural inequalities. Yet their such as "action needs to be taken" Doxiades systematically pioneering institution of ecological sensitivity, their call for concealed by whom the required action would be taken. In prudent utilization of local resources, and their regard to most cases, Doxiades's decisions were confined within global needs for housing and infrastructure could continue established governmental agendas, which were, in turn, to bring to focus the crucial issues that affect many parts of often funded by private US agencies operating around the the world today, (fig. 4) While their all-encompassing, clas- world. Far from being democratically determined, Doxi- sificatory charts must be criticized for constructing regions ades's decisions on where housing should be built, or how as bounded, determinate and controllable objects of study, dense it should be, failed to address the needs of the less they actively propelled a systematic investigation of the privileged in a society.'" Imposing strict zoning separations limitations of the earth's resources. in the name of environmental efficiency, Doxiades Indeed, despite the pitfalls of modern environmental remained oblivious to the social inequalities inherent in approaches, their larger aspirations can exercise a refresh- these territorial divisions, and even exacerbated them." ing critique against overzealous relativizations of environ- This is the irony of the purported neutrality of such mental problems. Whether earlier efforts such as Doxiades', "ecologically conscious" urban ordering: the proclaimed fig 3 Ecumenokepos or, Global Garden. Doxiades's visior) of the world in the future- According to Doxiades's calculations, most of the land on earth could be available for cultivation or could be left undisturbed for "wildlife". 51 Ecumenokepos Downloaded from http://www.mitpressjournals.org/doi/pdf/10.1162/thld_a_00550 by guest on 01 October 2021 Thresholds 14 fig 4 One of the projects of Doxiades Associates tf)at utilized local resources in an effort to improve Sudan's infrastructure. Fuller's or Carson's succeeded or failed is less important must ask what we mean by 'the rain forest'. What exactly do we think now than the fact that, like the environment itself, their we want to safeguard?" premises reach beyond the realm of relativity into supra- Consider, also, the leap from these insightful remarks to political concerns. It is in this spirit that modern environ- the conclusion that immediately follows them, a leap mental thought can offer critical orientations to current which threatens to nullify efforts for environmental environmental predicaments. I would argue for a radical protection: re-evaluation that would negotiate the overlaps between "It will be hard enough to reverse the acrid course of recent history in the modern consciousness and current critical thought, Amazonia, But it is impossible to rescue something that does not exist"'' not so much to regain the conviction of earlier move- ments, but to redirect the admirable energy and sophistica- Indeed, to use Slater's own terms, we should not be "quick" tion of current critiques towards more effective directions. to call something "nature"; but, neither should we be so Current critical thought could disentangle environmental quick in dismissing "nature" as something that does not approaches fi-om an all-encompassing, universalistic and e.xist. If critiques such as Slater's aim to argue that environ- rationalist framework of thought, while the aspirations of mental approaches "impinge... not just on trees and ecological sensitivity would not be consumed by total rela- animals but on countless human lives" they should do this tivism. without paralyzing efforts to prevent environmental destruction, because such destruction would also impinge To illustrate how the negotiation between current critiques on "human lives." In the case of Slater's argument, the and earlier ecological premises could be constructive, destruction of the Amazon region would affect, among consider once again. Slater's deconstruction of "Edenic others, the Yanomani Indians themselves. Narratives" in Uncommon Ground which has been quite convincing is showing that: While any efforts to protect the Amazon region should "It is well worth asking not just how we can save the rain forest but why guard against tendencies to essentialize the traditional we want to do so. Whom do we wish to benefit? And why focus our lifestyle of the Yanomani Indians as an intrinsic part of efforts on Amazonia instead of Africa. Antarctica, or Northern Califor- "nature," the ecological problems around the Amazon nia? Before we try to answer these essential questions, however, we should not themselves be entirelv relativized. The need to Downloaded from http://www.mitpressjournals.org/doi/pdf/10.1162/thld_a_00550 by guest on 01 October 2021 the circles of science and later of policy-making: the knowl- edge of the planet as a container for mankind and for the resources that allow human hfe, and the exhaustion of certain fundamental products in the foreseeable future, a generation hence, such as oil; a crisis that is bringing home to millions a respond to environmental destruction should remain in NOMMMCMOKM. sense of danger and the eagerness to challenge it through a focus, even though we should guard against any attempt to rational approach to the ecological problem." (Ivan Pedro de Martins. "Random Factors: Ekistics, Ecology and a Think collapse "protective measures" onto nostalgic preconcep- Tank: An approach to Settlement Planning from Doxiades tions of a romantic "nature" that would treat local cultures Onwards", in Third World Planning Review, Vol.2, No. 2, Autumn 1980. p.I39) as voiceless observers of external environmental measures imposed on them. Environmental responses would need to 7 The journal £fc(sfiV5( founded in 1955 and still in circulation) was, during the sixties, edited in Cambridge, MA and circu- be actively negotiated with the complexities and demands lated in 94 countries. of the local culture, engaging with the politics of difference 8 Ekistics attempted to combine numerous disciplines in the and the fluid realities of "nature" and "culture." The design of human settlements; in addition to ecology, it took complex actualities of difference would reinforce, rather into account economic, psychological and sociological factors. For the purposes of this essay, however, I will focus on those than replace, ecological sensitivity. aspects of the Ekistic theory that attempted to connect urban design to ecological concerns. What I am arguing then is that critiques of the modern lifo^cda^ ^tttti^^ 9 Many of Doxiades's ideas on this subject were compiled in environmental movement come not as dismissals but as his later book Ecology and Ekistics ( 1977) extensions of it. In this way environmentalism could tran- Conservation campaigns have 10 His plan of Islamabad, for example—a plan which inserted long relied on photogenic scend relativism, while highlighting the dangers of essen- the Capital of Pakistan into an ecologically conscious global animals or scenic beauty to tialism and universalism. Perhaps the most radical schema—overlooked the questions of power and inequality raise funds, as with these between the local regime and the various classes of the popu- Canadian Wildlife Federation responses to environmental questions cannot emanate lation. See Lawrence Vale, Architecture, Power and National holiday stamps. from overzealous rejections of an earlier environmental Identity. consciousness, but from a negotiated position; one which 1 1 In his restructuring of Athens, for example, Doxiades operates "in-between," aiming to remain vigilantly critical claimed that his plan would make the city more efficient in order to minimize the destruction of the environment without losing the capacity to act. surrounding the city. People, he argued, should be housed close to their work-place in order to minimize pollution from transportation. (See Doxiades, Our Capital and Its Future. IFrom the Journal Ekistks 208, March 1973, p. 114. 1960) Yet, how was this "environmental concern" connected to his decision to relocate lower-class workers at the industrial 2 Yaakov Garb. "Rachel Carson's Silent Spring" in Dissent, Fall area of Eleusina and to leave the privileged fringes of the 1995.p.541. Penteli mountain to the high government officials? 3 See William Cronon, "Introduction: In Search of Nature" and 12 Doxiades's proposals also concealed larger cultural dynam- "The Trouble with Wilderness" in W. Cronon ed. Uncommon ics: The insertion of the new towns in Iraq or Islamabad into Ground. WW. Norton & Company: New York and London, the megastructure of a global interconnected ecosystem 1995. assumed a transcultural uniformity in the model of urbaniza- tion, and did not consider the questions of inequality and 4 "Environmentalism" encompasses diverse positions which can cultural imperialism in global relationships. Similarly, Doxi- be intensely antagonistic to one another. For the purposes of this ades never acknowledged the influence of western handing essay, however, 1 use the terms "environmentalism" and "envi- institutions on his decisions to promote certain agricultural ronmentalists" in the broadest possible sense, to refer to any developments and to abandon others. The universal claims movements, organized groups or even individuals who are that Doxiades's "scientific" and "ecological" approach made, actively concerned with environmental protection. depoliticized his interventions which were nevertheless inevitably tied to such issues as land distribution, allocation of 5 Carolyn Merchant, "Reinventing Eden: Western Culture as a resources, class divisions, and transcultural power dynamics. Recovery Narrative" in Uncommon Ground, p. 157. 13 Slater, in Uncommon Ground, p. 1 30. 6 Ivan Pedro de Martins captures very well the context in which Doxiades operated: "...two aspects of knowledge coincided in 53 Downloaded from http://www.mitpressjournals.org/doi/pdf/10.1162/thld_a_00550 by guest on 01 October 2021