Entrer En État D'urgence À L'ère Du Capitalisme Globalisé

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Entrer En État D'urgence À L'ère Du Capitalisme Globalisé 1 Université de Montréal Entrer en état d’urgence à l’ère du capitalisme globalisé Retour critique sur quatorze ans avec Médecins Sans Frontières Par Philippe Blackburn Département d’anthropologie Faculté des arts et des sciences Thèse présentée en vue de l’obtention du grade de Philosophiae Doctor (Ph.D.) en Anthropologie 15 juin 2018 © Philippe Blackburn, 2018 I I RÉSUMÉ Basée sur une expérience de travail de 14 ans avec l’organisation d’urgence Médecins Sans Frontières, cette thèse cherche à dévoiler un visage de la mondialisation contemporaine en explorant plusieurs terrains d’intervention humanitaire en Afrique centrale, ainsi qu’au siège de l’organisation à Genève. Partant de l’hypothèse que l’humanitaire est un lieu de prédilection pour cerner une part essentielle de la globalisation, la thèse questionne la légitimité des interventions humanitaires internationales en montrant, entre autres, qu'une même logique d’intervention s’impose de plus en plus au niveau international, avec comme conséquence de relativiser, voire d’ignorer toutes formes de conditions locales. En retour, cette logique tend à instituer un ordre inégal entre les victimes et les secouristes, laissant très peu de place aux voix, aux demandes et aux choix des populations secourues, ce qui nous éclaire sur les questions de souveraineté qui sont au cœur de la mondialisation contemporaine. C’est aux confluents de ces questions que s’articule cette recherche. Dans un premier temps, la thèse s’appuie sur une description ethnographique qui fait apparaitre le paradigme inégalitaire entre les populations locales et les secouristes tel qu’il se déploie concrètement dans les missions humanitaires, pour ensuite questionner l’ambiguïté de l’urgence comme idéologie dans les projets d’assistance sur la longue durée. Lorsqu’on regarde la réalité à partir de la base et des populations aidées, il est difficile de séparer « l’humanitaire » du « développement », les secours d’urgence des inégalités politico-économiques globales, le rôle des gouvernements locaux dans les misères de leur peuple de l’exploitation économique étrangère du pays. La thèse dévoile ainsi l’ambiguïté idéologique et pratique de l’humanitaire d’urgence, afin d’amorcer une réflexion théorique sur les dessous de l’humanitaire d’urgence contemporain et sa place dans la globalisation. II Dans un deuxième temps, nous approfondissons la critique théorique de l’humanitaire en prenant appui sur les critiques du colonialisme et du développement, pour ensuite questionner la place de l’humanitaire dans l’ordre international à partir des années 1990 et l’apport de l’anthropologie de l’humanitaire dans ces questions. Une mutation anthropologique signe l’entrée en modernité tardive et accompagne l’uniformisation du monde et la crise de l’habitation, qui va de pair avec une crise de l’anthropologie en tant que discipline universitaire. Les sciences sociales et l’anthropologie évoluent en effet au sein des mêmes apories et des mêmes contradictions que celles dans lesquelles se déploient les secours humanitaires. C’est finalement à situer la réponse humanitaire et l’analyse anthropologique à l’intérieur du capitalisme globalisé vu comme un « fait social total » que nous mettrons en perspective les limites de cette étude. Mots clés : Capitalisme, crise, dispositif, guerre, humanitaire, inégalités, néocolonialisme, nihilisme, pouvoir, souveraineté, technique, urgence, victime. III ABSTRACT Based on a 14 year working experience with the emergency organization Doctors Without Borders, this thesis seeks to unveil a side of contemporary globalization by exploring numerous fields of humanitarian intervention in Central Africa, as well as as in its headquarters in Geneva. Beginning with the hypothesis that humanitarian assistance is a place of predilection to grasp an essential aspect of globalization, the thesis questions the legitimacy of international humanitarian interventions by showing that, within other things, the same logic of intervention is increasingly imposing itself at the international level, with the consequence of relativising, even of ignoring all forms of local conditions. In return, this logic tends to institute an unequal order between victims and emergency workers, leaving little place to the voices, demands and choices of the aided populations, which further enlightens us on questions of sovereignty at the heart of contemporary globalization. The research unfolds at the confluence of these questions. First, the thesis is anchored in an ethnographic description which makes the inegalitarian paradigm appear between local populations and the emergency workers as it concretely unfolds in the humanitarian missions, to afterwards question the ambiguity of emergency as ideology in long term assistance projects. When we look at the reality from the grounds and from the aided populations, it becomes difficult to separate "humanitarian aid" from "development", emergency assistance from global politico-economic inequalities, the role of local governments in the miseries of their people from the economic foreign exploitation of the country. The thesis hence unveils the ideological and practical ambiguity of emergency humanitarian aid in order to begin a theoretical reflection on the undersides of contemporary emergency humanitarian aid and its place within globalization. Second, we go deeper into the theoretical critique of humanitarian aid by leaning on the critiques of colonialism and of development, to afterwards question the place of IV humanitarian aid in the international order from the 1990s onwards and the contribution of anthropology of humanitarian aid on these issues. An anthropological mutation signs the entry into late modernity and accompanies the uniformisation of the world, which go hand in hand with a crisis of anthropology as an academic discipline. In fact, the social sciences and anthropology evolve within the same aporia and the same contradictions as those in which humanitarian assistance is deployed. It is finally upon situating the humanitarian response and anthropological analysis within globalized capitalism seen as "total social fact" that we will bring the limits of this study into perspective. Key words: Capitalism, crisis, apparatus, war, humanitarian, inequalities, neocolonialism, nihilism, power, sovereignty, technique, emergency, victim. V Table des matières RÉSUMÉ I ABSTRACT III LISTE DES SIGLES VIII LISTE DES ABRÉVIATIONS X REMERCIEMENTS XII AVANT-PROPOS 1 PRÉSENTATION DE LA THÈSE 6 Partie I : Entrer en état d’urgence 7 Partie II : Au chevet du monde 8 Partie III : Penser l’humanitaire 10 POUR UN ANTI-PROGRESSISME ÉMANCIPATEUR 10 PARTIE I : ENTRER EN ÉTAT D’URGENCE 14 CHAPITRE 1 : LES RAISONS D’UN DÉPART 15 UN COUREUR DES BOIS MODERNE 17 L’ANTHROPOLOGIE EN QUESTION 19 TRAVERSER LE NIHILISME 23 LA FUITE SANS FRONTIÈRES 25 CHAPITRE 2 : ENTRER À MSF 28 UNE CULTURE D’ENTREPRISE 29 KINSHASA : DES BIDONVILLES À LA VILLA CLIMATISÉE 34 LA RELATION AUX POPULATIONS LOCALES : MÉFIANCE ET SUSPICION 36 L’URGENCE COMME IDÉOLOGIE 41 CHAPITRE 3 : ETHNOGRAPHIE, MÉTHODE ET CADRE THÉORIQUE 46 UNE AMBIGUÏTÉ PARADOXALE 46 ETHNOGRAPHIE DE LA DÉSORIENTATION 49 BIOPOLITIQUE ET POUVOIR HUMANITAIRE 53 TENTATIVE DE DÉFINITION 56 LE SIÈCLE DE 1914 60 LE SANS FRONTIÉRISME 63 VI PARTIE II : AU CHEVET DU MONDE 66 CHAPITRE 4 : PREMIÈRE MISSION ET DÉCOUVERTE DU CONGO-ZAÏRE 67 INTRODUCTION 67 AU CŒUR DES TÉNÈBRES 68 MSF ET LA MALADIE DU SOMMEIL 73 VIVRE AU ZAÏRE 80 UNE GUERRE LOINTAINE 84 ÊTRE BLANC DANS LE ZAÏRE DE MOBUTU 86 CHAPITRE 5 : HUMANITAIRE ET GÉNOCIDE : PREMIÈRE GUERRE DU CONGO 92 LA PREMIÈRE GUERRE DU CONGO-ZAÏRE 93 AU CŒUR DE KISANGANI ASSIÉGÉ 95 LE RÔLE AMBIGU DE LA FRANCE 101 L’HUMANITAIRE IMPUISSANT 104 QUE CONCLURE DE CETTE INTERVENTION ? 109 NAISSANCE D’UNE VOCATION 114 CHAPITRE 6 : LA RELATION AUX LOCAUX : AU CŒUR DU PIÈGE INSTRUMENTAL DE L’HUMANITAIRE 118 MISE EN CONTEXTE 118 DES INÉGALITÉS CONSTITUTIVES DES SECOURS 118 BRIEFING D’ARRIVÉE 123 UN ORDRE NÉOCOLONIAL 127 LA SÉCURITÉ À DEUX VITESSES 130 COMPRENDRE AUX LIMITES DE L’HUMAIN 133 DIDIER FASSIN ET L’INÉGALITÉ ONTOLOGIQUE 135 LA TECHNIQUE N’EST PAS NEUTRE 138 UNE NOUVELLE PAUVRETÉ 140 LA RÉPONSE INSTITUTIONNELLE 144 CHAPITRE 7 : PEUT-ON VRAIMENT AIDER AUTRUI ? RÉFUGIÉS AU CAMEROUN EN 2007 149 INTRODUCTION 149 RÉFUGIÉS CENTRAFRICAINS AU CAMEROUN EN 2007 151 L’ENJEU SÉCURITAIRE 154 MSF À YAOUNDÉ 155 UN HORIZON NÉOCOLONIAL 158 LES BOROROS DE BERTOUA 160 PREMIÈRES DIFFICULTÉS 164 INSÉCURITÉ ET MALNUTRITION 165 RECOMMANDATIONS FINALES 167 PENSER LES INJUSTICES GLOBALES ? 170 COMMENT NOMMER UNE « CRISE » ? 174 CHAPITRE 8 : L’HUMANITAIRE ET SES DILEMMES CONCRETS 179 INTRODUCTION 179 L’HUMANITAIRE VICTIME DE SES SUCCÈS ? 182 L’HUMANITAIRE ET SES SUCCÈS OPÉRATIONNELS 185 COMPOSER AVEC LE RÉEL 187 UNE « NEUTRALITÉ » TRÈS POLITIQUE 190 L’INSTRUMENTALISATION LOCALE DE L’HUMANITITAIRE 191 PENSER EN URGENCE ? 193 LE TÉMOIGNAGE AMBIGU 196 VII LORSQUE L’URGENCE CRÉE UN MONDE 198 PARTIE III : PENSER L’HUMANITAIRE 200 CHAPITRE 9 : PENSER L’HUMANITAIRE : PREMIERS JALONS HISTORIQUES 201 INTRODUCTION 201 CRITIQUE DE L’UNIVERSEL : L’APPORT DES COURANTS CONSERVATEURS 203 L’ANTI-COLONIALISME : PREMIER MOMENT CRITIQUE SIGNIFICATIF 208 LES THÉORICIENS DE L’IMPASSE PROGRESSISTE 211 L’ANTHROPOLOGIE AMÉRICAINE DU DÉVELOPPEMENT 219 L’HUMANITAIRE : UN VISAGE DU NÉOLIBÉRALISME ? 224 CHAPITRE 10 : L’ANTHROPOLOGIE DE L’HUMANITAIRE AU 21IÈME SIÈCLE 228 INTRODUCTION 228 L’ÈRE DU « TOUT-HUMANITAIRE » 229 RÉFUGIÉS, MIGRANTS ET GESTION SÉCURITAIRE 232 GUERRES IMPÉRIALES
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