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Militarised Masculinity and the Rise of a New Local Political Elite in Post Conflict Aceh

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Militarised Masculinity and the Rise of a New Local Political Elite in Post Conflict Aceh Militarised Masculinity and the Rise of a New Local Political Elite in Post Conflict Aceh This thesis is presented for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy of Murdoch University 2018 Sait Abdulah Bachelor of Public Administration (Dipenogoro University, Indonesia) Master of Policy and Administration (Flinders University, Australia) I declare that this thesis is my own account of my research and contains as it main content work which has not previously been submitted for a degree at any tertiary education institution. …………………………… Sait Abdulah i Abstract This thesis offers a feminist political economy analysis of the rise of a new local political elite in post-conflict Aceh. The scholarly literature on this topic has highlighted the roles of patrimonial political economy and democratisation processes in the GAM (Gerakan Aceh Merdeka, Free Aceh Movement) ex-commanders’ transition into a civilian political elite. However, this literature does not adequately explain gendered processes involved in how this elite has ideologically legitimated its hold on power, to win supporters and marginalise rivals through the reconfiguration of a militarised, hegemonic masculinity. The argument of the present thesis draws on interviews with former GAM commanders and rank and file soldiers, other civilian leaders, government officials, NGOs and women activists involved in post- conflict reintegration programs. The thesis argues that certain images and practices of a militarised, hegemonic masculinity have allowed the ex-commanders to position themselves as a dominant group over other GAM groups in the context of new local political contestations. To assert their authority and leadership, the ex-commanders have acted to retain their honoured status via two gendered ideological constructions. The first is the creation of an ideal ‘warrior hero’, based on the gendered dichotomies of ‘combatant’ versus ‘civilian’, ‘warrior’ versus ‘traitor’, and ‘true soldiers’ and ‘supporting soldiers’. This has promoted a shared militarised identity among ex-commanders and their former foot soldiers within the KPA (Komite Peralihan Aceh, Aceh Transition Commission) to garner electoral support and neutralise civilian elite rivals. Second has been the construction of the ‘father-figure’ status of ex-commanders as economic providers for their former troops, which profoundly resonates with breadwinner expectations of the male foot soldiers. Women soldiers’ participation in the war was determined by the gendered assumptions of their sex difference. Consequently, their post-conflict retained military status is lower and their material needs are considered to be fewer than those of their former male comrades. ii Contents Abstract ................................................................................................................ii Glossary and Abbreviations .............................................................................. vi Chapter 1.............................................................................................................. 1 Introduction ......................................................................................................... 1 The study and its significance ................................................................................................ 1 The approach .......................................................................................................................... 3 The methodology.................................................................................................................... 5 The findings............................................................................................................................ 6 Thesis structure ...................................................................................................................... 9 Chapter 2............................................................................................................ 13 Theoretical Framework .................................................................................... 13 Introduction .......................................................................................................................... 13 What is an elite? ................................................................................................................... 14 The research gaps ................................................................................................................. 15 Feminist political economy .................................................................................................. 22 Masculinity ........................................................................................................................... 28 Conclusion ............................................................................................................................ 31 Chapter 3............................................................................................................ 33 The GAM in Conflict ........................................................................................ 33 Introduction .......................................................................................................................... 33 The founding of GAM.......................................................................................................... 38 Acehnese nationalism during the armed struggle ................................................................ 46 Men’s roles, women’s roles and their status during the war ................................................ 50 The ex-commanders’ capacity to mobilise economic resources to rank and file soldiers ... 64 Conclusion ............................................................................................................................ 67 Chapter 4............................................................................................................ 69 Peacebuilding, Demilitarisation and Reintegration of the GAM Ex-Soldiers in the Post-Conflict Period ............................................................................... 69 Introduction .......................................................................................................................... 69 Keys facets of demilitarisation in Aceh ............................................................................... 71 iii How the reintegration of the GAM ex-soldiers worked ....................................................... 90 Conclusion ............................................................................................................................ 99 Chapter 5.......................................................................................................... 101 Hegemonic Power and Masculine Hierarchies in Post-conflict Aceh ........ 101 Introduction ........................................................................................................................ 101 The new local political and fiscal arrangements ................................................................ 102 Contending GAM elites and the establishment of the GAM political parties ................... 106 Hegemonic masculinity in the post-conflict period ........................................................... 110 The marginalisation of the civilian GAM leadership ......................................................... 122 Conclusion .......................................................................................................................... 126 Chapter 6.......................................................................................................... 128 Responses of the Civilian Leadership and the Male Rank and File to Their Marginalisation ............................................................................................... 128 Introduction ........................................................................................................................ 128 The reactions of the Irwandi/PNA group ........................................................................... 130 The response of the excluded male rank and file ex-soldiers ............................................ 136 Conclusion .......................................................................................................................... 149 Chapter 7.......................................................................................................... 151 Women Ex-Soldiers’ Perspectives and Experiences in Post-Conflict Political Power Contests ................................................................................. 151 Introduction ........................................................................................................................ 151 How is the warrior hero ideal connected to women ex-soldiers? ...................................... 152 Loyal women ex-soldiers’ perspectives and experiences in the KPA ............................... 159 Women ex-soldiers’ grievances against the ex-commanders (the perspectives of the non- loyalist women groups) ...................................................................................................... 164 Conclusion .......................................................................................................................... 175 Chapter 8.......................................................................................................... 177 Conclusion .......................................................................................................
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