WHO AM I?: the IDENTITY CRISIS in the MIDDLE EAST P R Kumaraswamy*

WHO AM I?: THE IDENTITY CRISIS IN THE MIDDLE EAST P R Kumaraswamy* More than democratic deficit, most countries of the Middle East suffer from the fundamental problem over their national identity. More than three-quarters of a century after the disintegration of the Ottoman Empire from which most of them emerged, these states have been unable to define, project, and maintain a national identity that is both inclusive and representative. None of the countries of the Middle East is homogeneous; they consist of numerous ethnic, religious, cultural, and linguistic minorities. Yet they have not succeeded in evolving a national identity that reflects their heterogeneity. Countries of the Middle East are internally diverse and , hence, a narrow exclusive national identity could not be imposed from above. Speaking at the meeting of the Foreign Middle East is homogeneous; they consist Ministers of the Gulf Cooperation Council of numerous ethnic, religious, cultural, and (GCC) in September 2005, Sheikh linguistic minorities. Yet they have not Mohammed bin Mubarak al-Khalifa of succeeded in evolving a national identity Bahrain urged the need for safeguarding that reflects their heterogeneity. Iraq's "Arabic-Islamic identity so that Iraq The problem is universal. Whether they can remain an active member of the Arab are democracies (Israel and Turkey), and Islamic environment. " 1 Coming from evolving democracies (Iraq and Palestinian an organization that in the past led the anti- areas), republican regimes (Egypt, Syria , Iraqi and anti-Saddam sentiments in the and Algeria), quasi-liberal monarchies region, it exhibited a basic concern over (Jordan and Bahrain), or Islamic regimes possible fragmentation of Iraq and its (Iran), the region suffers from the inability ramifications for its Arab neighbors. Yet to recognize, integrate, and reflect its ethno- the statement also brought to focus the cultural diversity. Without exception, all the fundamental problem facing the Middle Middle Eastern states have tried to impose East, name ly identity. an identity from above. Whether Contrary to the conventional wisdom ideological, religious, dynastical, or power- about democratic deficit, most countries of centric, these attempts have invariably the Middle East suffer from the failed and have often resulted in schism and fundamental problem over their national sectarian tensions. identity. More than three-quarters of a The region as a whole has been unable century after the disintegration of the to address, let alone resolve , the core issue Ottoman Empire from whom most of them of national identity. While borrowing the emerged, these states have been unable to European (though gradually weakening) define, project, and maintain a national model of territory-based national identity, identity that is both inclusive and the Middle Eastern countries have been representative. None of the countries of the unable to build a "nation. " In other parts of Middle East Review of International Affairs, Vol. 10, No. 1 (March 2006) 63 P R Kumaraswamy the world, nations, both old and new, have They often had boundaries defined by become states; the process has been colonial powers, formal title and a ruling reversed in the Middle East where states are dynasty, support and patronage from the still in search of a nation. Instead they have former rulers, diverse population, but no tried numerous others means to circumvent cohesive national identity. With notable the problem of national identity. exceptions like Egypt, Iran, Iraq, and Syria , most lacked, or hence ha d to invent , their IMPERIAL-COLONIAL LEGACY historical roots. Much of the identity problem facing the How did they resolve the problem of region ca n be traced back to imperialism national identity? Some tried to resolve this and colonialism. The dismemberment of the through religion, the most dominant and Ottoman Empire and the formation of new easily identifiable individual identity. states in the region were anything but smooth. States were carved out with little RELIGIOUS IDENTITY concern over people, geography, or history. With the exception of Turkey, all the The states, which emerged from the ruins of countries of the Middle East have opted for the Ottoman Empire, were neither a religion-centric identity. In some cases, homogeneous nor cohesive. They not only this coincided with state formation and in had artificial boundaries, but they also others, religion gradually replaced others as lacked any sense of internal cohesion. the pre-eminent national identity. If the Driven by imperial legacy of the British Turkish decision to present itself as a and French, the two imperia l powers that secular state was the choice and outcome of were active in the region, different the destruction of the Ottoman Empire , ethnic /national groups were clubbed others have sought to buttress their identity together into one state or the same national through religion. While Islam is the group was divided among different states. If dominant identity of most Arab states and the formation of Lebanon, supposed to be a Iran, Israel defines itself as a Jewish state. homeland for the Maronite Christians Even though Lebanon is not an Islamic exemplifies the former, the plight of Kurds state, its society is a mirror image of the scattered in Iran, Iraq, Syria , and Turkey sectarian tension among various religious symbolizes the latter. Even the modern groups. boundaries of ancient states like Iran This emphasis on religion became more contain a large portion of the religious other. apparent when some ruling dynasties tried In places like Iraq and Jordan, lea ders of to justify their claims to their supposed the new state were brought in from the membership to the Qureshi tribe to which outside, tailored to suit colonial interests Prophet Mohammed belonged. The ruling and commitments. Likewise, most states in Hashemite dynasty in Jordan for example, the Persian Gulf were handed over to those traces its lineage to the days of the Prophet who could protect and safeguard imperial and sought to claim both religious and interests in the post-withdrawal phase. temporal loyalty of their subjects. 2 The Each of the new states were confronted Hashemites had been thrown out of their with the problem of defining their national role as custodians of Mecca by the Saudis. identity. This was problematic because For a while, however, they found a new most of them were never a nation before. source of religious and political legitimacy 64 Middle East Review of International Affairs, Vol. 10, No. 1 (March 2006) Who Am I? The Identity Crisis in the Middle East by ruling over east Jerusalem. Their control jurisprudence is based on the Islamic of the Islamic holy sites in the city until the Sharia. June war of 1967 was even seen as a minor The case of Iran is even more peculiar. compensation for the losses suffered by the Under the constitution, "Twelever Ja'fari Hashemites at the hands of Saud. At one School" is the official religion of the time, King Abdallah-I even aspired to Islamic republic. This narrow Shi'a-Islamic declare east Jerusalem as the capital of identity excludes a large portion of its Jordan but was dissuaded by the British. population, including the Arabs, Turkmen, For this reason, Jordan never gave up its Assyrians, and Kurds --who are all Sunnis-- aspirations to gain a foothold in Jerusalem. as well as others both non-Persian--like the According to the Israel-Jordan of 1994, Azeris-- and non-Muslim--like the Jordan enjoys a "special status " over the Armenians and Bahais. In other words, a Islamic religious places in Jerusalem. This vast majority of the Iranians would have came against the backdrop of the difficulties in identifying with the current Declaration of Principles of 1993 and the regime that represents Shi'a Islam. impending installation of the Palestinian Likewise, efforts by the Islamists of the National Authority (PNA), thereby north to impose the Islamic Sharia upon the underscoring the importance of Jerusalem Christians and animist s living in the south to the Hashemites. resulted in a prolonged civil war in Sudan. Likewise, Saudi Arabia also thrives on The election of Kurdish leader Jalal al- its strong links to Islam. While the House of Talabani as President of Iraq, therefore, is Saud does not have a pedigree to the both a novelty and revolution in the Middle Qureshi tribe, it seeks political mileage over East. In all other states, senior positions are the presence of the two holiest places in denied to the religious "other. " In some Islam, Mecca and Medina. Indeed, cases, the prohibition is explicit and in following domestic opposition from Islamic others, the exclusion is circumspect. groups, the Saudi monarch changed his Monarchies, the most prominent system of official title to "Custodian of the Two Holy governance, rest on dynastical succession, Places. " and this excludes almost the entire Even nominally secular regimes are also population--including the religious other-- not immune from the drive for a religion- from being rulers of the country. The centric identity. Following the Arab defeat constitutions of Iran and Syr ia , for example, in the June 1967 war and the gradual explicitly state that only a Muslim can be radicalization of the Middle East, even the head of state. these states have also come under the Since the countries of the region are not influence of the Islamic undercurrents. exclusively Islamic, such overarching With the result, religion--mostly Islam-- influence of Islam in the public domain plays an all-pervasive role in the public as deprives the non-Muslim minorities of any well as private domain in the Middle East. role or say in the formation of national In most Middle Eastern states, Islam is identity. In Egypt , for example, the Coptic recognized as the official religion and the identity pre-dates the introduction of Islam Middle East Review of International Affairs, Vol.

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