301 Academic Skills Workshop Programme: Dissertation Planning Making ‘a contribution to knowledge.’ Research Philosophy Positivism and Relativism Positivist approaches to research tend to be associated with quantitative research; relativist approaches tend to be associated with qualitative research. According to Whitton: A positivist, or scientific, approach to research views the nature of the world as existing regardless of people’s perceptions of it, and that experiences can be described in terms of objective facts that are essentially value-free; hypotheses can be tested against these facts, and causal relationships can be demonstrated between events. A relativist approach takes the view that there are not absolute truths, but people have different ways of perceiving the world and that there is no external reality independent of the beliefs and perceptions of those experiencing it; the complexity of experience and behaviour must be studied to gain true understanding. Your research will likely incorporate elements of both approaches although the extent to which one approach is dominant will likely depend both on your discipline and your topic. Induction and Deduction In logic, there are two main philosophical approaches that may have fundamental implications for the shape of your research projects. According to Trochin (2006): Inductive reasoning moves from specific observations to broader generalizations and theories. In inductive reasoning, we begin with specific observations and measures, begin to detect patterns and regularities, formulate some tentative hypotheses that we can explore, and finally end up developing some general conclusions or theories. Deductive reasoning works from the more general to the more specific. We might begin with thinking up a theory about our topic of interest. We then narrow that down into more specific hypotheses that we can test. We narrow down even further when we collect observations to address the hypotheses. This ultimately leads us to be able to test the hypotheses with specific data—a confirmation (or not) of our original theories. Research projects may involve elements of both inductive and deductive research as a theory is both developed (inducted) and tested (deducted). Research aim Your research aim is a general statement that is derived from your focus of study. You can develop your research aim by following some simple steps: 1. Identify a single word or phrase to describe the main theme of your research 1 2. Add supplementary words to provide context for your aim 3. Rephrase these words as a statement using a model such as; a. The overall aim of this research… b. This is a study of… c. This research examines… Literature review A literature review is a critical analysis of past research that demonstrates how and why it relates to your project. The purpose of a literature review is; To explore who has said what about the topic you are working on; To demonstrate that you have read widely around the topic; To show that you can evaluate the relative value and significance of this existing work. Evaluating a Source When identifying sources that are relevant and significant to your area of research, you will need to consider: When was it written? (are its findings still relevant?) Who wrote it? (did the writer have an agenda or bias?) Where was it published? (is it a peer-reviewed journal, a reputable publisher, an online source?) Pitfalls of a literature review: Description rather than critical evaluation ‘Student drift’: i.e. writing about material that is peripheral to your topic Lack of a clear structure Limited sources or a reliance on online sources Useful sources of relevant literature: Google Scholar Databases (via Starplus) Journal articles (reference lists) Review articles Evidence and Data When developing your research methodology, you will need to identify sources to ensure that your data is both valid and reliable. Has an appropriate source of data been chosen? Are the collection and analysis methods appropriate? Can the research be trusted? Is it objective? Is there a clear record of methods and sources? 2 Are your sources: Primary Secondary First hand Second hand Immediate After the fact Raw Interpreted Data/findings Analysis E.g. Historical/ cultural research E.g. Literature review Quantitative Qualitative Numerical Verbal, narrative Objective Subjective Positivist Relativist Deductive Inductive Tests a theory Develops a theory Mixed methods research involves a combined approach to help triangulate and improve the reliability and validity of your findings. Other things to consider: Ethics Sample size and strategy Volume of data Quality of data Limitations related to your data Working with a Supervisor Some strategies to consider include: Share plans/ideas/work-in-progress with your supervisor EARLY Plan for meetings, sketch out an informal agenda Write down your main questions before the meeting. Don’t leave without answers! Be receptive to feedback and criticism Take notes/record the meeting on a smartphone References Nicola Whitton, Research Design: http://playthinklearn.net/blog/wp- content/uploads/2007/10/chapter3.pdf William Trochim (2006), Research Methods Knowledge Base: http://www.socialresearchmethods.net/kb/dedind.php Other support available at 301 Academic Writing workshops Editing and Proofreading workshops 1:1 study skills tutorials Book online via the 301 webpages: http://www.sheffield.ac.uk/ssid/301 3 How strong is my project: checklist Topic The area of research inspires and interests me The area of research falls into an area that is recognised as belonging to my discipline It is original: it offers a different angle, or uses different data from that of previous research I can do justice to the topic within the word limit and time limit There is a pre-existing body of literature that I can draw upon There are established research methods that I can apply to my topic Research Statement The statement is clear, so the reader is in no doubt what my research is about The statement is specific: it sets out what the parameters of the research will be The statement is consistent with the brief: it reflects the marking criteria for the project Planning Template Stage Duration Deadline Develop research proposal Clarify aims/objectives Literature Review Research Methods Data Collection Findings Conclusion Formatting/Proofreading 4 Dissertation structure Title Abstract Acknowledgements Contents Summary of the project in one or two paragraphs Include key findings Introduction Literature Review Methodology/ Chapter xx Research design Background Background Research focus Research focus Research Research objectives objectives Value of the Value of the research research 1.1, 1.2, 1.3, etc. 2.1, 2.2, 2.3, etc. Chapter xx Chapter xx Results/findings Conclusions Suggestions for action based on the research findings Recommendations References Bibliography Appendices Suggestions for All works cited in You may be Supporting details action based on the text should be required to list all and materials the research included in your works consulted Raw data (if findings references whether cited in appropriate) the text or not Sample data sets (if appropriate) 5 Project Design What is the main theme of your research in a single word or phrase? What supplementary words or phrases are needed to provide additional context? What is your draft research statement? What are your main research objectives? What are the sub- sections of your literature review? Potential sources of data Anticipated limitations 6 .