The-Carpathian-Mountains-A-Realm

216 The Carpathian Mountains, a realm of Sacred Natural Sites Sebastian Ca˘ta˘noiu

The Carpathian context 190 000 sq km, while the area of the broader Carpathian region is 470 000 The Carpathian Mountains form an arc sq km. roughly 1 500 km long across Central and Eastern Europe, making them the The Carpathians are considered to be a longest, largest and most twisted- reservoir with the highest biodiversity in shaped mountain range in Europe. Europe, including around 60 000 wild From the Danube Gap, near Bratislava, species. The wooded areas include the Slovakia, they swing in a wide cres- largest pristine forests on the continent, cent-shaped arc, surrounding Tran- while some primeval beech forests in scarpathia and Transylvania, to Ors¸ova, the Carpathians were designated as a Romania, at the section of the Danube UNESCO World Heritage Site. The fau- valley called the Iron Gate. With an the na includes the most significant popula- average elevation of around 850 m and tion of large carnivores in Europe its highest peak, Gerlach, in Slovakia, (bears, wolves, lynx), in addition to bi- rising at 2 655 m above sea level the sons, deer, boars, chamois, marmots elevation of the Carpathians is much and numerous bird species. The rich lower than this of the Alps. The total variety of the endemic plants and ani- surface area of the mountain chain is mals, characteristic of the Carpathian

< Nature and spirituality in Pieniny National Park, Poland

217 A map of the Carpathian Ecoregion ecosystems, form a relevant part of the other ethnic groups. A distinctive fea- European biodiversity. Beside the large ture of the Carpathian region is that in forest patches, areas of other land use each country minority groups from types, such as grasslands, cultivated neighbouring countries live. This ethni- fields and pastures are small; the relat- cally diverse and multicultural region is ed agro-biodiversity, though, is very further enriched by Russians, Jews, significant due to a long-established Germans, Greeks, Armenians and agricultural tradition, its most prominent Roma. However, specific minorities, elements being seasonal pasturing in such as the Rusyns, Lemkos, Bojkos, mountain meadows and the cultivation Hutsuls, Górals, Szeklers, Csángos, of local plants and trees varieties. and Mot¸i consider themselves different from the Carpathian nations (Nikitin et There are seven countries in the Car- al., 2009; Eberhardt, 2003). The moun- pathian region, and the total popula- tain ranges have divided and isolated tion of around 20 million people is di- these populations from each other for vided among seven nations: the Hun- centuries, and as a result they have garians, Ukrainians, Slovaks, Czechs, developed and kept their own beliefs, Poles, Romanians, Serbs and several dialects and ethnic identities.

218 Throughout history, the Carpathian re- reason to rank Lepenski Vir as one of gion has been a ‘border area’ for the the most outstanding spiritual sites in large empires, such as the Ottoman, the European and world prehistory. Habsburg, or Russian/Soviet. Solidarity Around 1000 BC, the Geto-Dacian civi- rather than joining of forces was in the lisation had spread through the entire political agenda and strategies of the Carpathian Mountains region. The smaller nations in this ‘border area’; main deity of the Geto-Dacians was moreover, the great powers sustained Zamolxe, its name deriving from the hostility among these nations. The state words ‘zelmo’ that means skin and ‘olx- borders changed many times, and in is’ that means bear. According to my- some areas even the ethnic composi- thology, after his birth he was blanket- tion of the population changed substan- ed in a bearskin and spent long parts tially. For all these reasons, the border of his life living in an underground areas remained deliberately underde- cave, appearing and teaching people veloped and were not industrialised; occasionally. This is why each ancient during the communist era even the col- sacred place in the Carpathians is as- lectivisation was not carried out in some sociated with caves or tunnels. The mountainous areas, so the direct im- centre of this civilisation, located now pact of modernity, with all its implica- in Gra˘dis¸tea Muncelului Cioclovina Na- tions, is quite low, even today. ture Park, Romania, is a colossal com- plex of hundreds of temples, sanctuar- ies and fortresses spread over an area Ancient sacred natural sites of around 3000 square kilometres. All Lepenski Vir, situated in the Carpathian the mountains around this complex are Mountains near Danube in Djerdap terraced and walled. The Dacian build- National Park, Serbia, is considered ings and complexes are positioned fol- the oldest urban settlement in Europe. lowing precise geometrical patterns, It was a permanent settlement estab- occult symbols, and maps of the sky. lished at a time when elsewhere in Eu- The greatest achievement and mystery rope only temporary shelters of no- of this ancient civilisation is the capital, madic hunters were in use. Lepenski Sarmisegetuza, called also the ‘City Vir was a Mesolithic site of significant Calendar’. ‘Sanctuarul Mare Rotund’ religious importance. The fishlike hu- (Big Round Sanctuary) has an identi- cal structure with Stonehenge, where- manoid figural sculptures discovered as another sanctuary, called ‘Soarele are related to primeval religion, and de Andezit’ (The Andesito Sun), re- represent one of the oldest stone sembles strongly the famous Maya cal- sculptures in Europe. The remains of endar. (Daicoviciu, 1991). numerous sacral buildings dating from 6500 BC to 5500 BC have been found. The Romanian Carpathians are famous Artefacts covered with pictograms dat- for their cultic anthropomorphic rocks, ed around 5000 BC, constitute another the most famous being the ‘Sphynx’

219 (which has the same height as the Caraiman Peak and a vast system of Egyptian one), the ‘Babele’ (The Old caves, some of them not yet explored. Women) in Bucegi Nature Park, and The top of Caraiman, due to its numer- ‘The Twelve Apostles’ in Ca˘limani Na- ous anthropomorphic rocks positioned tional Park. For ancient Romanians, the in a specific way, is considered to be sky, ‘cerul’ in Romanian, was called an immense stellar temple, compared ’Caelus Manus’, ‘Kerus Manus’, or ‘Duo- with Glastonbury (Geticus, 2003). The nus Cerus’ that means the Lord Sky. The Bucegi Mountain is considered to be actual name of some Romanian moun- an intersection of Earth energy lines, tains such as ‘Ca˘li-man’ and ‘Carai-man’ an area of very strange magnetic ab- represent not only the mountain, but normality. It has been discovered that also Divinity (Geticus, 2003). In Roma- a specific site near the Ialomicioara nia, there are three Caraiman Mountains Cave had positive effects on human and four Calimani Mountains, all of them bodies, resetting physical and chemi- considered sacred. cal bodily functions to normal state The Bucegi Mountain, located in the and restoring energy levels. In the Bucegi Nature Park, Romania, is be- popular Romanian tradition this site is lieved to be one of the possible loca- called the ‘Gura de Rai’ (the Mouth of tions of the Dacian holy mountain Heaven), and is considered to be sa- Kogainon, in which Zalmoxe resided in cred, a gate between different worlds, a cave. In that mountain, there are a road to Heaven. Because of the com- some amazing and mysterious places bination of these unique features and like the Omu Peak, known as ‘Zamolxe its natural beauties, Bucegi Nature throne’, which includes the name ‘om’ Park is currently the most visited park that is also the sacred syllable of Hin- in Romania, receiving around one mil- duism and Buddhism as well as the lion visitors per year.

Mosul, Calimani National Park, Romania. The Romanian word Mosul means the Old Man, but it is also a popular name for the Divinity.

220 In Ceahla˘u National Park, Romania, the stream religions established their own Ceahla˘u Mountain, called the ’Romani- shrines and places of worship in their an Olympus’ is considered since times vicinities. It is the Ceahla˘u Mountain, immemorial a holy mountain. It is visi- which, due to its ancient age and the ble from the Black Sea coast, 500 km actual monastic life, is considered the away. A strange phenomenon occurs second holiest mountain of Christian regularly: in the first week of August, at Orthodoxy, after Mt Athos. Another ex- sunrise, the shadow of two of its peaks ample is the Sinaia Monastery, also forms, for one hour and half, a spectac- called ‘the cathedral’ of the Bucegi ular hologram of a pyramid. At the Mountains, which was built on the main same period of time, above the Toaca road to the Bucegi Plateau, where the Peak, which has a perfect square py- ancient sacred site was located. The ramidal shape, for some minutes, an in- entrance to the famous Lalomicioara tense light pillar goes up towards the cave, the place from where Zamolxe sky. Some researchers believe that supposedly has disappeared, is nowa- Ceahla˘u Mountain is traversed by one days guarded by an Orthodox Monas- of the energetic axes of the Earth tery. Another outstanding sacred (www.2012en.wordpress.com). The place is Dobogóko˝, which is frequently ’Dobogóko˝’ (The Pulsating Stone), Pilis visited by high-level priests, Buddhist area, Duna-Ipoly National Park, Hunga- monks, and healers from around the ry, is considered to be the Earth’s heart world. Even the Chinese Shaolin order chakra. It is in the same place that At- has created its Eastern European mon- tila the Hun chose to place the centre astery close to this sacred site. of his great empire. When the Dalai The highly spiritual sites up in the Lama visited Hungary he declared: mountains, the processions, the calen- ‘The approach and behaviour of Tibet, dars, and even the physical locations similarly to other holy knowledge, sees of the early churches were clearly the and experiences the eternity as unity. same of those of the ancient shrines. According to this, the so-called power Many significant names also testify to and energy centres are being counted, their long history. For instance, Saint not only in a human body, but on the Andrew, who introduced Christianity­ Earth as well. According to the tradi- to Romania, is locally known as tion, the Earth heart chakra is in Hun- the ‘Apostle of the wolves’ - a name gary, more exactly in the area called charged with profound connotations, Pilis­ .’ (www.docstoc.com) given that the wolf was one of the spir- itual ancestors of Dacians and its head An amazing mixture of beliefs was both a significant ethnic and a mil- itary symbol for them. Another exam- concerning nature ple is the myth of Rusalii, according to Recognising the importance and the which the souls of the girls who die value of the ancient sacred sites, main- young can be seen sailing through the

221 sky or in the forest, in a gracious bear masks, which is very spectacular dance. If they happen to be seen or in the Moldavia region, represents the heard by someone, that person death and resurrection of nature, also shouldn’t move or speak to the spirits. demonstrating vitality, finesse and force. Given the fact that these an- For Hutsul people (of Ukraine) the Car- cient beliefs are deeply rooted and fre- pathian Mountains are the land of quently met in local traditions, the bear ’bisytsyas’, beautiful ethereal women is currently quite abundant in forested who, with their song, lure men to their areas of Romania; their population ac- demise. This myth was assimilated counts for two thirds of the entire Euro- with the Christian Post-Pascal feast pean brown bear population. (Gorovei, day of The Fiftieth Day, which became 2003). the Pentecost ‘Rusalii’ Sunday. ‘Rusalii’ is the traditional feast day which is cel- In the Carpathians some ancient Pre- ebrated on the same day with the Fifti- Christian rituals and beliefs are still eth Day, being devoted especially to alive, and have survived Christianity. the celebration of the spirits of the The ‘molfars’ (for Hutsul people, Vys- dead. nytsky National Park, Ukraine), are wise botanical healers who gather me- Zamolxe, the brown bear, known in folk dicinal plants from the mountainscape, beliefs as ‘Martin’, ‘Martin the crone’ or and use chanting and music from a ‘the elder’, was a sacred animal for the small instrument known as ’drimba’ in Geto-Dacians. Even today in the popu- the healing process. They have an in- lar calendar, which combines phenol- timate and loving relationship with all ogy with pre-Christian and Christian components of the natural world, from events, the brown bear is well repre- Earth to water, fire to forest and all of sented; 24 March is the ‘Saturday of the animal and plant life of the Car- the bear’, 31 July, 1, 2 and 13 August pathian environment. The Goddesses are the ‘Days of the Bear’. The most of Kopanice or the Mystery Wise Wom- important period for the bear is 1–3 en (White Carpathians Protected Land- February, which is called ‘Sretenie’ scape Area, Czech Republic) can heal (Winter Martins). Offerings consisting a person using only curative herbs, of meat and honey are left in the forest, can find lost or stolen things or give near a passage of the bear, on 2 Feb- good advice in partnership relation ruary, which is called ‘The big Martin’. problems. Within the isolated commu- For all Carpathians the twelve cosmo- nities of the Romanian Carpathians gonic days from Christmas to Epipha- (Apuseni Nature Park, Munt¸ii ny represent the clearest example of Maramures¸ului Nature Park) certain syncretism between Christianity and people, especially old women, know pre-Christian faiths. In accordance and use magic incantations against ill- with pagan heritage, masks are used ness, bad luck, hex, etc. during the winter feasts in order to avoid malevolent spirits. The game of

222 Christian sacred natural sites sent a marvellous blend of Western and Eastern influences; there are Ro- Nowadays, the majority of the inhabit- manian Orthodox churches with a ants of the Carpathian area are Chris- Gothic architecture, but also Polish Ro- tians, and many of them are strong be- mano-Catholic churches with Orthodox lievers. A large part of the Polish, Slo- onion shaped spires. The craftsmen vak, Czech and Hungarian population were able to build these amazing is Roman Catholic. There are also Hun- buildings only with wood, without using garian Calvinists and German Luther- any iron nails or any written plans, just ans. The Szeklers belong to the Tran- using their knowledge, a secret trans- sylvanian Unitarian Church, which is a mitted only to chosen members of their religion established in and spread from guild. the Carpathian area. The majority of the Ukrainians, Romanians and Serbs Another old custom of the region, are Eastern Orthodox Christians. The which is still preserved nowadays, was Greek Catholic Church has a special that monks built small hermitages in significance in the Carpathian region, the vicinity of their monastery. Along because the greatest part of its adher- the years, many of these hermitages ents live in this part of Europe, mostly have grown, becoming new monaster- Ukrainians and Romanians, but also ies with their own priors. Slovaks and Hungarians. In all coun- Because there were many invasions, tries of the region, owing to the current wars and riots during the Middle Ages, deterioration of living conditions, the some of the Carpathian churches and collapse of earlier systems and ideals monasteries were strongly fortified. contributes to the increase of the num- Outstanding examples are the German ber of adherents of new Christian reli- fortified churches in Transylvania that gious movements. have been declared World Heritage Characteristic of the Carpathian region Sites (Biertan, Câlnic, Dârjiu, Prejmer, are the centuries-old wooden church- Saschiz, Valea Viilor, and Viscri). es, adapted perfectly to the landscape The number of Christian Sacred Natu- and to the small local communities, ral Sites of the Carpathians is very scattered in the forests. The most sig- large, although, at this moment a com- nificant wooden churches in Romania plete inventory does not exist. Only in- (Bârsana, Budesti, Desesti, Ieud, Plo- ¸ ¸ side the legally established protected pis, Poienile Izei, Rogoz, surdesti), Slo- ¸ ¸ ¸ areas of Romania, there are 198 oper- vakia (Hervartov, Tvrdošín, Hronsek, ating churches, monasteries and her- Leštiny, Kežmarok, Bodružal, Ruská mitages, populated by around 1800 Bystrá, Ladomirová) and in Poland monks and nuns. It suffices to mention (Binarowa, Blizne, Debno, Haczów, ¸ only some protected areas where Lipnica Dolna, Sekowa) have been de- ¸ these kinds of sites exist at a higher clared World Heritage Sites. The archi- concentration: tectural forms of these churches repre-

223 • Vâna˘tori Neamt¸ Nature Park, Roma- strongly connected with the local com- nia, the spiritual heart of Romania: 16 munities and those beyond them as monasteries and hermitages (Nea- well, often through pilgrimages. As re- mt¸, Secu, Siha˘stria, Sihla, Vîratec, gards the mountain range of the Car- Agapia, etc) are located inside the pathians, it is estimated that there are Park boundaries as well as around more than 400 places of pilgrimage, 40 churches, small hermitages, and while in the whole Carpathian region monasteries in the proximity. their number is approximately 700. Most • Munt¸ii Maramures¸ului Nature Park, of these pilgrimage sites are small and Romania: it hosts over 60 churches. only of local significance, but 50 to 60 of • Gra˘dis¸tea Muncelului Cioclovina Na- them have national significance, and ture Park, Romania: 10 churches are some 10 to 15 are of international situated within its boundaries. importance. • Port¸ile de Fier Nature Park Nature Park, Romania: more than 30 church- The most famous and the most fre- es, monasteries and hermitages can quented pilgrimage sites in the Car- be found in its territory. pathian region are the following: • Poloniny National Park, Slovakia, has • In the Polish Carpathian region: the the highest number of old wooden Jasna Góra monastery in Czesto- churches among all national parks in chowa, visited every year by several Slovakia: Ulicˇské krivé, Jalová, Ruský million pilgrims; the Calvary Sanctu- Potok, Topol’a, Kalná Roztoka. ary in Kalwaria Zebrzydowska, the Another characteristic feature of the Sa- biggest compound of its kind in Eu- cred Natural Sites in the Carpathians is rope and Poland’s second most im- that they are not only alive but also portant historic destination for pil-

The Agapia Veche Convent, Vâna˘ tori Neamt¸ Nature Park, Romania is a holy place dedicated to cenobitic life. Destroyed and rebuilt many times during the centuries, the Agapia Veche Con- vent (Old Agapia) was established in the fourteenth century.

224 grims; Wadowice, the birthplace of Maramures¸ului Nature Park (Moisei, Pope John Paul II visited by around Bogdan Voda, Rozavlea, and Bâr- 200 000 pilgrims yearly, etc (Borsa sana). The main pilgrimage place of et al., 2009). the Catholic Hungarians in Romania • In the Czech Carpathian region the is the church and monastery in most significant sites of pilgrimage s¸umuleu Ciuc (around 300 000 pil- are: Velehrad and Krˇtiny (White grims yearly). Carpathians). • In the Ukrainian Carpathian region • In the Slovakian Carpathian region, pilgrimage destinations are Krekhiv the main national pilgrimage places (miracle working icons), Hrushiv (ap- are Nitra, related with the Saints Cyril parition of Virgin Mary) etc. and Methodius, the creators of the The presence of the monastic commu- Glagolitic alphabet which was creat- nities and hermits living in solitude in ed to transcribe the Old Church Sla- vonic language; the Zobor Mountain the wilderness is another characteris- where the first monastery in Slovakia tic of the Carpathians. Only in the Ro- was built; Hronský Benˇadik, related manian Carpathians, monastic com- with the Benedictine abbey estab- munities are found within 13 National lished in 1075, all in or close to Ponit- and Nature Parks. The life of these mo- rie Protected Landscape Area; the nastic communities in forested areas, Levocˇa Marianská Hora church, close usually living in harsh conditions, often to Slovenský Raj National Park; Lit- includes an efficient use of pasture manová, the place of an apparition of lands, hay fields, and glades. The mo- Virgin Mary, in Pieniny National Park. nastic communities have a long-estab- • In the Hungarian Carpathian region lished tradition of wise use of natural the most famous pilgrimage sites are resources, in order to cover only their Máriapócs, Máriaremete, Márianosz- essential needs, giving to the natural tra, and Bélapátfalva all situated in elements found in the Carpathians Bukk National Park. some utilitarian, cultural and spiritual • In the Romanian Carpathian region, value. Thanks to the ancient monastic the Orthodox monasteries are the recipes, the plants and herbs that main pilgrimage destinations. There grow near the monasteries are famous are four main concentration areas of for their medicinal qualities. Brother monasteries: those of Bucovina (Hu- Cyprian, an eighteenth century monk mor, Voronet¸, Moldovit¸a, and from cˇervený Kláštor, Slovakia (Pieniny Sucevit¸a), Neamt¸ region and National Park), who was a famous Vâna˘tori Neamt¸ Nature Park (Neamt¸, pharmacist, is only one of many well- Secu, Vovidenia, Agapia, Siha˘stria, known examples. Each monastic com- Va˘ratec, etc), the valley of River Olt, munity practises a number of tradition- Buila Vânturarit¸a National Park and al activities without a significant nega- Cozia National Park (Hurezi, Curtea tive impact on the environment, such de Arges¸, Cozia, Bistrit¸a) and Munt¸ii as livestock farming, woodcraft, fruit

225 growing, picking of mushrooms and many of them are not even marked forest fruits, apiculture, weaving, pro- (Borsa et al., 2009). Nowadays, these ducing of traditional drinks from fruits, cemeteries represent places of pil- bakery, and fishing from ponds. grimage and self-communion. This has happened all around the Carpathians; This resilient model, characterised by an astonishing characteristic example a sustainable consumption and pro- is the establishment of the Sfânta Cru- duction, has not served to produce ce (The Holy Cross) Hermitage in large amounts of food; the small sur- Vâna˘tori Neamt¸ Nature Park, Romania, pluses are sold in the monastic stores a place where thousands of Romanian, or used as alms during the religious German and Russian soldiers were feasts. The hundreds of years of the killed during a battle of WW II. The monastic ownership of the land, and corpses of the soldiers were not bur- the continuous presence of the monas- ied; they were simply left there decay- tic communities during that time, ing, because their number was great, shaped the Carpathian landscapes in the front line moved rapidly and the particular ways. political situation changed; as a result In some cases (Agapia Convent and the surrounding forest has become a Va˘ratec Convent, Vâna˘tori Neamt¸ Na- sacred one. The Heroes Cross on the ture Park, Romania) the monastic com- Caraiman Mountain (Bucegi Natural munities are not organised in monaster- Park, Romania), 28 m high, is the tall- ies but in monastic villages, developed est structure in the world dedicated to according to self-sufficiency rules. the heroes who died during World War These villages have their own post offic- I, situated at an altitude of over 2000 es, dispensaries, mills and stores, and metres. Nowadays this cross is also a are almost entirely self-sufficient. subject of pilgrimage, not only for those who want to pay their respects or honour the heroes, but also to wor- Modern sacred natural sites ship the Divinity on the top of a sacred mountain. During the World Wars, the Carpathi- ans region was the scene of some of At the end of the nineteenth century, the largest and desperate battles. the Jewish population in the Carpathi- Only in World War I nearly two million an region was estimated at around 5 soldiers died on the Galician and Ro- million people. Since then, especially manian fronts. Because of changes of during and after World War II, their borders and translocation of popula- number rapidly decreased, and as a tions related with the disappearance of result, the old synagogues and Jewish the Austro-Hungarian Empire after cemeteries are now an object of atten- World War I, as well as the Soviet dom- tion for their descendants, which ination after World War II, the graves of spread all around the world. The Car- the solders are not cared for, while pathian Mountains are related with the

226 The Dacian King Decebalus, Port¸ile de Fier Nature Park, Romania. This statue, started in 1994 and finished in 2004, is the tallest rock sculpture in Europe (40 m high), located on the rock bank of River Danube. birth of the ’Hasidic’ (the word deriving resurrection of the ancient Pre-Christian from the Hebrew word ‘Hasid’ meaning beliefs, even of the Zamolxe cult. pious, righteous, invigorated and Not only the former sanctuaries and alive). It is an important mystical move- worship places are used, but also new ment founded by Baal Shem Tov in the artistic creations became the subject seventeenth century, one of the great- of spiritual interest, like the statue of est luminaries of the Jewish people. the Dacian King Decebalus, carved in His later followers said that going out to nature to speak to God in our own stone, in Port¸ile de Fier Nature Park, language is the secret to spiritual Romania. growth for every Jew and every human being. Based on the teaching of Baal Shem Tov, his great grandson, Rebbe Sacred natural sites, local Nachman wrote: ‘When a person medi- communities and nature tates in the fields, all the grasses join in conservation his prayer and increase its effective- A characteristic feature of the Car- ness and power.’ pathian area is that there are several In Domogled-Valea Cernei National places inhabited by more than one na- Park, Romania, near Herculane, 3000 to tionality, with distinctive cultural herit- 5000 yoga adepts from all over Europe age, while there are areas which were meet every spring, to do several medi- inhabited in the past by national and tative practices together, including a religious groups who do not live there yang spiral. On the other hand, the New anymore. Thinking especially about Age movements are interested in the the ancient Sacred Natural Sites, it is

227 obvious that the sacredness of some a divine creation, and allows raise of of them does not present a spiritual in- awareness for environmental matters terest for contemporary local commu- and dissemination of sound nature nities, and preservation works in these protection practices. But more impor- sites is carried out only for touristic tantly, visits in these sacred natural purposes. Even in this case, however, sites require not only external cleanli- local communities are usually interest- ness, but also internal purity and a rev- ed in maintaining unchanged the envi- erential attitude. Therefore, affirming ronmental quality of these sites. the sacred values of landscapes, sites and species is a necessary step to It is indisputable that Sacred Natural protect nature, emphasising thus the Sites which are currently important for amazing integration of the natural and the local communities play a key role spiritual features of the Carpathian in nature conservation, because each region. of them conveys respect for Nature as

228 References Borsa, M., Chifelea, C., Egerer, H., Gal, Z., Glowacki, W., Halas, M., Hopfgartner, V., Illes, I., Niewiadomski, Z., Ptacek, P. and Wiederwald, D. (2009), VASICA - Vi- sions and Strategies in the Carpathian Area, Bolzano: Printeam, pp. 93-115.

Daicoviciu, H. (1991), Dacii, Chis¸ina˘u: Hyperion. Eberhardt, P. (2003), Ethnic Groups and Population Changes in Twentieth-century Central-Eastern Europe, London: M. E. Sharpe.

Geticus (2003), La Dacie Hyperboreenne, Puiseaux: Pardes.

Gorovei, A. (2003), Credinti si superstitii ale poporului roman [Beliefs and super- stitions of the Romanian people], 2nd edn, Bucuresti: Grai si suflet-Cultura Nationala.

Nikitin, A.G., Kochkin, I.T., June, C.M., Willis, C.M., McBain, I. and Videiko, M.Y. (2009), Mitochondrial DNA sequence variation in Boyko, Hutsul and Lemko popu- lations of Carpathian highlands. Human Biology 81 (1): 43–58. http://www.2012en.wordpress.com/2008/07/20/misterele-Ceahla˘ului-fenomene- paranormale-pe-muntele-lui-zamolxis/, accessed 28 October 2010. http://www.docstoc.com/docs/46748553/Pulsating-stone-(Dobogk)--where-the- hearth-of-the-Earth-beats, accessed 28 October 2010.

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