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An Introduction to Geology and Hard Rock Mining

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An Introduction to Geology and Hard Rock Mining ROCKY MOUNTAIN MINERAL LAW FOUNDATION Science and Technology Series AN INTRODUCTION TO GEOLOGY AND HARD ROCK MINING By Dr. Willard Lacy Table of Contents A NOTE ABOUT THE AUTHOR ...................................................................................................................................... III LIST OF FIGURES ........................................................................................................................................................... V LIST OF TABLES .......................................................................................................................................................... VIII INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................................................................. 1 PRINCIPAL REFERENCES FOR THE SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY OF GEOLOGY AND HARD ROCK MINING ................. 2 BASIC GEOLOGY ............................................................................................................................................................ 3 I. FIELDS OF BASIC GEOLOGY AND DEFINITION OF MINERALS.............................................................. 3 II. GEOLOGICAL PROCESSES .................................................................................................................. 5 A. IGNEOUS PROCESSES .................................................................................................................... 6 B. WEATHERING AND EROSION ........................................................................................................ 8 C. SEDIMENTATION .......................................................................................................................... 8 D. METAMORPHISM ......................................................................................................................... 9 E. TECTONIC PROCESSES .................................................................................................................. 9 F. MINERAL DEPOSITION .................................................................................................................. 9 III. GEOLOGICAL STRUCTURES .............................................................................................................. 11 A. IGNEOUS STRUCTURES ............................................................................................................... 11 B. SEDIMENTARY STRUCTURES ...................................................................................................... 11 C. TECTONIC STRUCTURES .............................................................................................................. 13 D. LANDFORMS ............................................................................................................................... 13 IV. GEOLOGICAL TIME SCALE ................................................................................................................ 13 V. ECONOMIC GEOLOGY ..................................................................................................................... 15 VI. DEFINITIONS .................................................................................................................................... 15 A. ORE ............................................................................................................................................. 15 B. WASTE ........................................................................................................................................ 18 C. CUT-OFF ...................................................................................................................................... 18 VII. ORE-FORMING PROCESSES ......................................................................................................... 18 A. Weathering and erosion ............................................................................................................. 18 B. Igneous/volcanic processes ........................................................................................................ 18 C. Sedimentation/diagenesis. ......................................................................................................... 18 D. Tectonic/metamorphic processes ............................................................................................... 22 VIII. CLASSIFICATION OF MINERAL DEPOSITS .................................................................................... 22 A. Titley’s classification ................................................................................................................... 27 B. Additional classifications ............................................................................................................ 27 IX. STRUCTURES OF MINERAL DEPOSITS .............................................................................................. 31 X. RECOGNITION ................................................................................................................................. 43 PROSPECTING AND EXPLORATION ............................................................................................................................. 44 I. MINERAL EXPLORATION .................................................................................................................. 44 A. OBJECTIVES ................................................................................................................................. 45 B. STRATEGIES ................................................................................................................................ 45 C. TACTICS....................................................................................................................................... 45 II. MINERAL LAND OWNERSHIP ........................................................................................................... 61 A. FEDERAL LANDS .......................................................................................................................... 61 B. STATE LANDS .............................................................................................................................. 61 C. PRIVATE LANDS .......................................................................................................................... 61 III. TRESPASS......................................................................................................................................... 62 EVALUATION OF MINERAL DEPOSITS ......................................................................................................................... 63 I. DEPOSIT EVALUATION ..................................................................................................................... 63 i A. EVALUATION OF EXPLORATION PROGRAM ............................................................................... 63 B. COST/BENEFIT ANALYSES ........................................................................................................... 68 C. ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ......................................................................................................... 68 D. ORE RESERVE/RESOURCE ESTIMATION ...................................................................................... 69 E. COSTS AND COST ESTIMATION ................................................................................................... 83 II. FINANCING ...................................................................................................................................... 85 FINANCIAL ANALYSIS .................................................................................................................................................. 91 I. FEASIBILITY ANALYSIS ...................................................................................................................... 91 A. OBJECTIVES ................................................................................................................................. 91 B. DETERMINATION OF CAPITAL COSTS ......................................................................................... 91 C. RISK ANALYSIS ............................................................................................................................ 92 II. MARKETING AND FINANCING ......................................................................................................... 92 A. PRODUCER PRICING ................................................................................................................... 94 B. EXCHANGE-BASED PRICING ........................................................................................................ 94 C. INDUSTRIAL MINERALS............................................................................................................... 95 D. MINERAL PRICES ......................................................................................................................... 95 III. FINANCING MINE DEVELOPMENT ................................................................................................... 95 METHODS OF MINING AND MILLING ......................................................................................................................... 98 I. MINING METHODS .......................................................................................................................... 98 A. SURFACE MINING
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