STUDIES OF THE AMERICAS edited by Maxine Molyneux Institute for the Study of the Americas University of London School of Advanced Study Titles in this series are multidisciplinary studies of aspects of the societies of the hemi- sphere, particularly in the areas of politics, economics, history, anthropology, sociology, and the environment. The series covers a comparative perspective across the Americas, including Canada and the as well as the United States and Latin America. Titles in this series published by Palgrave Macmillan: Cuba’s Military 1990–2005: Revolutionary Soldiers during Counter-Revolutionary Times By Hal Klepak The Judicialization of Politics in Latin America Edited by Rachel Sieder, Line Schjolden, and Alan Angell Latin America: A New Interpretation By Laurence Whitehead Appropriation as Practice: Art and Identity in Argentina By Arnd Schneider America and Enlightenment Constitutionalism Edited by Gary L. McDowell and Johnathan O’Neill Vargas and Brazil: New Perspectives Edited by Jens R. Hentschke When Was Latin America Modern? Edited by Nicola Miller and Stephen Hart Debating Cuban Exceptionalism Edited by Bert Hoffman and Laurence Whitehead Caribbean Land and Development Revisited Edited by Jean Besson and Janet Momsen Cultures of the Lusophone Black Atlantic Edited by Nancy Priscilla Naro, Roger Sansi-Roca, and David H. Treece Democratization, Development, and Legality: Chile, 1831–1973 By Julio Faundez The Hispanic World and American Intellectual Life, 1820–1880 By Iván Jaksic´ The Role of Mexico’s Plural in Latin American Literary and Political Culture: From Tlatelolco to the “Philanthropic Ogre” By John King Faith and Impiety in Revolutionary Mexico Edited by Matthew Butler Reinventing Modernity in Latin America: Intellectuals Imagine the Future, 1900–1930 By Nicola Miller The Republican Party and Immigration Politics: From Proposition 187 to George W. Bush By Andrew Wroe The Political Economy of Hemispheric Integration: Responding to Globalization in the Americas Edited by Diego Sánchez-Ancochea and Kenneth C. Shadlen Ronald Reagan and the 1980s: Perceptions, Policies, Legacies Edited by Cheryl Hudson and Gareth Davies Wellbeing and Development in Peru: Local and Universal Views Confronted Edited by James Copestake The Federal Nation: Perspectives on American Federalism Edited by Iwan W. Morgan and Philip J. Davies Base Colonies in the Western Hemisphere, 1940–1967 By Steven High Beyond Neoliberalism in Latin America? Societies and Politics at the Crossroads Edited by John Burdick, Philip Oxhorn, and Kenneth M. Roberts Visual Synergies in Fiction and Documentary Film from Latin America Edited by Miriam Haddu and Joanna Page Cuban Medical Internationalism: Origins, Evolution, and Goals By John M. Kirk and H. Michael Erisman Governance after Neoliberalism in Latin America Edited by Jean Grugel and Pía Riggirozzi Modern Poetics and Hemispheric American Cultural Studies By Justin Read Youth Violence in Latin America: Gangs and Juvenile Justice in Perspective Edited by Gareth A. Jones and Dennis Rodgers The Origins of Mercosur By Gian Luca Gardini Belize’s Independence & Decolonization in Latin America: Guatemala, Britain, and the UN By Assad Shoman Post-Colonial Trinidad: An Ethnographic Journal By Colin Clarke and Gillian Clarke Post-Colonial Trinidad An Ethnographic Journal

Colin Clarke and Gillian Clarke POST-COLONIAL TRINIDAD Copyright © Colin Clarke and Gillian Clarke, 2010. Softcover reprint of the hardcover 1st edition 2010 978-0-230-62200-5 All rights reserved. First published in 2010 by PALGRAVE MACMILLAN® in the United States—a division of St. Martin’s Press LLC, 175 Fifth Avenue, New York, NY 10010. Where this book is distributed in the UK, Europe and the rest of the world, this is by Palgrave Macmillan, a division of Macmillan Publishers Limited, registered in England, company number 785998, of Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire RG21 6XS. Palgrave Macmillan is the global academic imprint of the above companies and has companies and representatives throughout the world. Palgrave® and Macmillan® are registered trademarks in the United States, the United Kingdom, Europe and other countries. ISBN 978-1-349-38378-8 ISBN 978-0-230-10685-7 (eBook) DOI 10.1057/9780230106857 Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data is available from the Library of Congress. A catalogue record of the book is available from the British Library. Design by Newgen Imaging Systems (P) Ltd., Chennai, . First edition: May 2010 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 To the memory of Bramadath Maharaj, Hansar Ramsamooj, George Sammy, and Ena Scott-Jack, and with gratitude to all who assisted with the fieldwork This page intentionally left blank Contents

List of Figures ix List of Plates xi Glossary xiii

Introduction 1 Colin Clarke Part 1 Settling In 21 Part 2 Taking Soundings 43 Part 3 Conversations 149

References 233 Index 237 This page intentionally left blank Figures

1 Trinidad: selected place-names and communications in the 1960s. 5 2 San Fernando: major place-names and institutions. 8 3 South-west Trinidad: place-names mentioned in the text, and roads. 10 This page intentionally left blank Plates

1 An ajoupa with thatched roof, wooden house, and modern concrete houses on stilts, edge of the Oropuche Lagoon, Débé. 36 2 Gandhi and, under the spire, the mandir (temple), Todd Street, San Fernando, looking south toward the cane-fields of Naparima. 45 3 Drumming during the milap (meeting of the fathers of the and groom), Hindu , San Fernando. 83 4 Tempting the groom and his siballa (companion or best-man) out of the wedding car during parchan (ritual greeting of groom at the bride’s home), , San Fernando. Note the wearing of the oronhi (veil) by the women. 84 5 Milap (meeting of the fathers of the bride and groom), wedding, San Fernando. The bride’s father—in glasses—and the pundits are wearing (loin cloth) and (shirt). The Hindu spiritual leader of Trinidad, Jankieprasad Sharma, is carrying the black umbrella. In the background is the maro ( booth). 91 6 Hansar Ramsamooj (in white hat) resting during the singing of (hymns). 110 7 Anjuman Sumat al Jamaat (ASJA) mosque, Mucurapo Street, San Fernando. The white building with green features is oriented toward Mecca, and out of alignment with the street. 121 8 Muslim bride and groom leaving the bride’s home after their wedding, Princes Town. 128 xii PLATES

9 Bramadath Maharaj near Felicity. 130 10 (ceremony devoted to goddess Durga) being performed by Dharam Pundit and his wife. Note the brass lotah (round vessel) and tarriah (circular tray), and the rum bottle containing (clarified butter). 162 Glossary

The nonstandard English terms in the glossary have been checked against Lise Winer’s Dictionary of the English/Creole of , 2009. However, as there is no published dictionary of Bhojpuri (in Trinidad originally thought to have been Hindi, as our informants indicate), I have selected one of the several orthographies given by Winer for words in that language. aarti Hindu worship, a ritual in which a small fire in a flat container or lamp is moved in circular motion in front of a god or person abir purple dye thrown on celebrants during or Phagwa aguwah marriage broker agwani meeting up of bride’s and groom’s fathers at the beginning of an Arya Samaji wedding, during which the fathers one another aji father’s mother ajoupa house with wattle-and-daub walls and thatched roof of dried palm leaves akika Muslim sacrificial rite held seven days after a child’s birth aloo potato anchar a sweet or salty peppery preserve made from green unripe fruit, usually mangoes ashram abode or hall attached to or mandir badnazur evil eye Bakra Eid festival celebrating the story of Abraham’s forestalled sacrifice of Isaac (also known as Eid ul Azha) bap father barahi 12 days after a Hindu child’s birth xiv GLOSSARY barat motorcade, involving Hindu groom and his entourage as they pro- ceed to the home of the bride; traditionally they would have ridden on a horse barka-chotki husband’s eldest brother/wife, an avoidance relationship barka mai big aunty Bhagwat Yagya weeklong ceremony, involving the reading and exposition of Bhagvata-Purana or the Bhagavad-Gita Hindu hymn or holy song with words in Hindi bhandari to make persad birha traditional Indian songs sung at Hindu wedding black African (of slave origin in the Caribbean) bobol corruption, graft, or fraud brown mixed racial group of white-black origin channa a cultivated edible pea or chick pea charidar gather flowers and make chati sixth day after birth of Hindu child chauk chela initiate or pupil of a spiritual leader Christian East Indian Indian Christian convert from Islam or , or a descendant churkee topknot on shaven head class a socioeconomic grouping (class) ranked in power, prestige, and con- sumption capacity from low to medium to high class color-class a common feature of Caribbean societies is a close relationship between color and class, so that white, brown, and black coincide closely with upper-, middle- and lower-class categories color(ed) mixed race group, between black and white coolie term applied to Asian indentured laborers on the Caribbean sugar plantations, here East Indian coolie English English Creole spoken by East Indians crapaud French Creole for toad Creole a person born in the Caribbean, but of foreign descent; a term that distinguishes white, colored, and black West Indians (the categories GLOSSARY xv

created and ranked during plantation slavery) from all others, notably East Indians Creole Trinidad language variant of English and French, hence English Creole and French Creole culture behavior associated with distinct religious, familial, or educational beliefs and practices, or a combination of them dada father’s elder brother, or equivalent dadi father’s elder brother’s wife, or equivalent dal lentil, split pea dal puja garlanding ceremony during Hindu wedding, as the groom’s elder brother makes gifts to the bride dalpuri a flat Indian bread, like a roti, with a dal (lentil) filling deota Hindu god dewan secretary dhantal iron bar used for percussion religious duty cylindrical Indian , played at both ends with hands dhoti loincloth with appearance of loose trousers dia small, red clay lamp, filled with oil and lit with a cotton wick didi older female sibling or cousin festival of lights, devoted to , and celebrating the return from the forest of Lord and his wife doolaha doolahin bride dougla (Hindi for hybrid) meaning an East Indian and black mixture (pro- nounced doo-gla) ceremony dedicated to goddess Durga to ward off sickness Dwar puja ceremony of the gateway at Hindu East Indian indentured laborer from India and descendants Eid ul Fitr feast ending fast of Ramadan, also known as Eid ul Doh. First day of Muslim New Year ethnicity group defined by culture (such as religion or language) and history xvi GLOSSARY

Ganesh Hindu god with elephant head ganja cannabis sativa (marijuana) ghangri traditional long skirt worn by indentured Indian women in the Punjab and western parts of Uttar Pradesh ghee clarified butter gobar cow dung, or a mixture of cow dung and mud used to plaster floors and walls Gobardhan puja prayer in honor of Gobardhan Mountain, which takes place on the Thursday evening of a Rameyn Yagya or a Bhagwat Yagya clan, based on paternal inheritance gupta dan “gift in secret”—ritual during Hindu wedding when a ball of dough, containing money, is given to the groom by the bride and her parents Hindu spiritual teacher or guide gurudiksha Hindu ceremony when a person is given a personal guide, usu- ally a pundit gurumukh initiation ceremony or “christening” when a special is given to a Hindu man or woman hafiz Muslim able to recite the Koran by heart; a Muslim who officiates at a wedding ceremony Haj pilgrimage to Mecca haji someone who has made the pilgrimage to Mecca. halwa sweetmeat of flour, ghee, and sugar Hindu monkey god, also known as Mahabir, whose puja is roˉt haris a piece of wood, dyed yellow; it usually has five or seven notches cut into it hawan Hindu ceremony of feeding a sacred fire, usually involving ritual oblations of ghee Hindu Indian believer in various gods ranging from the village to the Sanskritic deities Holi or Phagwa Hindu spring festival, celebrating the new year; day of sec- ular fun in late March, known in Trinidad as “Indian carnival” Hosay Shiite festival to commemorate martyrdom of Hosain, Mohammed’s grandson, AD 680 GLOSSARY xvii imam Muslim jab molassi Carnival devil covered with molasses jahaaj ship jahaji bhai shipmate friend, usually male jajmani system of traditional economic exchange between castes jal holy water, poured as offering during puja jamaat congregation of Muslims janeo Hindu sacred thread, taken by the three (upper) twice-born varnas—Brahmin, , and Jhanam Astamie birth of Lord jhandi triangular flag on long bamboo pole associated with Hindu ritual. jharay “sweeping away” of sickness, involving stroking and prayers jora-jama (also jama-jora) Indian man’s long robe, usually pink, worn by the groom at a Hindu wedding j’ouvert French Creole for jour ouvert, or morning of Carnival Monday (preceding Ash Wednesday) jhula loosely fitting bodice, with arms up to wrist jumbie spirit of a dead person or ghost jump-up dance—move vigorously in time to music kajar soot from the burning of ghee, rubbed on the eyelids of new-born Muslim babies to beautify the eyes or keep away maljeu kala pani black water (sea) kalima faith (Muslim)—there is no god but Allah and Mohammed is his prophet Mai ceremony devoted to Kali, the Hindu goddess of death and destruction kanya dan “virgin giving,” part of the Hindu wedding ceremony when the father gives the bride to the groom kardhan string tied around the stomach of a baby or child, usually male katha reading from sacred Hindu text, includes prayers and singing kichree food served to groom and his kinsmen at Hindu wedding; eating this signifies satisfaction with the gifts they have received xviii GLOSSARY kitab ceremony of readings from the Koran with songs and a sermon kohabar retiring room used by bride and groom once Hindu wedding is over Koran holy book of Islam, revealed by God to Mohammed kowsil to observe mistakes and make judgments Krishna incarnation of kujat outcaste kurta loose-fitting shirt or tunic with long sleeves, usually collarless, worn by Hindu men kutia small Hindu shrine or temple La Divina Pastora see Siparu Mai Lakshmi Goddess of Light and Knowledge lawa parched rice, used in Hindu wedding rituals likanimul writer of books phallic stone devoted to lotah round brass vessel for containing water Mahadeo stone lingam or phallic stone mahant low-caste priest maktab Islamic school, teaching Urdu and Arabic mala garland of fresh flowers maljeu evil eye mandir Hindu temple manjira brass cymbals mantra sacred Hindu text, used as prayer or ritual utterance Mardi Gras Shrove Tuesday maro Hindu marriage booth maro hilai shaking of the marriage pole by bridegroom’s father as mark of his satisfaction mas’ Carnival costume or character (masquerade) matti kore planting of marriage pole, Hindu wedding, three days before event; mud or clay is specially dug by women while performing sexually explicit songs GLOSSARY xix maur crown worn by groom at Hindu wedding milap meeting-up of the fathers of the bride and groom and their respec- tive entourages prior to Hindu wedding Mouloud Sharif Muslim celebration involving readings from the Koran, religious songs, and a sermon muezzin person who calls the Muslim faithful to prayer mulki/mulkin term used to refer to inhabitant of India, male and female Muluk the term used to refer to India image, usually a small statue of a Hindu god Muslim believer in divinity of Allah and prophecy of Mohammed namaaz Muslim prayers, offered five times a day nama sanskar Hindu postbirth ritual nail cutting and ablutions for baby and mother spoken Hindu greeting, especially among Trinidad Arya Samajis nana maternal grandfather nani maternal grandmother Nau barber caste. Nau’s wife (often played by a woman of another caste) is important in marriage ritual at Hindu weddings neuta washing of feet of bride and groom at Hindu wedding obeah black magic, witchcraft ojha man Hindu practitioner of Indian folk rituals for divination and black magic word without ending—eternity oronhi traditional Indian woman’s scarf or veil worn by married Muslim, Christian, and Hindu women pan betel leaf panchayat meeting of older men, village, or caste council pani graham the groom’s acceptance of the bride’s hand in Arya Samaj weddings parata roti special roti for Muslims, usually torn into pieces before eating parchan ritual greeting of the groom at the bride’s home, Hindu wedding, following dwar puja parishad council, usually of pundits xx GLOSSARY patra astrological horoscope used by Hindu to select favorable days for events pau puja gifting ceremony during Hindu wedding, when bride’s father and relatives wash groom’s feet pelau chicken, rice, and pigeon peas persad sacred Hindu food, made of ghee, sugar, flour, raisins, and Phagwa (aka Holi) Hindu spring festival, celebrating the new year; day of secular fun in late March, known in Trinidad as ‘Indian carnival’ phuphu father’s sister or equivalent kin picong teasing, ridicule, or insult pirah Hindu wedding bench made from a single piece of wood puja prayer ceremony devoted to Hindu deity celebrant of puja pundit race social category defined with reference to the physical characteristics of its members in comparison with others in society consort of Krishna rakaat genuflections performed during Muslim prayer cycle Rama Lord and hero of the , where he is treated as an incarna- tion of Vishnu Ramadan monthlong fast during daylight hours enjoined on orthodox Muslims Ramayana Hindu epic of Lord Rama, Sita and Hamunan, told by Rameyn Satsang sung performance of the Ramayana, with readings and prayers Rama pageant Ram Naumi celebration of Rama’s birth rehal hinged book rest, carved from a single piece of wood Bodh Utsov Arya Samaji term for Siw Ratri roˉt Hanuman puja roti round, flat, unleavened bread roza fasting (Muslim) saddhu Hindu holy man, usually older, who abstains from meat and alcohol GLOSSARY xxi sahar town or more specifically Port of Spain Sanathan Dharma Maha Sabha Hindu religious organization: the most orthodox of Hindu sects under Brahmin control sandhya puja daily prayers of the “twice-born” ; meditations to dei- ties in evening prayers with hawan sanskar 16 ritual sacraments of Hinduism, focusing on rites of passage such as birth and death the seven steps around the sacred fire that seal the Hindu marriage Satnaryn (Satyanarayan) Hindu god of truth satsang Hindu religious gathering; includes prayers, chanting, and discourse Shuddi Sanskar initial purification of Arya Samaji candidate siballa companion (best man), Hindu wedding vermillion powder rubbed into the central hair parting of Hindu woman to indicate her married status; also used to make tika mark on her forehead sindoor dan rubbing of the sindoor into parting of the wife’s hair, Hindu wedding ceremony Siparu Mai Siparia Mother or La Divina Pastora, the black virgin of Siparia siwala Hindu temple dedicated to Shiva Shiva God the destroyer Siw Ratri celebration of Shiva’s birth sloka stanza souse marinated pig’s trotters surma black dust used by Muslims on eyes of children Suruj Puran (Suruj narayan) Hindu sun god Hindu religious leader played with the fingers, usually paired as bass and tenor tadjah wood, paper, and tinsel model of the tomb of Hosain, constructed for Hosay (a Shiite celebration) to commemorate his martyrdom tante French Creole for aunt taraweeh prayers said at night during Ramadan xxii GLOSSARY tarriah circular brass tray, used in Hindu rituals tawa flat, circular metal griddle for cooking roti tazim Muslim song of welcome tika spot made on forehead as sign of religious devotion, betrothal, or ornament tulsi tree cultivated bush of sacred basil plant grouping of equivalent Hindu castes—Brahmin, Kshattrya, Vaishya, and Sudra Veda sacred knowledge or book; one of the four sacred books of the Hindus Hindu altar made of earth, decorated in various colors for religious ceremonies vedic relating to the ; in Trinidad implies Arya Samaj Vishnu god the preserver white group of European origin yagya/yagna literal meaning is sacrifice; in Trinidad term refers to a seven- or fourteen-day series of rites and ceremonial readings from a sacred text a practitioner of zakat compulsory charity, Muslim