STUDIES OF THE AMERICAS edited by Maxine Molyneux Institute for the Study of the Americas University of London School of Advanced Study Titles in this series are multidisciplinary studies of aspects of the societies of the hemi- sphere, particularly in the areas of politics, economics, history, anthropology, sociology, and the environment. The series covers a comparative perspective across the Americas, including Canada and the Caribbean as well as the United States and Latin America. Titles in this series published by Palgrave Macmillan: Cuba’s Military 1990–2005: Revolutionary Soldiers during Counter-Revolutionary Times By Hal Klepak The Judicialization of Politics in Latin America Edited by Rachel Sieder, Line Schjolden, and Alan Angell Latin America: A New Interpretation By Laurence Whitehead Appropriation as Practice: Art and Identity in Argentina By Arnd Schneider America and Enlightenment Constitutionalism Edited by Gary L. 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First edition: May 2010 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 To the memory of Bramadath Maharaj, Hansar Ramsamooj, George Sammy, and Ena Scott-Jack, and with gratitude to all who assisted with the fieldwork This page intentionally left blank Contents List of Figures ix List of Plates xi Glossary xiii Introduction 1 Colin Clarke Part 1 Settling In 21 Part 2 Taking Soundings 43 Part 3 Conversations 149 References 233 Index 237 This page intentionally left blank Figures 1 Trinidad: selected place-names and communications in the 1960s. 5 2 San Fernando: major place-names and institutions. 8 3 South-west Trinidad: place-names mentioned in the text, and roads. 10 This page intentionally left blank Plates 1 An ajoupa with thatched roof, wooden house, and modern concrete houses on stilts, edge of the Oropuche Lagoon, Débé. 36 2 Gandhi Ashram and, under the spire, the mandir (temple), Todd Street, San Fernando, looking south toward the cane-fields of Naparima. 45 3 Drumming during the milap (meeting of the fathers of the bride and groom), Hindu wedding, San Fernando. 83 4 Tempting the groom and his siballa (companion or best-man) out of the wedding car during parchan (ritual greeting of groom at the bride’s home), Hindu wedding, San Fernando. Note the wearing of the oronhi (veil) by the women. 84 5 Milap (meeting of the fathers of the bride and groom), Brahmin wedding, San Fernando. The bride’s father—in glasses—and the pundits are wearing dhoti (loin cloth) and kurta (shirt). The Hindu spiritual leader of Trinidad, Jankieprasad Sharma, is carrying the black umbrella. In the background is the maro (marriage booth). 91 6 Hansar Ramsamooj (in white hat) resting during the singing of bhajans (hymns). 110 7 Anjuman Sumat al Jamaat (ASJA) mosque, Mucurapo Street, San Fernando. The white building with green features is oriented toward Mecca, and out of alignment with the street. 121 8 Muslim bride and groom leaving the bride’s home after their wedding, Princes Town. 128 xii PLATES 9 Bramadath Maharaj near Felicity. 130 10 Durga puja (ceremony devoted to goddess Durga) being performed by Dharam Pundit and his wife. Note the brass lotah (round vessel) and tarriah (circular tray), and the rum bottle containing ghee (clarified butter). 162 Glossary The nonstandard English terms in the glossary have been checked against Lise Winer’s Dictionary of the English/Creole of Trinidad and Tobago, 2009. However, as there is no published dictionary of Bhojpuri (in Trinidad originally thought to have been Hindi, as our informants indicate), I have selected one of the several orthographies given by Winer for words in that language. aarti Hindu worship, a ritual in which a small fire in a flat container or lamp is moved in circular motion in front of a god or person abir purple dye thrown on celebrants during Holi or Phagwa aguwah marriage broker agwani meeting up of bride’s and groom’s fathers at the beginning of an Arya Samaji wedding, during which the fathers garland one another aji father’s mother ajoupa house with wattle-and-daub walls and thatched roof of dried palm leaves akika Muslim sacrificial rite held seven days after a child’s birth aloo potato anchar a sweet or salty peppery preserve made from green unripe fruit, usually mangoes ashram abode or hall attached to Hindu temple or mandir badnazur evil eye Bakra Eid festival celebrating the story of Abraham’s forestalled sacrifice of Isaac (also known as Eid ul Azha) bap father barahi 12 days after a Hindu child’s birth xiv GLOSSARY barat motorcade, involving Hindu groom and his entourage as they pro- ceed to the home of the bride; traditionally they would have ridden on a horse barka-chotki husband’s eldest brother/wife, an avoidance relationship barka mai big aunty Bhagwat Yagya weeklong ceremony, involving the reading and exposition of Bhagvata-Purana or the Bhagavad-Gita bhajan Hindu hymn or holy song with words in Hindi bhandari to make persad birha traditional Indian songs sung at Hindu wedding black African (of slave origin in the Caribbean) bobol corruption, graft, or fraud brown mixed racial group of white-black origin channa a cultivated edible pea or chick pea charidar gather flowers and make garlands chati sixth day after birth of Hindu child chauk altar chela initiate or pupil of a spiritual leader Christian East Indian Indian Christian convert from Islam or Hinduism, or a descendant churkee topknot on shaven head class a socioeconomic grouping (class) ranked in power, prestige, and con- sumption capacity from low to medium to high class color-class a common feature of Caribbean societies is a close relationship between color and class, so that white, brown, and black coincide closely with upper-, middle- and lower-class categories color(ed) mixed race group, between black and white coolie term applied to Asian indentured laborers on the Caribbean sugar plantations, here East Indian coolie English English Creole spoken by East Indians crapaud French Creole for toad Creole a person born in the Caribbean, but of foreign descent; a term that distinguishes white, colored, and