The Artios Home Companion Series Unit 11: Empire and Papacy

Teacher Overview

THIS UNIT WILL cover the rise of the Holy under Otto I and the resulting conflict between the Holy Roman Empire and the Catholic called the . In this unit, we will see friction grow between church and state.

Leading Ideas

God orders all things for the ultimate good of His people. And we know that for those who love God all things work together for good, for those who are called according to his purpose. – Romans 8:28

God has a plan, and in the end He will be exalted. Be still, and know that I am God. I will be exalted among the nations, I will be exalted in the earth! – Psalm 46:10

Pray for those who lead us. Double-headed eagle with coats of arms of individual states, symbol First of all, then, I urge that of the Holy Roman Empire’s rule, by Hans Burgkmair dem Älteren supplications, prayers, inter- (1510). The double-headed eagle symbolizes imperial rule. cessions, and thanksgivings be made for all people, for kings and all who are in high positions, that we may lead a peaceful and quiet life, godly and dignified in every way. – 1 Timothy 2:1-2

1881 illustration depicting papal infallibility, by Lucas Caspar Businger

Reading and Suggested Assignments

In this unit, students will:  Complete one lesson in which they will learn about the Holy Roman Empire and the papacy, journaling and answering discussion questions as they read.  Define vocabulary words.  Watch the videos found on their HCS Class pages for this unit.  Visit their HCS Class pages to check for additional resources.

Medieval to Renaissance: High School Unit 11: Empire and Papacy Page 141 Lesson One

History Overview and Assignments The Investiture Conflict

Key People, Places, and Even ts

Otto I Henry III Investiture Conflict Hildebrand Henry IV of 1059 Gregory VII of Worms

Henry IV, the , waiting for 3 days in Canossa with his wife and child, by (publisher) (1563)

Reading and Suggested Assignments Vocabulary

 Review the discussion questions and vocabulary, then read the article: Empire and Papacy—the Investiture Conflict. investiture  Narrate about today’s reading using the appropriate notebook page. Be sure suppliant to answer the discussion questions and include key people, events, and dates within the narration.  Define the vocabulary words in the context of the reading. Write the words and their definitions in the vocabulary section of your history notebook.  Watch the videos found on your HCS Class pages for this lesson.  Be sure to visit your HCS Class pages to check for additional resources.

Discussion Questions

1. What three evils of the Church were most 4. How did Gregory VII humiliate the disconcerting to those who wished to reform it? Emperor? 2. What did the Decree of 1059 detail? 5. How was the Concordat at Worms a real compromise? 3. What “sin” did Henry IV commit for which he was excommunicated?

Medieval to Renaissance: High School Unit 11: Empire and Papacy Page 142 Adapted for High School from the book: New Medieval and Modern History by Samuel Bannister Harding in consultation with Albert Bushnell Hart Empire and Papacy—the Investiture Conflict

The decline of Carolingian rule in the eastern or these formidable invaders were for the first time German part of ’s empire in 911 decisively defeated, and their forces slain, drowned, coincided with a period of great confusion and or scattered in the pursuit. disorder in those lands. This was due chiefly to the Otto’s victory was as great a deliverance for beginning of a new series of barbarian invasions. The Germany as that of Charles Martel over the Saracen newcomers were the Magyars or Hungarians, from Moors had been for France. Soon thereafter the Central Asia. They were akin to the old Huns and Hungarians settled down to agricultural and pastoral Avars, and like them threatened to destroy European life and were converted to Christianity. In the year civilization. They were especially renowned for their 1000 the Pope sent a crown to their king, and thus insatiable greed and the fury of their fighting. admitted the Hungarians to the family of European The weakness of the central government in nations. Through their acceptance of Roman Germany threw the burden of defense against these Christianity, the boundary of western Christendom invaders upon the local counts and dukes. These was shifted far eastward. officers used the opportunity to strengthen and make Otto’s reign saw also the beginning of an practically hereditary their offices, and so laid the important German expansion northeastward, at the foundations of a number of powerful semi-national expense of the Slavs, which won for modern duchies. Germany some of its most important territory. Here Complete decay of Germany after the fall of the also Roman Christianity progressed, through the Carolingians was prevented by the election of the establishment of an archbishopric at Magdeburg in head of one of these duchies, but he proved to be 967, and of a number of bishoprics dependent on it. weaker than the Saxon dukes, and after his death From these centers civilization and Christianity members of the Saxon house ruled Germany for four slowly spread among the neighboring Slavs. reigns. But the most important event of Otto’s reign arose from his dealings with . Since the downfall Otto I of the Carolingians that land had suffered many ills. The first of these reigns which calls for Saracen and Hungarian raids had devastated it, and consideration is that of Otto I (936-973). He was whole cities were ruined. Conflicts raged between the called Otto “the Great” and was one of the most townsmen, led by their , and the feudal important kings of Germany in the Middle Ages. He nobles. The central government was disputed among is described as having a powerful figure, a red face, a a series of shadowy kings and emperors, no one of long wavy beard, and eyes that moved incessantly “as which won wide recognition. The papacy, which if they were watching their prey.” His deeds show might have taken the lead in combating these evils, that he was a man of energy, courage, and military was itself a prey to corrupt and greedy local nobles; skill. and violence, bloodshed, and scandal stained its He strove to increase the kingly power over the history throughout the greater part of the 10th dukes and gained a measure of success in this, century. mainly by building up the power of his own family In 951 the aid of Otto was sought by Princess members, as well as the great churchmen in the Adelaide, the widow of one of the contestants for the state, as a counterbalance to that of the great nobles. Italian crown, against King Berenger, who wanted to force her to marry his son. He led an expedition into Defeat of the Hungarians Italy, where he rescued and married the lady who The value of Otto’s measures was revealed when had sought relief by his aid. A revolt recalled him to in 955 the Hungarians advanced up the Danube Germany; but ten years later, on the invitation of the Valley. On the banks of the river Lech in Swabia, Pope, he went a second time into Italy.

Medieval to Renaissance: High School Unit 11: Empire and Papacy Page 143 his grandson, and his grandnephew; but the events of none of these reigns were important enough to call for mention here. Upon the death without heirs of the last of the Saxon rulers, a new German house, that of the Franconians, or Salians, ascended the . Under its first two members, Conrad II and Henry III, the The Iron Crown of the Lombards was passed to Otto Holy Roman Empire is considered to have reached in 951 during his first Italian campaign. its height. Burgundy was added to the empire by peaceable succession, and Poland, Bohemia, and Crowned Emperor Hungary became subject nations. The power of the Otto now assumed the crown of Italy; and at German dukes was decreased, and a nominal control , on February 2, 962, the Pope crowned him over Italy, with the imperial title, was maintained. emperor. A few days later Otto confirmed all the But the most important event in these reigns was a grants that had been made to the by Pepin and slowly developing movement for church reform, Charlemagne, and decreed that bishops were now which in the next reign produced one of the most nobles of the empire. dramatic struggles of the Middle Ages—the The coronation of Otto revived the imperial title Investiture Conflict between the papacy and the and re-founded the Empire of Charlemagne—to last empire. (at least in name) for about eight centuries and a half longer. The new empire differed in some important Continued Church Reform: respects from the former one. The Investiture Conflict France was no longer part of it, and imperial In the unit on the Medieval Church we described interests were confined almost entirely to Germany the reform movement which spread from the and Italy. The very title used by his successors, that monastery of Cluny throughout Western Europe. of “the Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation,” The program of this movement did not stop with the indicates its Teutonic nature. The close connection purification of the monasteries. It extended as well to between Germany and Italy which the empire the , whose condition in the 10th and brought about proved hurtful to both. To Italy it 11th centuries was deplorable. The three great evils brought the ruin of all hopes of nationality and of a most complained of in the church were clerical native government. For Germany it meant the marriage, simony, and lay investiture. sacrifice of the substance of power at home for the 1. The clergy (with the exception only of the monks shadow of dominion beyond the Alps. To the papacy and of some bishops and priests) began to openly alone the connection was of immediate value, for the and freely enter into marriage. One great danger imperial power protected it against the greed and of this practice was the temptation it offered to corruption of local nobles. married churchmen to provide for their children out of the lands in their possession, thereby impoverishing the Church. Another objection was that it centered the thoughts and affections of the clergy upon their families, and prevented their singlehearted devotion to the Church. 2. Simony was the purchase of ecclesiastical office, the word being derived from the name of that Simon Magus who sought to buy the gift of the Holy Ghost (see Acts 8:9-24). 3. Closely connected with this evil was the right exercised by emperors and nobles of “investing” newly elected bishops with the ring and staff, Imperial Crown of the Holy Roman Empire commemorative coin which were the symbols of their spiritual office, and requiring from them homage and fealty for Three members of the Saxon house followed the lands which they held. Accompanying the Otto I on the German and imperial throne—his son, control thus secured were encroachments upon

Medieval to Renaissance: High School Unit 11: Empire and Papacy Page 144 the freedom of election, so that the higher clergy world sunk in wickedness and threatened with almost everywhere became the appointees of impending ruin, and believing that the Pope alone temporal rulers. Says a Catholic writer in this could save it, he conceived the vast design of forming period: “Kings could dispose, absolutely and a universal theocracy, which should embrace every without control, of all ecclesiastical dignities. All kingdom of Christendom, and of whose policy the was venal, from the episcopate, and sometimes Ten Commandments should be the fundamental even the papacy, down to the smallest rural principle. Over this commonwealth of nations the benefice.” Pope was to preside. The spiritual power was to In the beginning this reform movement was stand related to the temporal as the sun to the moon, perforce carried on independently of the papacy, imparting light and strength, without, however, which at that time was sunk under the control of the destroying it or depriving princes of their selfish nobles of central Italy. sovereignty.” When Emperor Henry III went to Italy in 1046, While Henry III lived, Hildebrand did not dare he found three rivals claiming to be pope, and each shake off the Emperor’s control. When that prince in possession of a portion of the city. At a council died, he left an infant, Henry IV, to rule under the called near Rome, all three claimants were deposed regency of his mother. “The princes,” says a for simony; and a German of unblemished life chronicler, “chafed at being governed by a woman or and piety was chosen—the first of a series of four a child; they demanded their ancient freedom; they German popes. Of those who had filled the papal disputed among themselves the chief place; at last chair in the three preceding centuries, only four had they plotted the deposition of their lord and king.” not been born in Rome or the ; with With little now to fear from beyond the Alps, these German popes the papacy took on a more Hildebrand set about organizing new safeguards for international character. papal independence. Everywhere he could count The popes now took the lead in the reform upon the reform party as favorable to his plans. movement; and under their direction synods (local Countess Matilda of Tuscany gave him councils of the clergy) were held in Italy, Germany, protection and resources, and donated to the papacy and France, which everywhere condemned the her vast estates, stretching almost to the Gulf of married and simoniacal clergy. But the most Genoa. New treaties were concluded with the significant thing which these German popes did was Normans of southern Italy, by which they became to bring to Rome the monk Hildebrand as advisor the Pope’s and agreed to aid him against all and chief subordinate officer of the papacy. men. In 1059 a decree was issued changing the method of papal elections. Hildebrand In the early church the Pope had been chosen by Hildebrand of Sovana was of lowly German “the clergy and people” of Rome. Under origin, but had been born in Tuscany. He received his Charlemagne, and also under the Saxon emperors education and monastic training in a monastery of and their successors, the Emperor practically which his uncle was . For a time he was a appointed to that office. The Decree of 1059 resident of the monastery of Cluny. There one of promoted the independence of the papacy by these German popes found him, and was so providing that the real selection should be in the impressed with his ability and character that he took hands of the cardinals—that is, of the Pope’s own Hildebrand to Rome. The monk soon became the clerical council. real power behind the papal throne—under five different popes, covering a period of nearly a quarter Election to the Papacy of a century. Physically he was far from imposing. He The time at last came, in 1073, when Hildebrand was of small stature, ungainly figure, and feeble himself was to don the papal crown. His election was voice. But he possessed a mind of restless activity, irregular and not according to the Decree of 1059. uncommon penetration, and an inflexible will. The The people, assembled for the funeral services of the substance of his policy was to enforce the Pope’s late pope, raised the cry, “Let Hildebrand be our supremacy over the Church and over temporal bishop!” One of the cardinals turned to the crowd princes. and recalled how much Hildebrand had done for the A famous Catholic historian sums up Church and for Rome. On all sides the cry was then Hildebrand’s design in these words: “Seeing the raised, “ crowns Hildebrand as pope!”

Medieval to Renaissance: High School Unit 11: Empire and Papacy Page 145 In spite of his resistance, Hildebrand was decree infringed upon their just rights. Bishops and forthwith arrayed in the scarlet robe, crowned with archbishops, especially in Germany, were not merely the , and seated in the chair of Saint Peter. officers of the Church. By virtue of the lands attached In accordance with a practice which had prevailed to their offices, they were great feudal princes as well, since the 10th century, he took a new name as pope, and exercised high influence in the state. The and thenceforth was known as Gregory VII. Emperor, therefore, could not consent to give up all means of keeping out undesirable men from these Pope Gregory VII and positions. Emperor Henry IV Henry IV resolved to make himself the head of The claims of Gregory to treat the temporal the resistance to the Pope on this question. He power as subordinate to the papacy made a struggle continued to grant lay investiture, and he associated with the empire inevitable. The imperial power, at with persons whom the Pope had excommunicated. this time, was far from strong. The emperor When it was reported to King Henry that he was Henry IV had been allowed to grow up with summoned to appear at Rome to justify his actions, alternations between stern repression and careless he replied: “Henry, King not by usurpation, but by , and thus arrived at manhood without the will of God, to Hildebrand, no longer Pope, but adequate training to rule, with an undisciplined false monk. Thou hast attacked me, who am temper, and with a heedlessness of moral restraint consecrated king, and who, according to the which led him into many excesses. Finally, his rule tradition of the fathers, can be judged by God alone was weakened by the disaffection of the Saxons, who and can be deposed for no crime save the had been the chief support of the throne under abandonment of the faith. Condemned by the Otto I. In 1073 their discontent ripened into revolt; judgment of our bishops, and by our own, descend! and although Henry, after one humiliating defeat, Quit the place which thou hast usurped! Let another put down the rebellion, there continued to exist in take the seat of Saint Peter, who seeks not to cover Germany a disaffected party, with which Gregory violence with the cloak of religion, and who teaches formed an alliance. the sound doctrine of Saint Peter!” To this Gregory replied in February 1076, by sentence of excommunication. “Blessed Peter, prince of the Apostles,” he wrote, “be thou my witness that the Holy Roman Church called me against my will to govern it! As thy representative I have received from God the power to bind and loose in heaven and upon earth. Full of this conviction, for the honor and defense of thy church, I deny to King Henry, who with unheard-of pride has risen against thy church, the government of Germany and of Italy. I absolve all Christians from the oaths of fidelity they have taken or may take to him; and I forbid that any person shall serve him as king.” The most powerful of the German princes were already opposed to Henry, and declared in 1077 that unless the excommunication was removed by a certain day, he would be treated as deposed and a new king elected. Henry IV requests mediation from Matilda of Tuscany Henry’s only hope after this was to break the and abbot Hugh of Cluny. The Investiture Controversy alliance between the Pope and his enemies in In 1075 Pope Gregory brought the question of Germany. To accomplish this he set off secretly investiture into a position of chief importance. He across the Alps, in the dead of winter, accompanied declared that investiture by laymen, even by kings only by his wife, his young son, and one attendant. At and emperors, was void, and pronounced Canossa he found the Pope, who was already on his excommunication against all who disregarded his way to Germany to arrange the government with the . Temporal rulers generally felt that this princes and was staying at a castle owned by

Medieval to Renaissance: High School Unit 11: Empire and Papacy Page 146 Countess Matilda. The Pope at first refused to see the A compromise was finally arranged in 1122, in King, and for three days Henry was obliged to stand what is called (from the German city where it was outside the castle gates as a suppliant—fasting and, concluded) the Concordat of Worms. By its according to legend, barefooted. At last Gregory terms: yielded to Matilda’s entreaties and admitted him to 1. The Emperor gave up “all investiture by the ring reconciliation. The excommunication was raised, but and the staff,” and promised that there should be only on hard conditions. “freedom of election and of consecration.” The humiliation of the Emperor at Canossa was 2. In return, the Pope granted that the election of the most brilliant victory that the papacy ever won bishops and should take place in the over the temporal power; but it was merely an presence of the Emperor or of his representative, incident in a long struggle, Henry’s German enemies so that objection might be made to persons were displeased that the Pope had removed the unsatisfactory to him. excommunication, and persisted in electing a new 3. It was also agreed that the person so elected king. Civil war followed; and as Henry continued to should receive from the Emperor, by being grant lay investiture, the Pope renewed his touched with his scepter, “the property and the excommunication. immunities of his office,” and should duly fulfill A strong party now rallied to Henry’s support, the obligations, such as homage. and he caused an assembly of German and Italian bishops to declare Gregory deposed and set up an In this settlement the papacy gained the anti-pope. In 1081 Henry mastered his German abolition of lay investiture, and so secured greater enemies sufficiently to come to Italy with an army. freedom for the Church. Some solid advantages, After three years’ campaigning all of Rome, except however, remained to the empire, and the the strong fortress of St. Angelo, was in his hands. compromise was one which Pope Gregory VII would The dauntless Gregory meanwhile had sent for have been loath to approve. It gave, indeed, only a aid to the Normans of southern Italy. Upon their breathing spell in the struggle between the world- approach, Henry hastily quitted Rome, which was church and the world-state. The two institutions taken and sacked by Gregory and the Normans. were mutually exclusive, and new occasions for When they retired, the Pope, who dared not remain controversy were not slow to arise. In the world- behind, accompanied them. In May 1085, empire of Charlemagne or Otto I there was no room Gregory VII died at Salerno in southern Italy. In his for an independent church. In the world-papacy of last hours he said, “I have loved justice, and hated Hildebrand there was no room for an independent iniquity; therefore I die in exile.” He had done much empire or kingdom. The conflict had to continue to clear the Church of the scandals which clung to it, until the power of one or of the other was destroyed. and he had raised the papal power to a higher pitch than ever before. But he had embroiled the papacy not only with the empire, but also with most of the kings of Europe. Had his ideas triumphed, Europe would have been left practically under the sovereignty of the papacy, distant and disassociated from royal families or national feeling—a single monarchical rule supported by all the terrors of religious authority. The death of Gregory VII was far from ending the Investiture Controversy. With varying success the popes after Gregory continued the struggle, until Henry’s death in 1106. The latter’s undutiful son, Henry V, had rebelled against his father on the side of papal policy—forcing him to give up the throne and then imprisoning him—but when once seated upon the throne he proved as staunch an upholder of the imperial claims as his father.

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