FIRST THINGS FIRST
Drinking Water News and Information for America’s Small Communities Fall 2001 .Volume 1 . Issue 3
Sponsored by Rural Utilities Service Hilda Gay Legg . Administrator Deanna Plauché . Loan Specialist The Director’s Darrel Lipscomb . Loan Specialist N ational Drinking Water Clearinghouse The National Drinking Water Clearinghouse (NDWC) assists small Perspective communities by collecting, developing, and providing timely information relevant to drinking water issues. Established in 1991, the NDWC is funded by the Rural Utilities Service and is located at Sanjay Saxena West Virginia University. National Drinking Water Clearinghouse Director John L. Mori, Ph.D. . Manager, National Environmental Services Center Sanjay Saxena . Director From time to time, we publish “theme Mark Kemp-Rye . Managing Editor issues” of On Tap. In the past, we’ve explored Julie Black . Graphic Designer topics such as conservation, the Safe Drinking Kathy Jesperson . Associate Editor Water Act, and community self help. Obviously, this sort of Jamie Knotts . Assistant Editor endeavor requires a great deal of foresight and planning. Michelle Moore . Promotions Editor Other times, though, a theme emerges as the stories Harriet Emerson . Senior Editor come together. That’s exactly what happened with this Vipin Bhardwaj . Technical Assistance Specialist issue. The idea of “smart growth” can not only be found in David Pask . Engineering Scientist Sheila Anderson . Administrative Associate the cover story, but as a concept—either implicit or explic- Lori Jennings . Administrative Associate it—in several other articles as well. Water rights and water as a valuable resource are also topics that appear in more O n Tap E ditorial Advisory Board than one article. Jerry Biberstine . senior environmental engineer, National Rural Water Association I’m pleased to welcome two new graphic designers to Rodney Coker . tribal utility consultant, the National Environmental Services Center team. Chris Indian Health Service Mark Coyne . associate professor, Metzgar joined us at the beginning of September. His techni- University of Kentucky cal drawings complement the latest Tech Brief, found in the Frank DeOrio . director of municipal utilities, center of this magazine. Chris will work primarily with the Auburn, NY Kevin Kundert . interactive training developer, National Environmental Training Center for Small Montana Water Resources Center Communities, one of our partner organizations. Zacharia M. Lahlou, Ph.D. . civil and environmental engineer, Wiley & Wilson, Lynchburg,VA This is actually the second issue of On Tap featuring Lori B. Libby . senior project manager, design and artwork by Julie Black. Julie started work here in Center for Public Management and Regional Affairs, Miami University of Ohio May and will work on National Drinking Water Clearinghouse Babu Madabhushi, Ph.D. . project engineer, publications. A warm welcome to both Chris and Julie. URS Corporation, Miami Springs, FL On a sad note: The terrible events of September 11, Dennis Mason . operations manager O&M Enterprises, Holden, Missouri 2001, occurred while we were finishing this issue of On Lee Michalsky . assistant professor, Tap. The assault on our country’s great cities takes its Alaska Training and Technical Assistance Center Lisa Raysby . water department manager, place among the darkest days in U.S. history. While we Peninsula Light Company are all touched by this catastrophe, we want to express Jay Rutherford,P.E. . water supply division director, deep regret and sincere sympathy to those who lost Vermont Department of Environmental Conservation Peter Shanaghan . small systems coordinator, family, friends or co-workers in this national tragedy. EPA Office of Ground Water and Drinking Water To help communities protect their water systems Nelson Yarlott . chief plant operator, from terrorism and sabotage, we have placed a number Bellvue Water Treatment Plant, Greely, CO of useful documents and links on our Web site A r ticle Submissions (www.ndwc.wvu.edu). And, the Winter 2001-02 On Tap On Tap is a free quarterly publication. Articles, letters to the editor, news items, photographs, or other materials submitted for publi- will be a special counter-terrorism issue. cation are encouraged. Please address correspondence to: If you have any comments or suggestions, feel free Editor, pOn Ta , NDWC (800) 624-8301 to call me at (800) 624-8301 or send an e-mail to West Virginia University (304) 293-4191 [email protected] enjoy hearing your ideas and look PO Box 6064 (304) 293-3161 (Fax) Morgantown WV 26506-6064 www.ndwc.wvu.edu forward to learning ways that we may serve you better. Permission to quote from or reproduce articles in this publication is granted when due acknowledgement is given. Please send a copy of the publication in which information was used to the On Tap editor at the address above. The contents of this publication do not necessarily reflect the views and policies of the Rural Utilities Service, nor does mention of trade names or commercial products constitute endorsement or recom- mendation for use. ISSN 1061-9291 Printed on Recyled Paper
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An Equal Opportunity/Affirmative Action Institution On Tap . Fall 2001 . 2 TABLE OF CONTENTS
Departments Features News and Notes ...... 4 Water Wars 18 Whose water is it and why do Calendar ...... 5 I need a permit to use it? Web Resources ...... 8 23 Funding Water Projects Ask the Experts...... 10 in the Mountain State Financial...... 23 The West Virginia Infrastructure Q&A ...... 40 and Jobs Development Council
Tech Trends ...... 42 If the CCC Built It, 26 It’s Probably Still There Products...... 44 Fun Time ...... 48 Regulations 31 How in the world does EPA make them? Until Next Time ...... 50 The Odd Couple 36 The Nature Conservancy and EPA’s Clean Water State Revolving Fund When the nonprofit environmental group The Nature Conservancy and the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency teamed up to save a valuable California watershed, many people thought they made an odd pair. What they accomplished through collaboration is anything but odd.
Smart Growth & Small CommunitiesSprawl Comes to Rural America 12 Once thought of as strictly a suburban problem, sprawl is now a feature of many small town and rural landscapes. More and more, though, communities are trying to manage and contain sprawl by adopting “smart growth”strategies.
Drinking Water Storage Facilities
ON THE COVER The cover art for this issue of After water leaves the treatment On Tap is by Kairi Frame, who plant but before it reaches the worked for the National Drinking Water Clearinghouse during 1999 customer, it must be adequately and 2000. Mr. Frame now lives and safely stored.This Tech Brief and works in Denver, Colorado. explores the various aspects of water storage.
On Tap . Fall 2001 . 3 NEWS & NOTES
Cost of Water Is Up in Selected Countries
A survey conducted by a private energy and Countries surveyed and their average telecommunications consulting firm found the water price (in U.S. dollars), per cubic average price for water in the world increased meter included: by 3.8 percent over the past year. The survey, conducted by NUS Consulting 1. Germany, $1.52 Group, found the world price for water aver- 2. Denmark, $1.46 aged 76.4 cents per cubic meter (264 gallons). 3. United Kingdom, $1.11 The survey polls various local water prices in 4. The Netherlands, $0.98 14 countries located in North America, Europe, 5. France, $0.93 Africa, and Australia. 6. Belgium, $0.75 According to the survey, Germany led 7. Italy, $0.62 all nations with an average price of $1.52 8. Spain, $0.58 and South Africa had the lowest price at 9. Finland, $0.53 34 cents. Every country reported increased 10. United States, $0.52 costs for water with the exception of the 11. Sweden, $0.51 Netherlands who showed a decrease of 0.8 12. Australia, $0.48 percent in pricing over the past year. 13. Canada, $0.37 The U.S. was 10th on the survey with 14. South Africa, $0.34 an average price of 52 cents per cubic meter, according to the report. “We are For more information about finding that water pricing around the world this survey, write to NUS is increasing at a steady rate and all indica- Consulting Group, tions are that even larger increases are on International Reports and the horizon,” says Richard Soultanian, NUS Survey Division, One co-president. “Issues, such as scarcity of Maynard Drive, Park supply and improving water quality, are Ridge, coming to the forefront in most countries, and NJ, as such, prices are bound to dramatically increase to meet these challenges.” 07656.
EPAReleases Capacity Development Reports
Are you interested in what other states have “I believe that these reports will be of great done toward implementing the capacity develop- use to the states in better understanding the ment provisions of the 1996 Safe Drinking Water range of approaches taken by their peers,” says Act (SDWA) Amendments? If so, you’ll want to William Diamond, director of EPA’s Drinking read two new reports issued by the U.S. Water Protection Division. “As these reports doc- Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). ument, states have done much good work to The first, titled State Programs to Ensure date in the area of capacity development. Our Demonstration of Technical, Managerial, and future challenge is one of continuous improve- Financial Capacity of New Water Systems, ment and further enhancement of strategies to provides a detailed summary of each state’s achieve the public health protection objectives program, as well as appendix tables designed to of the SDWA.” help compare the various approaches different To order copies of these reports, write to states have taken. the National Service Center for Environmental The second, titled State Strategies to Publications, PO Box 42419, Cincinnati, OH, Assist Public Water Systems in Acquiring 45242-2419 or call (800) 490-9198. and Maintaining Technical, Managerial, and Information is also available on EPA’s Web Financial Capacity , provides a synopsis of site at www.epa.gov. each state’s strategy and the major elements of their strategy designs.
On Tap . Fall 2001 . 4 NEWS & NOTES
November 2001 Calendar ofEVENTS 2001 State Revolving Fund Workshop If you are sponsoring a water-relat- Council of Infrastructure ed event and would like to have it Financing Authorities (CIFA) listed in this calendar, please send The Seelbach Hilton information to Lori Jennings, NDWC Louisville, KY Today’s Technology administrative associate, National November 11–13 Protecting Tomorrow’s Drinking Water Clearinghouse,West Richard Farrell Groundwater 2001 Virginia University, P.O. Box 6064, (202) 371-9694 Conference Morgantown,WV 26506-6064.You (202) 371-6601 Groundwater Foundation December 2001 also may call Lori at (800) 624-8301 www.cifanet.org Hilton Pittsburgh and Towers Pittsburgh, PA 2nd National Conference on or (304) 293-4191 extension 5522 or by e-mail [email protected]. SC Rural Water Association November 14 –16 Science, Policy and the 25th Annual Conference (800) 858-4844 Environment South Carolina Rural Water (402) 434-2740 Smithsonian National Museum Association (SCRWA) (402) 424-2742 of Natural History March 2002 Kingston Plantation Cindy Kreifels Washington, DC Myrtle Beach, SC www.groundwater.org December 6–7 Water Quality Association November 11–14 (202) 530-5810 Conference & Exposition (864) 833-5566 Treatment Optimization www.ncseonline.org Ernest N. Morial Convention Mitzi Lawson A merican Water Works Center www.scrwa.org Association (AWWA) 2001 National Ground Water New Orleans, LA Fort Worth,TX Exposition March 4–10 Water Quality Technology November 28 NashvilleN ,T www.wqa.org Conference (800) 926-7337 ext. 4 December 7–9 American Water Works M. Larson (800) 551-7379 ext. 554 June 2002 Association (AWWA) www.awwa.org Julie Shaw Opryland Hotel www.ngwa.org AWWA Annual Conference & Nashville,TN A ssociation of California Exposition November 11–14 Water Agencies 2001 Fall World of Water Conference Ernest N. Morial Convention (303) 347-6194 Conference 2001 Center Clare Hass Clavea San Diego, CA Las Vegas Hilton New Orleans, LA www.awwa.org November 28–30 Las Vegas, NV June 16–20 (888) 666-2292 December 10–12 www.awwa.org 2001 American Water (918) 832-9305 Resources Association Trea tment Optimization (918) 831-9875 Annual Water Resources American Water Works www.worldofwaterexpo.com Conference Association (AWWA) Hyatt Regency Albuquerque Alpharetta, GA Albuquerque, NM November 30 November 12 –15 (800) 926-7337 ext. 4 (540) 687-8390 M. Larson Pat Reid www.awwa.org www.awra.org
22nd Annual Governor’s Water Conference Oklahoma Water Resources Board Renaissance Hotel Oklahoma City, OK November 14 (405) 530-8800 (405) 530-8900 Barry Fogerty www.oklaosf.state.ok.us/~owrb/
On Tap . Fall 2001 . 5 NEWS & NOTES
The National Environmental Services Center NESC Adds Services The National Environmental Services Center is comprised of the following The National Environmental develop a Web site—we can help you programs: Services Center (NESC)—the host it at no cost,” says Mori. “For National Small Flows Clearinghouse— umbrella organization that oversees tribes needing assistance develop- Established in 1979, the NSFC helps small the National Drinking Water ing a site, NTEN has a template communities find affordable wastewater Clearinghouse, the National Small that can be used to develop a Web treatment alternatives.The NSFC is a Flows Clearinghouse, the National presence at low cost.” respected national source of information Environmental Training Center for NESC serves as a national about “small flows” technologies—systems Small Communities, and the repository for small community treating less than one million gallons of National Onsite Demonstration water, wastewater, and environmen- wastewater per day. Program—recently added two new tal training information. The center services: the Healthy Communities offers toll-free assistance hotlines, National Drinking Water Clearinghouse— Program and the National Tribal free magazine and newsletter sub- The NDWC helps communities improve Environmental Network. scriptions, Web sites, online discus- their drinking water by offering informa- The Healthy Communities sion groups and listservs, free and tion and assistance about the technical, Program will help small communities low-cost products, databases, and regulatory, financial, and management who want to solve infrastructure training curricula. issues related to small systems. problems by providing engineering For more information about the assessments before the community Healthy Communities Program, visit National Environmental Training Center for hires a firm. “NESC will provide com- the NESC Web site at www.nesc. Small Communities—The NETCSC helps munities with an objective engineering wvu.edu. For more information about small communities improve their public opinion and shepherd them through the National Tribal Environmental health and environmental conditions by the analysis process until a design Network, visit www.nten-nesc.org. providing training, information, and refer- and plan of action are established,” To learn more about either of these ral services in the areas of drinking water, says John Mori, NESC director. programs, write to the National wastewater, and solid waste. The National Tribal Environmental Environmental Services Center, West Network (NTEN) offers no-cost Web Virginia University, PO Box 6064, National Onsite Demonstration Program— site hosting for tribes and tribal envi- Morgantown, WV, 26506-6064 or call The NODP is a series of decentralized waste- ronmental organizations. “If a tribe toll-free (800) 624-8301. water pilot projects that encourage the use has a Web site ready—or wants to of alternative wastewater treatment and disposal technologies. RUS Poverty Rate Unchanged; Others Decrease
Interest rates for Rural Utilities Service (RUS) water and The market rate is based on the average of the Bond wastewater loans have been announced. The poverty rate Buyer index. is unchanged, while the intermediate and market rates The rates for the third quarter of fiscal year 2001, decreased. which apply to all loans issued between October 1 RUS interest rates are issued quarterly at three dif- and December 31, 2001, are: ferent levels: the poverty line rate, the intermediate rate, poverty line: 4.5 percent (unchanged from the and the market rate. The rate applied to a particular previous quarter); project depends upon community income and the type intermediate: 4.75 percent (down 0.125 percent from of project being funded. the previous quarter); and To qualify for the poverty line rate, two criteria must market: 5.00 percent (down 0.25 percent from the be met. First, the loan must primarily be used for facili- previous quarter). ties required to meet health and sanitary standards. Second, the median household income of the area being RUS loans are administered through state Rural served must be below 80 percent of the state’s non-metro- Development offices, which can provide specific informa- politan median income or fall below the federal poverty tion concerning RUS loan requirements and applications level. As of April 1, 2001, the federal poverty level was procedures. $17,650 for a family of four. For the phone number of your state Rural Development To qualify for the intermediate rate, the service area’s office, contact the National Drinking Water Clearinghouse median household income cannot exceed 100 percent of at (800) 624-8301 or (304) 293-4191. The list is also the state’s non-metropolitan median income. available on the RUS Web site at www.usda.gov/rus/ The market rate is applied to projects that don’t water/states/usamap.htm. qualify for either the poverty or intermediate rates.
On Tap . Fall 2001 . 6 NEWS & NOTES
Tribes,MTAC Partner for Water Education
Many Great Plains Native microbiological treatment tech- The objectives of the “Technical Assistance American communities have estab- niques and pesticide contamina- and Education for the Native American lished regulatory expertise, experi- tion in water, and drinking water Nations in Kansas, Nebraska, and South enced staff, and public support in regulations for Native American Dakota”project were to: complying with Clean Water Act regu- nations. • establish technical assistance and lations. But, many tribes are just To help tribal communities learn education agreements with Nebraska beginning to develop programs related about drinking water issues, the part- Indian Community College (Omaha to Safe Drinking Water Act mandates. ner colleges held six different educa- and Santee Sioux tribes), Sinte Gleska Tribal communities haven’t always tional activities and workshops for University (Rosebud Sioux tribe), had access to any significant training teachers and community members. Ogalala Lakota College (Ogalala Sioux resources. Project WET [Water Education for tribe), and Little Priest Tribal College At the same time, primary and Teachers] training helped participat- (Winnebago tribe); secondary school teachers in these ing teachers gain confidence about • identify the most significant drinking communities want to include water drinking water issues to take back to water issues for each of the partner conservation and ecology lessons the classroom. colleges; in their science curricula, but say Through the “World of Water • hold an initial workshop to help par- they often feel ill-prepared to do so. in Winnebago” in December 2000, ticipants from the tribal colleges to In the last two years, the Midwest children who attended learned prepare individualized workshops for Technology Assistance Center about water sources, treatment and community water treatment personnel; (MTAC) at the University of Illinois distribution, contamination and mon- • develop content for the workshops; helped to overcome some of these itoring for quality, and they learned • present drinking water educational stumbling blocks. about job opportunities in the activities to treatment personnel, reg- MTAC worked with the University drinking water field. ulatory agency employees, teachers, of Nebraska-Lincoln to help the Copies of the final report Technical students, and other interested com- Haskell Indian Nations University Assistance and Education for the munity members. and four other Midwest tribal colleges Native American Nations in Kansas, expand their extension service out- Nebraska, and South Dakota may reach programs for drinking water be obtained by writing MTAC, 2204 technical assistance and education Workshops for drinking water Griffith Drive, Champaign, IL 61820- in their surrounding communities. personnel included lab technician 7495 or by calling (217) 333-9321. During 1999 and 2000, the exten- training for operators, training sion staffs of the partner colleges needs assessments for tribal utilities, completed 11 educational projects.
Apply for an Innovation in Government Award
Applications are now being program—administered in partnership governance; protective services; and accepted for the 2002 Innovations in with the Council for Excellence in social services. Applications are due American Government Awards com- Government and funded by the Ford in January 2002. petition. The awards are sponsored Foundation—recognizes effective and Over the last 15 years, water and by the Institute for Government creative examples of government at its wastewater projects have been among Innovation at the John F. Kennedy best. In 2002, 15 finalists will receive the award winners, including a water School of Government at Harvard $20,000 grants and five winners will pollution control program in Fort University. receive awards of $100,000. Worth, Texas; a groundwater man- According to Brian Ellis, e-media agement code for the state of and publications manager, every level Arizona; and a wetland wastewater and unit of government—federal, treatment project in Arcata, state, local, tribal, and territorial— California. The within the U.S. is eligible. Award For more information, and to categories are: capital and environ- receive an application, log onto mental services; community and www.innovations.harvard.edu or economic development; education call (800) 722-0074. and health care; management and
On Tap . Fall 2001 . 7 ON THE WEB
webResources Subscribe to the NDWC News Listserv
The National Drinking Water Clearing- house (NDWC) maintains an e-mail list- USGS Launches Water Site serv to announce drinking water related news such as NDWC publications, new This summer, the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) launched the National products, and other timely information. Water Information System, a Web site that allows users to access several hundred million pieces of archival and real-time data. To subscribe to the NDWC News Listserv: “Users can now gain easy access to more than 100 years of water infor- mation, all with the click of a mouse,” says Robert Hirsch, USGS asso- • Send an e-mail to:
A nationwide network of more than 1.5 million USGS surface and ground- USDA Web Site Offers water sites supply data for the site. Instruments at the sites record water Water Information characteristics, including water level, flow, pH, temperature, dissolved oxygen, and percent dis- The U.S. Department of Agriculture’s solved-oxygen saturation. Agriculture Research Service maintains a Web site with information about water “We have been providing and agriculture. Called the ”Water Quality real-time streamflow and Information Center,” the site includes historical streamflow searchable databases, bibliographies, data on the Web for sev- discussion lists, and ”enviro-news.” eral years now,” says Hirsch. “What this new From aquatic and wetland plants to system does is to improve water conservation, information is avail- that service and integrate able on a wide variety of water topics. it with many other types
Small communities may be especially of water data including Photo by Emmy Truckenmiller; courtesy of iPlayOutside.com interested in the list of ”funding sources historical water-quality Kayakers use the USGS web site to find out the for water quality,”which provides a com- data from rivers and current streamflow conditions on rivers and creeks. prehensive list of federal money available aquifers, historical for water projects. groundwater level data, and real-time water quality, precipitation, and groundwater levels.” To learn more about the Water Quality Information Center,point your Web brows- The USGS National Water Information System Web site is located at er to www.nal.usda.gov/wqic/. To access water.usgs.gov/nwis/ Funding Sources for Water Quality,go to www.nal.usda.gov/wqic/funding.html.
On Tap . Fall 2001 . 8 www.ndwc.wvu.edu Operator Training web Is Available on Web and CD Resources The Montana University NDWC Databases Are System Water Center has Online developed an Internet train- ing program for water system The National Drinking Water personnel. A version of the Clearinghouse (NDWC) maintains two training will also be available databases on the Internet. on CD-ROM in December 2001. RESULTS [Registry of Equipment Titled “Operator Basics,” the training is Suppliers of Treatment Technologies designed to help operators and managers for Small Systems] is a searchable pub- enhance the skills they need to operate a water lic reference database containing infor- system and is targeted specifically to small public systems. Topics covered mation about technologies used by include groundwater basics, introduction to public water supplies, and small water systems across the country. treatment of groundwater. Also included are activities, such as a glossary game and a math quiz. RESULTS version 3.0 includes informa- tion from more than 1,000 sites located In order to run the CD-ROM, users will need to meet the following mini- in the U.S. and Canada.The database mum system requirements: Pentium 133, Windows 95, 16-bit color, also lists more than 250 vendors who 800x600 resolution, 32MB RAM, CD-ROM drive, and Macromedia Flash provide drinking water treatment 5.0 plugin (included on the CD). The final version will work on MacIntosh technologies and equipment. computers, too. The Literature Database contains more Established in 1964, the Montana University System Water Center seeks than 700 article abstracts from trade to promote problem-solving partnerships among university, government and scientific journals, research papers, and private sector participants; support, prioritize and distribute results of and government documents.Topics water-related research; provide training and education for water profes- include wellhead protection, drinking sionals; and serve as a switchboard for Montana water information. water regulations, water conservation, treatment technologies, and operating For more information, write to the Montana Water Center, 101 Huffman and maintaining water treatment Building, Montana State University, Bozeman, MT, 59717 or call (406) systems. 994-7738. The “Operator Basics” training series is available on the Web at water.montana.edu/training. The NDWC also has an Organizational Database that contains contact infor- mation for approximately 150 drinking Scientific American Water Article water-related organizations that help small communities through research, Is Online regulations, technical assistance, finance, and training.This database is not yet The February 2001 issue of Scientific American features a series of articles available online. However, if you’d like about water and is available on their Web site. “Obtaining an adequate information about drinking water supply of freshwater has been the focus of human ingenuity and passions organizations, call the NDWC staff at throughout history,” write Scientific American editors. “Even in the century the number below. ahead, impressive gains in technological capabilities to find, transport, and conserve freshwater may not be able to accommodate increasing demand, For more information about these particularly in the developing world.” databases, visit the NDWC Web site at www.ndwc.wvu.edu or call (800) Articles in the series include “Making Every Drop Count,” by Peter Gleick 624-8301 and ask to speak with a technical of the Pacific Institute for Studies in Development, Environment, and assistance specialist. Security and “Growing More Food With Less Water,” by Sandra Postel of the Global Water Policy Project. Also included are specific examples of how to use water more efficiently, how to redistribute supply, and how to decrease demand.
To read these water articles online, go to www.scientificamerican.com/2001/0201issue/0201intro.html On Tap . Fall 2001 . 9 OPINION
Ask the “For those working with water distribution Experts systems, water hammer is a very serious problem. What steps does your system take to prevent water hammer from occurring?”
Each issue, we will Editor’s Note:Water hammer refers to pressure fluctuations caused by a sudden increase ask members of or decrease in flow velocity.These pressure fluctuations can be severe enough to rupture the On Tap Editorial a water main.This topic will be covered in greater depth in an upcoming Tech Brief. Advisory Board to answer a drinking water-related ques- Bigger Systems Mean More Troubles Pressure Reducing Valves Are a tion. We will print Solution as many responses What we are seeing is the trend toward as space permits. bigger and bigger water distribution sys- To reduce the possibility of water ham- tems. It’s becoming easier to find a good mer, the City of Auburn, New York, uses source or treatment process and then pipe pressure reducing valves in the sections of the water long distances, than to deal with the city’s distribution system that typically multiple water treatment plants. However experience pressures above 115 psi [pounds as these rural water systems grow, they per square inch]. In the past, we’ve had tend to use more pipe and higher pressures problems with people using hydrants and in order to effectively reach the ends of shutting them down improperly. Now, the their distribution grid. This definitely opens Fire Department receives training in the the door for water hammer problems. proper use and operation of hydrants. We One way to prevent (or lessen) water have also established regulations that for- hammer is to start and stop high service bid the use of hydrants without permission. pumps in such a manner that it does not If permission is granted, the operator of the become an issue. Either Variable Frequency hydrants is given a brief lesson in the oper- Drives (VFDs) or “soft starts” allow the ation of the hydrant so as not to cause a RPMs [revolutions per minute] of the motor “hammer” in the system. These regulations to slowly increase (on start) and decrease also allow us to have better control over (on stop). This prevents that rapid change backflow or cross-connection problems, in energy inside the distribution system, as we do not allow the hydrant to be used which results in water hammer.With the without a backflow preventer and meter increased use of solid state circuitry and attachment. SCADA [supervisory control and data acqui- sition] systems, operators are becoming more familiar (comfortable) with this type of Frank J. DeOrio technology; thus opening the door for the Director of Municipal Utilities increased use of VFDs. Another potential City of Auburn, New York benefit of this technology may be the longer life of pump motors and reduced overall electrical costs.
Got a Question? Rodney L. Coker Tribal Utility Consultant Do you have a question you would like our experts Indian Health Service to answer? If so,please contact Kathy Jesperson at [email protected] or Mark Kemp-Rye at [email protected] also may call (800) 624-8301 or (304) 293-4191.
On Tap . Fall 2001 . 10 Fire Hydrants Can Be a Problem Reliability of the surge protection facility The city of Greeley, Colorado, is very fortu- is also important. Where appropriate, redun- nate in that the topography of our service area dancy should be provided for essential equip- allows for the majority of the water to be fed by ment, such as vacuum relief valves. Adequate gravity. The system has two water treatment alarms should be provided on surge tanks and plants. The main plant at Bellvue runs year- similar components to give operators early warn- round, and feeds the city some 37 miles away ings. Consideration should be given to prevent- through three transmission lines—completely by ing the pumping system from operating if the gravity. These lines do have 25 two-way air relief surge protection facilities are not operable. valves that allow us to take the lines out of serv- In Washington State, transmission mains ice and refill them, without any distribution sys- designed to operate at velocities greater than tem problems due to entrapped air. The second 10 feet per second must include a hydraulic treatment plant at Boyd Lake is a peaking plant. transient analysis in conjunction with a This pumped line goes directly to a 15 million hydraulic analysis. Many of the computer pro- gallon storage reservoir that acts as its own grams designed to perform hydraulic analysis surge-suppressor. There is also a surge-suppres- are capable of performing transient analyses. sion tank located at the pump station. The The Peninsula Light Company owns and/or pumps all have soft-start motors and discharge manages very small water systems. Most of these valves that open slowly through solenoid con- systems are groundwater wells with hydropneu- trols, to prevent hammering the pipeline when matic (i.e., pressure) tanks that are not only sized the pumps are called for. The biggest problem to reduce the frequency of pumps cycling on and our system faces with water hammer is firefight- off, but act as surge protectors. ers and contractors closing fire hydrant valves Surge control valves can also be installed too quickly. Unfortunately, that you cannot between the pump discharge flange and the protect against completely. check valve. The surge control valve is fully open when the pump is started and passes sufficient flow in the fully open position. Once Nelson Yarlott the pump is running at full speed, the surge Chief Plant Operator control valve slowly closes while the hydraulic Greely, Colorado head slowly increases. Likewise, it slowly opens prior to the pump stopping. Any new pump that is installed with greater than 15 horse power is required to have a soft-start Sudden Closure Is the Main Culprit not only for control of water hammer, but less Sudden closure of a control valve or stopping electrical load impact. of a pump produces excess pressure in a pipeline. In a few of our systems that have storage Water hammer, or hydraulic transient, refers to tanks, the booster pumps are controlled by pressure fluctuations caused by a sudden float switches rather than a surge suppressor. increase or decrease in flow velocity. We also have a few systems with fire hydrants. According to the Washington State Water Staff are trained in how to properly open and System Design Manual, “There are a variety of shut these valves. Unfortunately, we still have ways to provide surge control. Methods include: occasional “unauthorized” use of fire hydrants. open surge tanks, pressurized surge tanks, We are placing signs on the hydrants in the hopes surge anticipator valves, vacuum relief valves, of deterring non-fire related use. Although, we’ve regulated air release valves, optimizing main size been mostly concerned about the potential of and alignment, electric soft start/stop and vari- cross-connections. able speed drives for pumps, electric interlocks to prevent more than one pump from starting at the same time, slow opening and closing valves, Lisa Raysby and increasing the polar moment inertia of the Water Department Manager rotating pump/motor assembly. A combination Peninsula [Washington] Light Company of methods may be necessary and care must be taken in the design so that the addition of a pro- tection device does not cause a secondary water hammer equal to or worse than the original design could cause.”
On Tap . Fall 2001 . 11 MANAGEMENT
Smart Growth & Small Communities Sprawl Comes to Rural America by Mark Kemp-Rye On Tap Managing Editor
A thousand years from now, when historians look back at the turn of the 21st century, they may refer to this period as “the time when the United States ran out of room.” Oh, there’s still plenty of open space, to be sure. But, for the first time, concerted efforts are underway to fight the mind- less expansion of our cities and towns, the loss of valu- able farmlands, and what Donella Meadows, director Photo by Mark Kemp-Rye of the Sustainability Vilified by critics as soul-less and ugly, the low-density developments Institute at Dartmouth College calls found in virtually every town and city in the U.S. are increasingly under “landscapes of stunning ugliness.” attack for also being environmentally destructive and costly to taxpayers. The movement is known as “smart growth” and it’s gaining popularity across the U.S. “It is a way of organizing a commu- of growth, communities are questioning the nity and a style of growth that safeguards economic costs of abandoning infrastructure quality of life, economic prosperity, and the in the city, only to rebuild it further out. They environment,” says Joel Hirschhorn, policy are questioning the social costs of the mis- studies director with the National Governors match between new employment locations in Association. “It does not mean no growth or the suburbs and the available work force in slow growth.” the city. They are questioning the wisdom of In many ways, smart growth is synony- abandoning “brownfields” in older communi- mous with land-use planning; certainly both ties, eating up the open space and prime agri- seek to answer the fundamental question cultural lands at the suburban fringe, and “what’s the most appropriate use of this polluting the air of an entire region by driving land?” But smart growth takes land-use farther to get places. Spurring the smart planning to the next level. growth movement are demographic shifts, a “In communities across the nation, there is strong environmental ethic, increased fiscal a growing concern that current development concerns, and more nuanced views of growth. patterns—dominated by what some call The result is both a new demand and a new ‘sprawl’—are no longer in the long-term interest opportunity for smart growth.” of our cities, existing suburbs, small towns, One can hardly think of a more dramatic rural communities, or wilderness areas,” writes about-face from the legacy of Manifest Destiny Geoff Anderson in Why Smart Growth: A Primer or the willy-nilly expansion that has typified published by the International City/County growth in the U.S. for hundreds of years. Management Association. “Though supportive
On Tap . Fall 2001 . 12 Implications for the Water Industry Smart Growth and Rural America Smart growth ideas are appealing to those in Until recently, when talk of sprawl came the water and wastewater industries because up, it was in reference to the country’s largest unchecked growth means extending distribution cities. And, certainly, metropolitan areas in lines. And the extensions mean substantial the U.S. have been impacted by unregulated investments by towns and water districts. growth. Chicago, for example, had a popula- “The result of low density sprawl is that tion increase of four percent between 1970 the total miles of water and wastewater infra- and 1990, Census data show, but its devel- structure needed to serve the same number of oped land area grew by 46 percent. During people is doubled, tripled, quadrupled, and this same time, Los Angeles mushroomed by more,” says Jim Woods, Morgantown, West 45 percent; its settled Virginia’s city planner. “And who pays? You area a whopping 300 per- Planners List Steps for and I do, through our taxes. Compact urban cent. Even cities like Fostering Smart Growth forms with growth boundaries are much more Pittsburgh, which actually efficient in terms of the number of miles of lost population, saw its In March 2001,Virginia Commonwealth infrastructure per consumer.” urbanized land areas University hosted a meeting of planners Meadows agrees, “It costs us dollars— expand by 43 percent and preservationists to discuss ways of bucks straight out of our pockets—in the between 1982 and 1997. limiting the sprawling development form of higher local taxes. That’s because our (See the sidebar about that now characterizes much of pattern of municipal growth consistently costs “Boomburbs” on page 14.) Virginia.While the panel reached more in public services that it pays in taxes.” But sprawl is increas- the conclusion that smart growth While the price of providing infrastructure ingly a concern for small measures are ”easier said than done,” to new areas can be high, the growth itself towns and rural areas, they agree that the key is citizen adds costs to treatment. By increasing what too. According to the involvement. experts call “impervious cover” (e.g., buildings, American Planning paved roads, and parking lots), water quality is Association (APA), West James Campbell, executive director affected, which means more treatment. Virginia—a predominantly of the Virginia Association of Counties “As towns and cities continue to grow, and rural state—leads the offers the following suggestions for more land is developed, the impervious cover nation in sprawl. A report communities who want to contain increases,” says Javier Vélez-Arocho of the prepared by the APA sprawl: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency’s found that, as of 1997, • prepare realistic plans for devel- (EPA) Office of Policy, Economics, and only seven percent of the opment and stick to them; Innovation Development. “How and where land in West Virginia had • make sure rules for development the development occurs will have an important been developed for human are not encouraging sprawl; impact on water quality, an impact that will use, compared to 40 per- • encourage mass transit, com- impair the treatment facilities ability to treat cent in New Jersey, the pact development, and infill water efficiently. However, smart growth can most densely populated development; result in economic benefits for those working in state. However, on a per- • coordinate local development the water and wastewater industries. Why? capita basis, construction and state road-building plans; When new growth is managed in a watershed of new subdivisions, • seek authority from the state to context, homes and businesses can be located shopping centers, office delay development until public and designed to have the smallest possible buildings, and roads is facilities can accommodate it; impact on streams, lakes, wetlands, and estuar- proceeding faster in West • establish boundaries to contain ies. For a manager or operator of a filtration Virginia than anywhere growth and preserve open plant or wastewater treatment facility, this else. All this development, spaces; means less pollution to treat at the plant—in however, hasn’t been • make development pay the full other words less treatment requirements and because of an influx of new costs of the expanded roads and better economy. residents: West Virginia’s other infrastructure it requires; “Some studies indicate the cost of treating population declined signifi- • establish neighborhood organi- the quality and quantity of stormwater runoff cantly over the 15 years zations to promote a sense of ranges from $2,000 to $50,000 per impervi- the study examined. community; and ous acre,” continues Vélez-Arocho. “A great “In West Virginia, the • consider rezoning property to example to explain why smart growth is good sprawl phenomenon in correct bad planning decisions. to the water quality in any given watershed or rural areas is a result of locality occurred in the Northeast. The City of the counties lacking the Strong support at the state level is New York acquired land and easements in its political courage to step up necessary, says Patricia Jackson, exec- upstate watershed at a cost of $1.5 billion in to the plate and implement utive director of the James River order to protect source water supplies. They sensible land-use controls,” Association, a conservation advocacy did this in lieu of expanding their water treat- charges Woods. group. ”Every state that has success- ment systems to accommodate necessary Are counties in other fully tackled growth-management repairs and the increase in demand for water. parts of the country reluc- issues, they’ve had strong leadership The estimated cost to expand water treatment tant or unable to combat from the governor,” she says. systems was $8 billion.” sprawl? That’s one of the On Tap . Fall 2001 . 13 questions that Rick Reeder, Dennis Brown, and Kevin McReynolds of the U.S. Department of Agriculture’s Economic Research Service tried to answer in a report titled Rural Sprawl: Problems and Policies in Eight Rural Counties. After examining 113 nonmetropolitan counties identified as having “potential sprawl problems,” the authors focused on eight counties from different parts of the country: Citrus, Florida; Elbert, Colorado; Photos by Mark Kemp-Rye Gilmer, Georgia; Lamoille, Vermont; Lyon, From the mid-19th Nevada; Mason, Washington; Monroe, Century until the Pennsylvania; and Wise, Texas. 1960s, Grafton, With respect to water and wastewater, West Virginia, was the authors found that infrastructure an important stop capacity was “overstrained” in half of the on the main stem counties and that another three were “play- of the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad. ing catch-up” to meet growing needs. They Now fallen on found that water pollution was a problem hard times, the in coastal areas and that in at least one once-thriving county the cost of onsite home wastewater downtown (left) systems “is so high that the cost of new is characterized by housing is becoming prohibitive.” boarded-up store- Most of the counties had some sort of fronts and aban- zoning on the books, although their quality doned buildings. The ‘Burbs Are Booming In the 1990s, aided was a mixed bag. The authors single out by hundreds of Florida and Washington as being states with thousands of strict growth management laws and, hence, dollars of state manageable growth. Two counties had no zoning Data from the 2000 Census show that several investment in or growth control measures. suburban areas in the West and Southwest infrastructure, “One of the biggest problems for most are now more populated than some estab- roads, and a traffic of these places was their relatively slow lished urban centers. Dubbed “boomburbs,” light, a WalMart growth in tax base compared with their these suburbs now account for one-fourth of (above) opened just outside the growth in public spending needs,” write the the big cities (i.e., places with a population between 100,000 and 400,000) in the U.S. city limits. “It’s authors in their conclusion. “[Growth areas] been the nail in initially attract commuters or retirees, and the coffin of only later do private services and other Mesa, Arizona, a suburb of Phoenix, leads the downtown,” says industries follow. The result is that most pack with a population of 396,375. Other a longtime of these rural sprawl places complained of “boomburbs”with populations exceeding resident who insufficient tax revenues to pay for school 300,000 include Santa Ana and Anaheim, wishes to remain anonymous. and infrastructure improvements. Several California, and Arlington,Texas.These suburbs officials noted that the only way to break are now larger than older cities such as out of this conundrum would be for their Cincinnati, Ohio; Miami, Florida; and St. Louis, state to help out by paying more of the Missouri. infrastructure costs.” In addition to the fiscal costs of treat- Robert Lang, co-author of Boomburbs:The ment and infrastructure mentioned above, Emergence of Large,Fast-Growing Suburban Cities communities pay other prices for sprawl in in the United States says ”Boomburbs may be terms of their quality of life. “[The] conver- the ultimate symbol of a new, sprawling post- sion [of rural areas] to soul-less subdivi- war metropolis.” Founded during the 1970s sions and strip-shopping centers is the and 80s, these cities epitomize what smart single biggest threat to small town charac- growth advocates are working against: office ter and identity,” says Woods. parks,”big box”retailers such as Home Depot, “For small towns and rural areas, the strip developments, and subdivisions made up challenge is to have growth that does not of large, single-family homes. ”They have now destroy the rural or small town character coalesced into suburban super cities that have of the original place,” says Hirschhorn. “The all the functions of a traditional city,”says Lang, solution is use of new community design ”but are built for a drive-through society.” principles to build mixed-use places within or very close to the older, original towns.” The entire text of Lang’s article is available on the Fannie Mae Foundation’s Web site at www.fan- niemaefoundation.org/census_notes_6.shtml.
On Tap . Fall 2001 . 14 Does anyone want “dumb reversing, despite substantial growth”? “For small towns government subsidies. From “In some ways, the very term and rural areas, 1990 to 1995, the number of [smart growth] itself is unfortu- public transport boardings nate,” says Woods. “Ask anyone the challenge is dropped 5.5 percent nation- if they’re in favor of smart growth wide. Public transit fails to and they’ll say ‘sure.’ After all, to have growth provide the speed, flexibility, what’s the alternative—dumb that does not and comfort that today’s com- growth?” While it would be diffi- muters demand, so they use cult to find an advocate for destroy the rural their cars instead. dumb growth, there are those “The deliberate goal of anti- who criticize smart growth and or small town sprawl activists is to promote planning. character of the policies that exacerbate traffic The most obvious opposition congestion and force people to comes from what is loosely original place.” live in crowded cities,” writes defined as “the development John Carlisle, author of The industry”: realtors, road- Joel Hirschhorn, Campaign Against Urban builders, and conventional policy studies director, Sprawl: Declaring War on the homebuilders and developers. National Governors Association American Dream published by It is, obviously, much easier the National Center for Public and cheaper to build in rural Policy Research. “Since high areas with no land-use restrictions. There are density urban areas almost always have the literally millions of dollars to be made and worst air pollution, the likely result of a federal- developers are, they say, merely responding ly-financed campaign to restrict growth to less to market conditions. healthy urban areas in the name of protecting There are also those who criticize the undeveloped open space would be to worsen the assumptions on which smart growth and quality of the nation’s environment.” planning are predicated. They claim that In a very real sense, the backlash against public transit is unpopular in the U.S., that smart growth ideals goes deeper than specific farmland is not being lost but has remained arguments about open space and population constant for 50 years, and that increasing density. The sanctity of rural areas and the population in urban areas actually contributes corresponding demonization of cities has been to pollution. an almost constant theme since the founding The Competitive Enterprise Institute, a of the U.S. itself. Thomas Jefferson, for exam- group “dedicated to the principles of free enter- ple, was a strong proponent of rural life and prise and limited government” advances the viewed yeoman farmers as the backbone of following counter-arguments: democracy. During Reconstruction, the notion • Smart growth promotes densification, of “40 acres and a mule” was advanced as fit- which means that urban open spaces ting reparation to freed slaves. After World are developed (including parkland), crowding the few parks that remain. In Portland, [Oregon], which proponents of smart growth hail as a model of smart growth, the amount of parkland per 1,000 residents has declined from 21 acres to 19 acres this decade alone. • From 1945 to 1992, the amount of cropland remained constant at 24 per- cent, according to the U.S. Department of Agriculture. In fact, the federal gov- ernment spends billions of dollars each year paying farmers to idle their land, suggesting there is a surplus of farm- land, not a shortage. • While increased population density may reduce development pressures in rural areas, increased urban density correlates with increased traffic conges- Photo courtesy of NASA tion and air pollution. According to the EPA’s own data, smog worsens as den- This photograph of the U.S. at night—taken from a satellite miles above sities increase. the Earth—shows how densely populated much of the country is.The • Mass transit ridership has been falling urbanized area stretching from Boston to Washington, for example, is home to more than 60 million people. for decades and shows no sign of On Tap . Fall 2001 . 15 War II, the GI Bill and the development of the to a town budget (over Interstate highway system allowed hundreds and above the property of thousands of Americans to recreate their tax collected), says Fodor. own little rural places in what came to be A new house on a five- known as “suburbia.” acre lot costs the com- David Ellwood, professor of public policy at munity $2232 per year. Harvard University, identifies four basic themes In neighboring that define fundamental American values: Maryland, smart growth autonomy of the individual, virtue of work, pri- has become the focus of macy of the family, and desire for and sense of a heated debate. Citing community. With respect to ideas such as a 25-year-old law that smart growth or community planning, there allows the state to bring is a built-in tension in court challenges against these values. “The potentially harmful rezon- Minnesota Encourages autonomy of the indi- ing decisions, Governor Community-Based vidual and primacy of Parris Glendening says Planning the family tend to push in a June 25, 2001, New Under the auspices of the Community- people in individualistic York Times article, “It’s the Based Planning Act of 1997 and through and often isolating direc- responsibility of the state a series of direct grants, Minnesota has tions,” says Ellwood. to stand up aggressively designed several projects to highlight “But the desire for com- and try to protect the the benefits of community-based plan- munity remains strong quality of life. ning.It’s the first time that the state has in everything from reli- “Let the battles funded comprehensive planning since gion to neighborhoods.” begin,” says Donald Dell, 1982. As a result, most communities Americans long to be Carroll County commis- had outdated plans when they had part of a community, it sioner in the same New plans at all. seems, yet we want our York Times article. own piece of land and “What’s at stake here is The Act encourages communities to we’ll be damned if any- my ability to govern and plan using sustainable development one tries to tell us what do the things I’m sworn Photo by Julie Black and smart growth principles.Two fund- to do with that land. to do.” To Dell and others, An important component of smart ing sources are available to Minnesota Where are smart growth communities who wish to develop the principle of home growth initiatives is to identify and principles being used? preserve community green spaces. comprehensive plans: planning assis- rule is sacred. But, tance and planning and technology A funny thing hap- Glendening says that grants. Participation is voluntary, but pened in Loudoun it’s unfair for munici- communities are required to follow the County, Virginia. With palities to subsidize sprawl by rezoning plans they develop. cheap land and an farmland for housing developments— hour-and-a-half com- designed, primarily, to generate tax revenue— For more information about this pro- mute to Washington only to turn to the state to provide new gram, write to Minnesota Planning, 658 D.C., 5,000-square-foot sewers, water systems, roads, and schools. Cedar St., Room 300, St. Paul, MN 55155 homes were becoming a Between one and six million new resi- or call (651) 296-3985 or visit their Web common feature of the dents are expected in Maryland over the site at www.mnplan.state.mn.us. landscape. Elected offi- next 20 years, and many communities are cials there—the third- already feeling the pressure. In Frederick, fastest-growing county for instance, city officials had to take a drastic in the U.S.—had been anti-sprawl action by cutting residential con- planning to add 40,000 houses over the next struction permits in half after they discovered five years. Had been, that is, until eight anti- that the city did not have the water resources sprawl candidates were elected to the to accommodate its current growth rate. Loudoun County Board of Commissioners. Unlike the contentious situation in “It was an astounding victory,” Joe Maio, Maryland, residents of Littleton, New director of Voters to Stop Sprawl, says in an Hampshire, have had a comparatively easy article by Linda Baker in the May/June time adopting growth-planning strategies. 2000 issue of E Magazine. “It was a com- The town of 5,965 and its smart growth tac- plete repudiation of the way business is tics were featured in a cover story in the done around here.” November 15, 2000 USA Today. Reporter The large houses on large lots in Loudoun Haya El Nasser writes, “This picturesque County are cited by Eben Fodor in a book town in the White Mountains has embraced titled Better Not Bigger.A new house on a innovative, sometimes drastic planning con- quarter-acre lot adds just over $700 per year cepts: Fill every existing building before putting
On Tap . Fall 2001 . 16 up new ones and invite citizens to participate in have Smart Growth Task Forces. Toward the end planning decisions through town hall-style of their administration, Bill Clinton and Al Gore meetings.” launched a “Livability Agenda” designed to curb Involving the public is extremely important if urban sprawl. smart growth initiatives are to succeed, experts EPA, too, has been exploring ways to encour- report. It’s advice that residents of Littleton took age smart growth efforts. Citing a number of to heart. (See the sidebar on page 13 for ways to environmental, fiscal, and quality-of-life foster smart growth.) issues, their report Potential Roles for the Working together on community issues has, Clean Water State Revolving Fund Programs in by all accounts, reinvigorated the town. Plans Smart Growth Initiatives explains how loans are being finalized for an affordable housing can be used to support growth management. development, for continued aesthetic improve- Ultimately, though, it’s up to informed ments in the historic downtown, and for recre- residents to decide how their communities ation trails on both sides of the Ammonoosuc should grow or not grow. “Don’t believe the River. Littleton’s efforts were rewarded in 1999 myth that all growth is good,” cautions when it was named New Hampshire’s Main Meadows. “Ask hard questions. Who will Street Community of the Year. benefit from the next development scheme, and who will pay? Are there better options, The Future of Smart Growth including undeveloped, protected land? How The smart growth movement faces some for- much growth can our roads, our land, our midable obstacles: entrenched political ideals, waters and air, our neighborhoods, schools long-standing societal beliefs about homes and and community support? Since we can’t lands, and a maze of cross-jurisdictional laws grow forever, where should we stop?” The and policies governing land-use planning, to answers to these questions will become name just a few. Nevertheless, anti-sprawl pro- more and more urgent as demands on land ponents remain optimistic about the future. increase—even if the U.S. never literally “Smart growth is probably the strongest runs out of room. grassroots-driven movement in the U.S.,” says Hirschhorn. “It is relatively young and is still More Information About growing as more Americans Smart Growth suffer more declines in quality Numerous groups are involved with issues relating The Brookings Institution’s Center for Urban and of life, like traffic congestion, to smart growth, urban sprawl, healthy communi- Metropolitan Policy and as more elected officials ties,and sustainable growth. Although by no means 1775 Massachusetts Ave., N.W. realize that ensuring economic exhaustive, the following six organizations provide Washington, DC 20036 growth requires smart growth excellent information on these issues, as well as Phone: (202) 797-6139 strategies.” additional sources. E-mail: [email protected] So far, most smart growth Web: www.brookings.org/es/urban/urban.htm efforts are at the local and state The National Neighborhood Coalition levels. In 1999, for example, vot- 1030 15th St. NW, Suite 325 Washington, DC 20005 The National Association of Local Government ers passed more than 70 percent Phone: (202) 408-8553 Environmental Professionals of 2,400 local ballot initiatives E-mail: [email protected] 1350 New York Avenue, N.W., preserving open spaces and cre- Web: www.neighborhoodcoalition.org Suite 1100 ating more than $7.5 billion in Washington, DC 20005 funds for land conservation. At The Smart Growth Network Phone: (202) 393-2866 the state level, more than 1,000 777 North Capitol St., N.E., Suite 500 E-mail: [email protected] land-use reform bills were intro- Washington, DC 20002-4201 Web: www.nalgep.org duced in legislatures in 1999, Phone: (202) 289-4262 with more than 200 enacted into E-mail: [email protected] T he Congress for the New Urbanism law. Eleven states have some Web: www.smartgrowth.org The Hearst Building sort of smart growth strategy and 5 Third Street, Suite 725 several more are considering The National Governors Association San Francisco, CA 94103 such measures. Hall of States Phone: (415) 495-2255 Although the federal govern- 444 N. Capitol St. E-mail: [email protected] ment has historically taken a Washington, DC 20001-1512 Web: www.cnu.org hands-off approach to land and Phone: (202) 624-5300 growth issues, there are signs E-mail: [email protected] that this is changing. Both Web: www.nga.org houses of Congress, for example,
On Tap . Fall 2001 . 17 OPERATIONS Water Whose water is it Wars and why do I need a permit to use it?
by Jamie Knotts Tighter restrictions, permits, and In many states, laws require cer- On Tap Assistant Editor case law dictate when, where, and tain public water users to receive how much water a user can take for approval from the state prior to Back when homesteaders were consumption. using the water. In almost all cases, slowly moving to undeveloped areas Home and landowners aren’t the surface waters may be used only of countryside, they simply diverted only ones limited to water usage with explicit permission of the state. a stream or dug a well to meet their through permitting. Small and large Water for livestock and household family’s water needs. If their garden municipalities alike also must go uses is sometimes exempted from was dry, they merely used all the through the often-complicated water this requirement, so long as people nearby water they wanted to irrigate rights processes to secure enough who live adjacent to a stream or it. If field crops or farm animals were flow to meet consumers’ needs. river divert the water. Landowners parched, landowners funneled the with water flowing past, through, or often-unlimited supply their way. What is a water right? under their property do not auto- As years went by, technology gave A water right is a legal authori- matically have the right to use that home and farm owners new tools to zation to use a certain amount of water without a permit in some tap the Earth’s underground water. public water for specific beneficial states. Drilling rigs set up shop and tore purposes. Water flowing in creeks, Often, county and rural commu- through the soil and rock until trick- rivers, and bays is usually state nity fire departments and other simi- les turned to torrents of flowing water. This surface water is public lar services are allowed to divert and water. Pumps brought subsurface property; however, states give use state water from streams and water skyward as landowners’ bur- individuals, organizations, and reservoirs for emergency use without geoning need for water increased municipalities the right to pump first obtaining a permit. with each passing year. water from a stream, creek, pond, Understanding who gets to use But the days of open and unlim- or lake, or to impound water in a water is often a confusing process ited access to the water landowners lake or pond. because no national water rights wanted or needed are gone in many system exists. In its absence, state places and have been for years. water laws have evolved with differ- ent traditions and conditions. Each state’s water allocation system— which defines the type and quantity of use—is based on the state’s indi- vidual approach to water rights. Ralph Edwards, an attorney who works with water rights law in California, says that the complexity of water rights law often overwhelms his clients. “You just can’t divert water from a stream without follow- ing the prescribed legal process for using the water,” he says. “California is very specific in how a user can gain access to a water right. It can be com- plicated for those unfamiliar with the process. There’s no doubt about it.”
On Tap . Fall 2001 . 18 Western states follow variations Department to use water from any date can take as much as necessary on the prior appropriation doctrine, source, whether it is underground, or to satisfy needs under their right and which basically means that one gets from lakes or streams. so on down the line until there is no the water right by simply having Oregon’s water laws, like many surplus. The date of application for a used the water in the past. Eastern states, are based on the principle of permit to use water usually becomes states generally use riparian rules prior appropriation. Usually the the priority date of the right. and state permits for use. Riparian first person to obtain a water right The appropriation doctrine has rights give water preferences to on a stream is the last to be shut been law since 1909 in Oregon those who own property adjacent to off in times of low stream flow. In when passage of the first unified the riparian or water zone from water-short times, the water right water code introduced state control which the water is drawn. Under holder with the oldest date of prior- over the right to use water. Before the riparian doctrine, only landown- ity can demand the water specified then, water users had to depend on ers with water flowing through or in their water right regardless of the themselves or local courts to defend adjacent to their property have needs of junior users. their rights to water. claims to the water. If there is a surplus beyond the Edwards says that in Calif- needs of the senior right holder, the ornia, there are two general States Handle Rights Differently person with the next oldest priority classes of rights to surface water: Some state water laws rely on riparian and appropriative. common law doctrines and court “Within the appropriative cate- decisions over time that resolved Riparianism vs Prior gory, there are four main sub- private disputes. In other states, Appropriation groups of rights: pre-1914 the legislature developed statutory rights, small domestic use, and administrative arrangements There are many factors that must be con- small stock ponds constructed that determined water rights. sidered in allocating water to users.The prior to 1969, and general Water rights laws and statutes first is the traditional water law doctrine appropriative rights obtained in various states are peppered that has developed in the U.S.: the older through the application, permit, with the term “beneficial use.” riparian principles of the eastern states and license process,” he says. Beneficial uses include domestic and the doctrine of prior appropriation in “In order to have a right to divert use, irrigation, stock watering, the arid western states. and/or store water, whether it be manufacturing, mining, hydro for domestic use or for commer- power, municipal use, aquacul- Riparianism starts with the assumption cial use, the person or group ture, recreation, and fish and that water is plentiful and available to all using the water must generally wildlife. The amount of the water riparian and littoral property owners. have either a riparian right or right is the amount of water put to Under this doctrine, all water uses are one of the types of appropriative beneficial use. Due to the beneficial allowed as long as they do not unreason- rights. There are also certain use requirement, a water right (or a ably interfere with other uses.This means miscellaneous water rights, portion of a water right) may be lost that water uses that have been in place including prescriptive rights if it is not used in a certain period for a long period of time and any new and rights to a spring. Each of time in most states. users have equal rights and entitlement type of right has its own nuances In Texas, state law requires a to the water.This doctrine works well as and required documentation.” water right document for all other long as water is plentiful and there are no How is a water right established? surface water uses, aside from disputes that involve “ownership” of the household needs or for irrigating resource. However, in times of water Because water rights laws a yard or home garden. Residents scarcity, the shortcomings of the riparian vary so widely from state to may impound up to 200 acre-feet system become evident. state, the process for obtaining of water in stock tanks for domestic rights is also different. In Idaho, and livestock use. Texas’ various Prior Appropriation operates on the “first there were two ways a surface water right documents—including in time, first in right” principle.The first or water right could be established certificates of adjudication, permits, prior user’s rights are superior to later- prior to May 1971, according to term permits, and temporary per- arising uses, regardless of scarcity or the Idaho Department of Water mits—do not guarantee that water social benefits. Users typically acquire Resources’ Web site, the agency will always be available. But some rights from the state to withdraw and that oversees water rights in the of them provide more certainty consume water and even in times of state. The first way was to sim- than others do. Each such docu- drought may continue to do so at the ply divert water and apply it to ment has a priority date assigned expense of subsequent users. a beneficial use. These water to it. rights are called “beneficial Under Oregon law, all water is There is also a relative new-comer to the use,” “historic use,” or “consti- publicly owned. With some excep- water rights law that is being embraced tutional” water rights. The pri- tions, cities, towns, farmers, factory by a growing number of eastern states, ority date for a water right owners, and other users must that of a hybridized version of the ripari- established by this method is obtain a permit or water right from an and prior appropriation doctrines. the date that water was first the state’s Water Resources put to beneficial use.
On Tap . Fall 2001 . 19 The second way to establish a water right for small domestic use Based on the western states’ prior surface water right was to comply must do two things. “First, the appropriation doctrine, Native with the statutory method in effect appropriator must register with the American water rights are generally at the time the water right was state’s water board. Second, the senior to rights held by non-Indian established. The current statutory appropriator must apply the water users because Native Americans were method is an application/permit/ to reasonable and beneficial use often the first inhabitants of an area. license procedure. The priority date with due diligence,” he says. “It is Until recent years, states and for a water right established by this important to remember that both courts have made little effort to method is the date that a person requirements must be satisfied. A determine the quantity of water files an application with the state. small domestic use right cannot be reserved for Native Americans. As Prior to 1903, Idaho used a acquired simply by using the water; a result, Indian water rights still “posted notice” statute, which you must also register with the remain largely unused and unquan- allowed water users to post notice Water Board. Similarly, a registra- tified. Because these rights are not at the point of diversion and tion alone does not give the regis- quantified, non-Indian water users record the notice at the county trant a water right. The registrant with junior water rights face con- recorder’s office. The user then had must also make reasonable and siderable uncertainty when planning to actually divert and use the water, beneficial use of the water in a their long-term water use. Settling or among other things. If the statutory timely fashion. adjudicating Indian water rights can requirements were met then the “Once an appropriator acquires help both Indian and non-Indian priority date for a water right estab- a right to appropriate water for water users to plan future water lished under the posted notice small domestic use, the appropria- resources development. statute was the date of posting the tor must comply with the condi- But tribes have multiple interests notice. Water rights established tions established by the Water in water. Water development is impor- under the old statutory method are Board in order to maintain that tant for tribal economic development called “posted notice” water rights, right,” Edwards notes. “The Water on reservations. Conversely, tribes but are considered beneficial use Board is required to give regis- also strongly support the protection rights because they are not con- trants a written document setting methods of instream flows for fish firmed by a permit, license, or forth the conditions. An appropri- and wildlife resources downstream. decree. ator must also renew his or her Indian rights could have a signifi- In May 1971, the state changed registration prior to the expiration cant effect on water rights established its procedures, resulting in only of each five-year period following under state law. Disputes occasion- one way to establish a right to the completed registration. If the ally arise regarding whether the water, which is to follow the appli- registration is not timely renewed, state or a Tribe (or both) have cation/permit/license procedure the Water Board may revoke the jurisdiction over non-Indian use the state put into effect. The one registration.” of water on Indian reservations. exception to this rule is for water Case law is mixed on this issue; rights used solely for watering Federal Rights Complicate Matters so more case law may be necessary domestic livestock instream. Not only do landowners and over time to provide clarity. State, The process for gaining a ground- other groups wanting water need to tribal, and federal negotiations over water right closely resembles the sur- understand state water rights doc- water rights are currently underway face water procedure in Idaho. There trine, but in some cases, they must on numerous reservations. is one exception to this rule. A “bene- also follow specific federal laws. ficial use” right to groundwater may Federal reserved water rights are still be established for domestic based on the U.S. government’s case purposes. “Domestic purposes” is law, presidential executive order, or defined by statute as “water for an act of Congress. In some cases, household use or livestock all other the federal government exerts its role purposes, including irrigation of up in water rights to protect native fish to one-half acre of land in connec- and wildlife on the threatened or tion with said household where endangered species list. total use is not in excess of thirteen Native American’s claims to thousand (13,000) gallons per day.” water rights have customarily been The state limits the “domestic granted through federal laws, purpose” statute by not including notably through a 1908 water for multiple ownership subdivi- Supreme Court decision sions, mobile home parks, and com- that gave Native American mercial or business establishments. reservations enough water Idaho interprets the rule of domestic at the time they were cre- exception for single-family domestic ated to meet the needs of purposes only. the reservation. In California, Edwards says anyone wanting to establish a
On Tap . Fall 2001 . 20 Growing Needs Cause Disputes The compacts cover two sepa- being used without a permit becomes As population growth hits vari- rate river systems: the Alabama- a growing problem in times of drought ous regions of the country, local Coosa-Tallapoosa river basin and the and low stream or river flows. community leaders must strive to Apalachicola-Chattahoochee-Flint In Texas, the honor system gov- maintain adequate water supplies. river basin. The two river systems erns compliance with water rights, Couple human and industrial growth serve a wide variety of municipal, according to the Texas Natural with drought conditions and you’ve industrial, and recreational uses, Resource Conservation Commission’s got the makings of a large-scale prob- and support a complex natural (TNRCC) Web site. However, when lem. And that’s exactly what hap- ecosystem. rainfall is low, some users may not pened in the southeastern states of The two compacts are the first realize that the river conditions do Georgia, Alabama, and Florida. of their kind in the southeast. not allow them to divert the water The so-called “tri-state water While water compacts are com- flowing past their property. For war” between the three states monplace in the water-scarce example, the flow may represent kicked off in 1990 when Atlanta west, prior to this dispute only stored water that has been released sought a permit from the U.S. Army one other compact was in place for downstream buyers or to satisfy Corps of Engineers to create reser- outside the western region. environmental flow requirements for voirs on the Chattahoochee, Flint, wildlife, or the flow may need to pass and Coosa Rivers. City leaders cited Is the water being stolen? because downstream users have anticipated growth and future water While various permits, laws, senior rights and need the water. needs as the reason to increase its and court decisions dictate how During 1996’s dry summer, some withdrawals of up to 50 percent water should be delegated in a users complained to the TNRCC that from the Chattahoochee and Flint given area, the reality is that not stored water from upstream reser- Rivers by 2010. everyone follows the rules. Water voirs released to supply downstream The proposal set off a dispute between Georgia and its down- Water Rights Glossary stream neighbors, Alabama and Florida. Alabama saw the plan as a threat to its own water supply, Appropriative rights users with claims have senior and junior possibly stunting industrial and Rights to or ownership of a supply of water rights for a given river, stream, or population growth in the state and water which is appropriated, independent aquifer.The older the priority date, the more resulting in degraded water quality of land ownership, and put to beneficial senior rights a user has. due to the decrease in water flow. use. Appropriative rights are allocated Alabama argued that the down- based on priority of use, and are subject Wa ter right permit stream flow already brings with it to loss by non-use or abandonment. This represents permission given to a water Atlanta’s pollution and that a right applicant by the state to develop a decrease in the water flow would Beneficial use water right.Water rights are considered mean more pollutants that would Beneficial use is the use of a reasonable ”developed” when applicants follow provi- not get diluted. Florida joined the amount of water necessary to accomplish sions outlined in their permits. A developed dispute contending that the plan to the purpose of the appropriation, without water right permit remains in effect until a siphon off more water from the waste. Some common types of beneficial water right certificate is issued. Chattahoochee and Flint rivers use are domestic use, irrigation, municipal, would deplete the flow into Florida’s wildlife,recreation, and mining. Water right certificates Apalachicola Bay and would criti- These certify that water users have authority cally injure the state’s $70 million Correlative rights to use a specific amount of water under cer- oyster industry. Water rights where all users of water on tain conditions.The certificate is linked to Unable to convince Atlanta to an irrigation canal or an acequia have the the land, not the individual, and is subject to halt its plans, Alabama filed a law- same priority date of use and there is relinquishment for lack of use (“use it or lose suit in federal court to prevent the only one point of diversion for a common it”). Certificates are legal documents record- Corps from implementing the ditch or canal. ed at county offices. siphoning plan. Florida later joined the suit. In 1992, the lawsuit was Prior appropriation Water appropriation suspended pending a comprehen- A doctrine of water law which allocates the A water appropriation is an authorization sive study of the future water needs right to use water on a first-come, first- granted by the state to make a private, ben- of the three states. served basis.The doctrine was developed eficial use of the state’s water resources. An Worried about what the study out of the system of administrative disposi- approved appropriation authorizes use of results might show, the three states tion of land grant. Disputes were settled in either ground or surface water and is issued entered into two interstate water favor of the party with the oldest grant. as either a water right permit for a new compacts that would allow the gover- water use or as a vested water right for an nors of each state and one federal Priority date existing water use pre-dating a certain time appointee to analyze the study’s find- The priority date is the official time a (depending on the state in question). ing and divide the water supplies claim or right to water is recognized by accordingly. the state.This is used to determine which
On Tap . Fall 2001 . 21 Oregon’s Permit buyers had been diverted by other Application Process users. Because of low rainfall, pumping demands had increased. Department Review Applicant/Public Involvement To satisfy downstream purchasers, river authorities, water districts, The Department Report This is sent to the and other water suppliers had reviews the application applicant released substantial amounts of to determine if water stored water from reservoirs. In is available during the Initial Review some cases, those downstream time requested and A weekly listing users complained that the water the proposed use is Public is sent to interested they had purchased never reached allowed. Notice parties. the intended destination. In response to complaints, the TNRCC set up a temporary water Protests If anyone opposes rights protection program. The This explains the find- the proposed order, agency increased its streamflow ings and outlines what they may file a formal monitoring in the river basins to the Department plans Proposed protest. detect unauthorized diversions. In to do about the permit. Final Order addition, the TNRCC stopped granting temporary water use per- mits in several key river basins. This is to judge legal Where low streamflows rendered This becomes the per- Contested disputes if the protest normal pumping sites high and mit to use water. Now Case cannot be resolved. dry, the agency also allowed water the applicant must right holders to amend their per- begin to put the water mits temporarily to change diver- to beneficial use. Final Order sion points in order to gain better access to their water. These amendments did not adversely affect other water right holders. In Oregon, state law allows Source: Oregon Water Resource Department Water Resources Department personnel to enter private land What does the future hold? to inspect well and water diversion For more information about water systems to ensure that water laws Some say that increasing popula- rights in your state, contact your state are obeyed. “Watermasters” and tion growth will put even more stress primacy agency. For the number and well inspectors—who are employ- on water utilities to provide enough address of your state primacy agency, ees of the Department—usually water for customers in the future. call the National Drinking Water conduct inspections. The Critics of the current mish-mash of Clearinghouse at (800) 624-8301 and Department’s groundwater geolo- water rights laws from state to state ask to speak with a drinking water gists also make inspections. say that without changes in policy, technical assistant. The state’s watermasters Americans could be short of water in respond to complaints from water the next 25 years. users and determine in a time of Current regulations encourage Living in West Virginia where water shortage who has the right inefficient agricultural water use. water is plentiful, the only war to use water. They may shut down For example, the “use-it-or-lose-it” Jamie Knotts has battled is junior users in periods of short- rule forces water rights holders to keeping his football field- age. Watermasters work with all of use their entire water allotment or sized garden watered during the water users on a given water risk forfeiting it. In some states, drought conditions. E-mail system to ensure that the users rules prohibit farmers from storing him at [email protected]. voluntarily comply with the needs or selling water they have a right to, of more senior users. but is beyond their agricultural Behind the scenes, On Tap Occasionally, Oregon’s watermas- needs. While many cities search for Graphic Designer Julie Black ters take more formal actions to force water, critics say these regulations fuels her ideas for layout with compliance of unlawful water users or discourage farmers from practicing her newly found passion for those who are engaged in practices water conservation. As a result, in West Virginia’s untamed rivers. which “waste” water, or continually many areas, municipal water users If you have a graphic idea e-mail use more water than needed to satisfy suffer or will suffer chronic short- the specific beneficial use for which ages, and governments react with her at [email protected]. the right was granted. severe water use restrictions.
On Tap . Fall 2001 . 22 FINANCES
The West Virginia Infrastructure and Jobs Development Council Funding Water Projects in the Mountain State
by Mark Kemp-Rye How does the council operate? On Tap Managing Editor One of the key roles that the WVIJDC plays is that of state funding clearinghouse. “We provide a For many small communities, the maze of central source for a community seeking funds for paperwork required for water and wastewater water, wastewater, and economic development project funding can be overwhelming. Each projects,” says Katy Mallory, WVIJDC executive government agency has its own forms and its director. “The council helps identify available pri- own information needs. Couple this situation vate, public, local, state, and federal funding to with limited resources, and it’s easy to see assure that maximum financing is identified for why town officials become frustrated. each project.” In West Virginia, help is available for both Projects that the WVIJDC funds are measured the process of applying for funds and additional by criteria specified in the 1994 Infrastructure and funding. The West Virginia Infrastructure and Jobs Development Act. These criteria include: Jobs Development Council (WVIJDC) funds water, wastewater, and economic development Infrastructure Councils projects and coordinates project funding with on the Web other federal and state agencies. The state’s legislature created the WVIJDC in 1994 to oversee a $300 million-bond issue Several states maintain Web sites related to that voters passed. However, a court challenge water and wastewater infrastructure projects. kept the WVIJDC from funding projects until 1996. The 11-member council consists of four The California Financing Coordinating private citizens appointed by the governor, and Committee seeks to ”foster cooperation seven other members from agencies, including among the various organizations that admin- the Bureau of Public Health, the Public Service ister [water and wastewater] programs at the Commission, Department of Environmental state and local level.” Visit their site at Protection, Development Office, Economic www.swrcb.ca.gov/cwphome/mss/cfccfr.htm. Development Office, Housing Development Fund, and the Water Development Authority. The Louisiana Infrastructure Information The WVIJDC has four main committees: consoli- Center provides an online database that (1) dation, funding, sewer technical review, and provides a means for sharing public informa- water technical review. tion about infrastructure projects, (2) aids the Working with numerous other agencies— decision-making process for participating notably the U.S. Department of Agriculture’s agencies, and (3) provides users with a ”one- Rural Development Office and the U.S. stop shop” for infrastructure funds.Visit their Environmental Protection Agency’s revolving site at wwwsrch2.doa.state.la.us/infra/. loan funds—the WVIJDC has successfully leveraged the initial $300 million bond into The Ohio Small Communities Environmental projects estimated at more than $1.1 billion. Infrastructure Group coordinates, through a “We’re really proud of that,” says James Finance Committee,the ”financial resources Williams, one of the citizen members of the administered by state and federal agencies to council and currently its chairman, in a address environmental infrastructure needs of February 19, 2001, Charleston Daily Mail article. small communities.” Visit their site at “I don’t believe there’s a comparable four-and-a- www.cpmra.muohio.edu/sceig/. half year period in the state’s history when those kinds of dollars have been spent on economic development and health programs.”
On Tap . Fall 2001 . 23 • public health benefits, • economic development benefits, • compliance with state and federal regulations (Clean Water Act and Safe Drinking Water Act), • degree to which project encourages effective and efficient consolidation of systems, • cost effectiveness, • availability of alternative funding sources, • operation and maintenance needs, • state or regional planning goals, and • readiness to proceed.
All requests must include: • a completed WVIJDC application form, • an engineering report, and Photos by Mark Kemp-Rye • a Public Service Commission report.
The Council meets each month with repre- sentatives from various funding sources to review applications. First, a technical review committee considers the request. If the project is technically feasible and the most cost effec- tive alternative, they recommend it to the funding committee. The funding committee provides a recommendation to the Council, which has the final approval. According to Mallory, the entire process is typically completed in 30 days. “Everything with our project has gone according to schedule,” says Joe Haldeman, Residents of Rivesville,West Virginia, will soon enjoy mayor of Rivesville, West Virginia, whose town improved water service thanks to a $3 million system received $1.5 million in WVJIDC loans and upgrade and transmission main replacement project.The grants. The funding will be used to replace West Virginia Infrastructure and Jobs Development Council water mains and provide service to new cus- provided a $50,000 grant and a $1.5 million loan.The tomers when the work is completed in early remaining money came from a small cities block grant. 2003. “They had all the answers,” Haldeman says of the Council, “and we’re really pleased • more than $1.1 billion funded, with how things have gone so far.” • $987 million for water and sewer projects, • $207 million in federal monies lever- Small Staff Makes Big Impact aged, Given the amount of funding that the WVI- • 28,000 new customers receiving water JDC has leveraged and the number of applica- service, tions they receive, it might seem easy, as • 23,000 new customers receiving sewer though they have a large staff spread around service, the state. The reality, however, is just the • more than 250,000 existing customers opposite. Two people—Mallory and Rose receiving improved service, and Cantrell, a part-time secretary—handle the • compliance and environmental issues day-to-day work from a modest office in have been resolved. Charleston, the state capital. “We get a great deal of help from the various More than 260 water and wastewater proj- funding and regulatory agencies involved, and ects were funded between 1994 and 2000. our citizen members who also are very active,” says Mallory. “So, we’re not really trying to West Virginia’s Needs Are Great expand our staff. If we had a bigger staff, it The WVIJDC estimates that more than 25 would just mean less money for the projects.” percent of West Virginia’s population still need A brief summary of WVIJDC activities gives access to safe drinking water and that 45 per- an idea how their work impacts the Mountain cent have inadequate sewer systems. “In order State:
On Tap . Fall 2001 . 24 to meet the current drinking water and waste- $100,000, including one for just $25,000. The water needs of the state and improve the overall interest that communities pay on these loans quality of life,” a council statement reads, “a is the same rate that the bank receives for the minimum of $878 million is needed for commu- bonds it sells. (See the Spring 1997 Water nity water systems, and at least $1.9 billion is Sense for more information about bonds.) required for central sewer systems throughout States across the country also are finding the state.” it advantageous to make the search for funds To achieve the nearly $3 billion goal, the easier on communities. The process typically Infrastructure Council needs $300 million in works like this: additional money, which will enable additional 1. the community develops a proposal revenue bonds to be issued, according to WVI- for an infrastructure project; JDC projections. 2. the community presents the proposal Public works projects have clearly to a coordinating council, such as the improved the quality of water in West Virginia. WVIJDC; However, notes Mallory, much remains to be 3. the agency, which meets on a regular done. “The needs are great, but we remain basis (often monthly), ranks the proposed hopeful that by 2010, most of them will be projects by need and lines up funding met,” she says. “Loans are being repaid and from different sources for eligible we are now able to issue revenue bonds proposals; and against these repayments. And, in the most 4. the community is informed about how recent [2001] legislative session, monies were the project will proceed. earmarked for more infrastructure funding.” In the past, the community needed to submit What goes on in other states? a different, often complex, application to each The need for improved infrastructure is a federal or state agency. A streamlined process growing concern for every state. And, with means less duplication and less waiting for proj- a limited amount of federal funding available, ects to take shape. more states are relying on their own resources For more information about the WVIJDC, to fund projects. call (304) 558-4607 or write to 300 Summers Oregon is one such state. The state’s St., Suite 980, Charleston, WV 25301. Infor- Economic and Community Development mation also is available on their Web site at Department combines funding www.wvinfrastructure.com. from the state bond bank with More information about proceeds from the state lottery the Oregon Economic and to finance infrastructure proj- “I don’t believe Community Development ects, including drinking water Department (OECDD) and and wastewater activities. there’s a compara- their infrastructure loans According to Tom Meek, Oregon may be found at Bond Bank financial analyst, ble four-and-a-half www.econ.state.or.us. You the eligibility criteria for a loan may also write to OECDD at are simple. Systems must prove year period in 775 Summer St., Suite 200, that they are “creditworthy” and Salem, OR 97301 or call toll- seek a loan of at least $250,000. the state’s history free (800) 233-3306. Under the Oregon regula- The North Dakota tions, a community that does- when those kinds Municipal Bond Bank n’t receive an “A” rating on its (NDMBB) has a Web site at own isn’t eligible for bond of dollars have www.state.nd.us/bond- bank funds. However, they bank/. Check the details of may still be able to get help. been spent on the Capital Financing “Small loans and loans to Program to learn more about systems that are less credit- economic develop- infrastructure loans in that worthy are financed solely state. You may also write from the lottery,” says Meek. ment and health the NDMBB at 418 East In North Dakota, the Broadway, Suite 246, Municipal Bond Bank provides programs.” Bismarck, ND 58501. You funding for a variety of needs. James Williams, may also call toll-free at Unlike Oregon, the North chairman,West Virginia (800) 526-3509. Infrastructure and Jobs Dakota Bank has no minimum Development Council loan amount and has issued many loans of less than
On Tap . Fall 2001 . 25 HISTORY
If the CCC Built It,
byIt’s Kathy Jesperson Probably Still There On Tap Associate Editor
On October 29, 1929, the stock battle against the destruction of the market crashed. Once prosperous nation’s natural resources. “We were an army with Americans were instantly bankrupt. shovels instead of guns.” All of the free spending of the CCC Gets Off to a Fast Start “Roaring ‘20s” suddenly seemed Congress authorized the ECW Angelo Nocera, president, like the distant past. New Castle, Pennsylvania 125th CCC under Public Act No. 5. Roosevelt Alumni Association. Shantytowns—to be forever known approved the act known as the as Hoovervilles—sprang up every- Reforestation and Relief Bill on March where. “Orphan trains” carried chil- 31, 1933. The name was officially dren from town to town in search of changed to the Civilian Conservation even the slightest chance at life. Corps (CCC) on June 28, 1937. Soup and bread lines became a Roosevelt appointed Robert Fechner common sight. as the director of the program. By 1931, severe drought hit the With the Act in place, Roosevelt Midwest and southern Great Plains. promised to have 250,000 men in Crops died and the “Black Blizzards” camps by the end of July 1933. By began. For the next decade, out of April 6, 1933, the CCC enrolled its work, hungry, frightened Americans first 25,000 young men. would live through the Great The first camp, called “Roosevelt,” Depression. was established on April 17, 1933, in The 1932 presidential election, George Washington National Forest however, was about to bring some near Luray, Virginia. Less than three welcome relief. With a landslide of months later, approximately 300,000 confidence, Americans placed their men from all over the country were hopes with Franklin Delano Roosevelt. settled in close to 1,500 camps. They would not be disappointed. According to Fechner, “it was the most During the new president’s first rapid large scale mobilization of men “Hundred Days,” he promised the country had ever witnessed.” Americans a “New Deal” and revital- The CCC was a youth group. ized the faith of a desperate nation. Initially, young men between 18 and On March 9, 1933, Roosevelt 25 years old enrolled in the corps for called the 73rd Congress into emer- six-month service stretches. They gency session to seek authorization could re-enlist for another six-month for Emergency Conservation Work period, if they wished, for a maximum (ECW). Roosevelt told Congress, “we of two years. The enrollees received can take a vast army of the unem- $30 per month. If they had families, ployed out into healthful surround- they received $5 on payday and $25 ings. We can eliminate, to some was sent home. extent at least, the threat that “I had to quit school when I was Photo courtesy of James F. Justin Civilian Conservation Corps Museum enforced idleness brings to spiritual 17,” says Dominic Cuda, who served These Civilian Conservation Corps enrollees and moral stability.” in the CCC in Somerset, Pennsylvania. of Company 2123, Camp BR-7, Deaver, He proposed to recruit thousands “My family only had $3 a week. I could Wyoming, dig a ditch for a water line. of young men, enroll them into a give them the $25, and I would have peacetime army, and send them to $5 spending money. We never saw
On Tap . Fall 2001 . 26 the $25. It was sent straight home. Roosevelt took people off the streets and off Relief. He knew what he was doing.” In 1937, the government lowered the minimum enrollment age to 17 and raised the maximum age to 28. The government also expanded the program to include World War I vet- erans, Native Americans, Eskimos, and local experienced men who served as trades supervisors. At its peak in 1935, the CCC employed 505,782 young men scattered throughout 2,652 camps.
You’re in the CCC Now Four different federal agencies administered the CCC. The War
Department took charge of the camps, Photo courtesy of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Association while the Departments of Agriculture, This Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC) worker plants trees to help prevent soil erosion. Erosion Interior, and Labor, took charge of the control was just one of the many projects that the CCC worked on to counteract the devastation actual works projects and enrolling of the Dust Bowl. the young men into the program. “When we were in the camp, They just didn’t know what to do the Army was in charge of us,” says morning, followed by roll call, they ate about it,” says Sypolt. “What the Perry L. Cavaricci, who served two in a mess hall, and had taps at Depression did was give the president years in the CCC in Washington and night. All the enrollees were trained a means of addressing environmental New Mexico. “When we were out in in sort of a mini boot camp, which concerns.” the woods, we belonged to Forestry.” was a two-week conditioning course to Roosevelt had long been concerned Ray Hoyt notes in We Can Take become physically fit. If they weren’t about the country’s national resources It, A Short Story of the CCC, that the deemed physically fit, they were sent and wanted to find a way to reclaim War Department was the only gov- home. They had to pass all the physi- and preserve them. The Depression ernment agency organized enough cals and take all the shots just like furnished idle manpower. Roosevelt to enroll, clothe, feed, and supervise when a young man joined the Army. seized the opportunity to put the two several hundred thousand men in But no one had to stay. They could together, and the CCC left the nation camps on short notice. leave if they really wanted. with a vastly improved environment. Although there was some ques- “Sometimes the boys would go People familiar with the CCC tion about Roosevelt’s choice of the AWOL [absent without leave],” says most often associate it with the Army to manage the camps, most Sypolt. “They usually tried to send beautifully crafted stone and log thought it was a good choice. the enrollees out of the state that structures within state and “Sometimes they were compared to they lived in to avoid desertions. If national forests and parks. Many the Hitler Youth, or the compulsory the enrollee was stationed too close have said that long before there military training programs of Europe,” to home, he may just take off and was an Earth Day, there was a says Larry Sypolt, historian with West go marry his high school sweetheart CCC. In fact, the CCC may have Virginia University’s Institute for the and not come back. So being away been the first environmental History of Technology and Industrial from home helped the enrollees to organization in the country. But Archaeology. “The only connection to become more worldly.” they did much more than that. the military was in running the Conservation Work Pays Off Under the full impact of the Dust camps. The reason the Army was Bowl in mid-1934, Roosevelt envi- placed in charge was because they Sypolt notes that the CCC did its sioned a greater role for the CCC to already had experience in training most good for the young men who counteract the devastation of the and managing people. were a part of it, but the conservation drought. He asked Congress for “I think that, unknowingly, we work that they performed has not another $50 million to employ prepared for World War II,” he con- been surpassed to this day. young men to work on soil erosion tinues. “Although they did end up “Prior to the inauguration of the prevention and irrigation projects. doing some national defense proj- CCC, conservation of resources was So the “CCC boys” set out to plant ects, it was a conservation program allied with the weather, in that there more than 2.3 billion tree seedlings. for unemployed youths. was plenty of talk about both and The erosion control work that “But the CCC was strictly a civil- not much done about either,” noted they did meant that farm production ian group,” he says. “There were a Fechner. could increase. The trees that they number of things that were like the “It wasn’t that people weren’t planted meant that 2.5 million acres Army. They had reveille in the concerned about the environment. On Tap . Fall 2001 . 27 of bare, unproductive land could now • dug 8,065 wells; Ohio Was First in Line produce timber for future use, be • installed 1,865 drinking foun- When word got out that the CCC turned into a habitat for wildlife, tains; was forming, a number of communi- provide shelter and protection, and • assembled 5,082 water con- ties scrambled to be first in line. prevent the soil from washing away. trol structures; “The Muskingum Watershed • constructed 5,935 sewage and Conservancy District in Ohio was Tree Army Plants More Than Trees waste disposal systems; and the first organization to approach Besides planting trees, the CCC • cleared land for 9,805 reser- Fechner about setting up CCC worked on numerous water projects, voirs. camps,” says Sypolt. “Some said bringing water to places that lacked it Muskingum officials were waiting in before. According to the Civilian “We were an army with shovels Fechner’s office the first day he Conservation Corps Continental United instead of guns,” says Angelo came to work. Because they were States and Outlying Possessions Total Nocera, president of the New Castle, first, they got more camps in their Work Completed During the Period Pennsylvania, 125th CCC Alumni area and more work done. April 1933-June 30,1942 report, they Association and an enrollee from “It was a real advantage to have a also: 1938 to 1939 in Virginia. “They CCC camp located near your town,” • built enough water storage sys- called us ‘Roosevelt’s Tree Army.’” Sypolt continues. “The camps were tems to store 308,260 gallons “We saved the nation’s environ- like small communities, and they of water; ment,” he says. “But most of the ‘Cs’ would buy all of their supplies • laid more than 5,000 miles didn’t know they were saving the envi- locally—lumber, food, whatever was of pipe lines for water distri- ronment. They just knew they had a needed—and that brought money into bution, storage facilities, and job and were making money to help the community. Also, the men would irrigation systems; their families.” go into town on payday weekends and spend their money. Plus, they were doing a lot of good work for the envi- ronment. “My family only had $3 “In West Virginia, CCC camps built a week. I could give almost all the state’s parks,” he says. “Prior to the CCC, few states had state them the $25, and I parks, if any parks at all. “CCC enrollees dug water lines for would have $5 spending fountains, built public toilets, and built trails,” he explains. “We can money. We never saw thank the CCC for the things they made available for recreation. Then the $25. It was sent people didn’t travel like they do today. No one had recreational vehicles to go straight home. Roosevelt camping.” took people off the Water Projects Remedy Drought Many areas of the country experi- streets and off Relief. enced acute water deficiencies during the Depression because of a severe He knew what he drought. To remedy the situation, CCC workers built supplemental stor- was doing.” age facilities. In addition, they cleared Dominic Cuda, areas of timber and debris to prepare CCC alumnus Photos by Kay Nocera and Kathy Jesperson for new dam construction. They built new feeder canals to bring additional water to existing reservoirs and took on flood control projects. The CCC worked on many projects for the Bureau of Reclamation. The following list names only a few of the reclama- tion projects: Camp Topock in Arizona built the Parker Dam for the Metropolitan Water District of Southern California so that water could be stored for Los Many Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC) alumni still gather every month to continue the work they started when they were young men.These men of Angeles, and it provided flood control. the New Castle, Pennsylvania, 125th CCC Alumni Association work hard to It also served as water storage for the place identification markers on CCC-constructed sites around Pennsylvania.
On Tap . Fall 2001 . 28 Photo by Laurence Parent, courtesy of Civilian Conservation Corps Alumni Association Many CCC projects incorporated beautiful masonry design. This stonework—enclosing Buffalo Spring in the Chickasaw National Recreation Area (Oklahoma)—was built by Company #808, NP-1. They also installed water and sewer lines in the region.
Colorado River Indian Reservation CCCAided Social Development We Finally Get To Eat and the Parker-Gila Project. “Social conditions in the 1930s When the average young man Camp Island Park in Idaho cleared a were much different than they are entered the CCC, he weighed about reservoir site for Island Park Dam. today,” says Sypolt. “We were a stag- 147 pounds. His average weight gain The camp’s enrollees cleared 150 nant society. We think, ‘Well, it’s in the first month was 11.5 pounds. acres of land for the reservoir and always been this way.’ But usually “It made a man out me,” says 2.5 miles of road. there’s some reason that it’s ‘the Cavaricci. “And we were treated really Camps BR [Bureau of Reclamation] way it is.’ good. We made lots of friends and we 34 and 35 rehabilitated an irrigation “Prior to the Depression, people all became very close. It was a good and drainage project for the Newlands didn’t migrate more than 10 miles experience for me. I hope what the ‘Cs’ Project, which was one of the first away from home,” Sypolt continues. did for me could be done for young reclamation projects. “Most times, a young man would work people today.” Camp Reno rehabilitated the distribu- on the family farm. He’d get up in the Tommy Rossi, who worked for the tion system of the Truckee Storage morning, work in the field, maybe all CCC in Virginia, agrees: “It was a Project for irrigation projects and day, then come home for dinner. Then great experience. It was the best pro- water storage. maybe he’d go back to the field to gram that the president ever made. Camp Deer Creek worked on the work until it was time to go to bed— They trained us to preserve the coun- Provo River Project to provide sup- often sleeping in the clothes he’d had try. We need something like it now. plemental water supply for farm- on all day—maybe all week. Back then it wasn’t like it is today. lands and to enhance municipal “The CCC taught these young men Everybody was poor at the same time, water supplies. how to take care of themselves,” he so we helped each other. No one had Texas CCC water projects included says. “They got cleaned up everyday. to steal anything to survive.” the dam at Meridian and the water They changed their clothes. They got storage facility at Palmetto on a regular schedule. They had three What’s the legacy? The projects that the CCC square meals a day. They learned how The CCC’s legacy is the enduring enrollees worked on helped them to interact with other people. They quality of the work that they did. to gain job skills. But being a CCC learned social, leadership, and Many of the high quality structures enrollee had other advantages. employment skills they never had the that they built are still standing. Enrollees could gain life skills that opportunity to learn before.” More than 2.5 million men had been they wouldn’t have otherwise.
On Tap . Fall 2001 . 29 enrollees in the 4,500 camps that existed some- For more information about the CCC, con- time during the CCC’s nine-year life span. And tact the Civilian Conservation Corps Alumni the country had an environmental makeover Headquarters, 16 Hancock Ave., St. Louis, MO that’s still evident today. 63125 or P.O. Box 16429, St. Louis, MO Many CCC alumni now recognize the 63125. You also may call them at (314) 487- significance of what they did. But at the 8666. Or visit their Web site at time they were just happy to have a meal. www.cccalumni.org/NACCCA. “I went in to eat,” says Wally Baskeyfield, You may contact Sypolt at the Institute for who was in the CCC from 1938 to 1939. “I went the History of Technology and Industrial in for six months and then came home. My Archaeology, West Virginia University, P.O. mother told me, ‘It isn’t any better,’ so I had to Box 6305, 1535 Mileground—Bicentennial go back. But once you got out, you had to wait House, Morgantown, WV 26506-6305. You also six months to go back in. Seemed like I was may call him at (304) 293-3704, or email him at never home then.” [email protected]. Baskeyfield, like many of his CCC bud- dies, enlisted when he was under age. He References: Civilian Conservation Corps Alumni Headquarters 16 was only 15 when he joined. “I lied,” he Hancock Ave., St. Louis, MO 63125 or P.O. Box says. “My family needed the money.” 16429, St. Louis, MO 63125. (314) 487-8666. Stan Babick also supported his family. www.cccalumni.org/NACCCA. “I had to support my mother because I didn’t Civilian Conservation Corps Continental United States have a father. But the food they fed us was and Outlying Possessions Total Work Completed During the Period April 1933–June 30, 1942 Report. delicious. We ate like kings.” Edward Janus remembers tough times: Electronic Library Encyclopedia.com “I had to go to the ‘Cs.’ My father wasn’t www.encyclopedia.com/articles/05353.html. working, but he finally got a job for the WPA Hoyt, Ray. 1935. We Can Take It, A Short Story of the CCC. [Works Progress Administration]. At first we American Book Company: New York, New York. got $5 a month, and then the next time you McEntee, J.J. April 1933 through June 30, 1942. Federal joined you got $8.” Security Agency Final Report of the Director of the Amiel Attisano says that survival during the Civilian Conservation Corps. Depression often depended on your ingenuity. McBride, Dennis. Hard Work and Far From Home: The “I would work in the garden in my bare feet so Civilian Conservation Corps at Lake Mead, Nevada. I could save my shoes for walking down the Pfaff, Christine. 2000. The Bureau of Reclamation and the road. But we had food from the garden. I joined Civilian Conservation Corps 1933–1942. Bureau of the ‘Cs’ because my family came first. Somebody Reclamation: Denver, Co. had to help them.” The New Deal Network. newdeal.feri.org/ Many CCC enrollees still get together to Rosentreter, Roger L. 2001 Roosevelt’s Tree Army talk about old times, but also to participate in Michigan’s Civilian Conservation Corps conservation projects around their commu- www.sos.state.mi.us/history/museum/techstuf/depres nity. The CCC alumni of New Castle, sn/treearmy.html. Pennsylvania, meet once a month to discuss South Carolina Department of Archives and Public new and old projects. They still have much Programs Document, Packet No. 4. The Civilian pride in the work that they did, but they also Conservation Corps in South Carolina 1933–1942. continue to use their CCC skills. They post Texas Parks & Wildlife, 4200 Smith School Road, Austin, markers around their state to commemorate TX 78744 (800) 792-1112 www.tpwd.state.tx.us/cgi-bin/imagemap/butnpark?29,27. sites that the CCC developed or built. They also take on Adopt-a-Highway projects, plant U.S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Reclamation trees in the state’s parks, and help members 1938. Civilian Conservation Corps Handbook. who can’t get around like they used to. Van West, Carroll. 2001. Tennessee’s New Deal Of all the New Deal efforts, the CCC was one Landscape, A Guidebook. University of Tennessee of the most touted programs of Roosevelt’s Press: Knoxville, TN. “alphabet soup.” It was officially shut down on June 30, 1942. Unemployment was no longer an issue, and the nation’s attention shifted Associate Editor Kathy toward the war effort. Most of the “CCC boys” Jesperson enjoys writing were now mature, responsible adults and many articles that have an histori- were shipped out to fight in WWII. cal slant. If you have an article “Not all the ‘Cs’ served in WWII, but they all idea for her, please e-mail her served their country in one way or another,” at kjespers@w vu.edu. concludes Nocera.
On Tap . Fall 2001 . 30 REGULATIONS REGULATIONS How in the world does EPA make them?
by Jamie Knotts and Winter 1999 issues of On Tap for more On Tap Assistant Editor information about the SDWA.) The SDWA authorizes EPA to set national health-based Ask any drinking water operator or utility standards for drinking water to protect manager what’s the hardest part of their job against both naturally-occurring and man- and it’s likely that one of their top answers made contaminants that may be found in would be “understanding and complying with drinking water. EPA, states, and water sys- ever-changing federal regulations.” But ask tems then work together to make sure that them how the U.S. Environmental Protection these standards are met. Agency (EPA) sets new requirements they EPA also gets directives from Congress, have to put into place at their treatment plant Presidential initiatives, and priorities set by and you’ll probably be met with a blank stare. the agency’s administrator. In addition to Understanding some of the regulations is introducing a bill in Congress, another way hard enough, let alone knowing the complicated a representative or senator can influence the procedure EPA uses to develop new rules. The rule-making process is by attaching riders— regulation process involves Congress, the an amendment added to a piece of legisla- President, scientists, lobbyists working for spe- tion—to a related or non-related bill making cial interest groups, agency bureaucrats and its way through Congress. technical experts (specializing in engineering, For instance, an influential senator may science, public health, economics, and statis- have a local or state water concern that he or tics), and the general public. As part of the she wants EPA to address through a new or technical evaluation and analysis that goes updated regulation. By adding a directive to into developing drinking water rules, EPA EPA onto an appropriation bill, it’s less likely must consider data and research on contami- that the President will veto the legislation out- nant occurrence, chronic and acute health right due to one of many riders that’s been effects, sensitive sub-populations, available attached to the larger piece of legislation that control technologies as well as readily available he wants to sign. analytical methods. And even though the The recently contested arsenic standard is process allows for input from many different an example of a congressional rider that is mak- groups, EPA has been severely criticized at ing its way through the legislative process. In times for how it does set its regulations. this example, the House of Representatives added a rider stipulating that the EPA immedi- Giving EPA Authority ately adopt the Clinton Administration’s stan- The landmark piece of legislation that gives dard of 10 parts per billion (later rescinded by EPA power in developing and overseeing the Bush Administration). The U.S. Senate’s drinking water regulations is the Safe rider to a piece of its legislation simply said that Drinking Water Act (SDWA). EPA was to immediately set a new standard Originally passed by Congress in for arsenic that provides for appropriate 1974 to protect public health health protection. by regulating the nation’s pub- Because the two riders differ, a conference lic water supply, the law was committee made up of members of both the amended in 1986 and 1996, House and Senate will negotiate the final word- and requires many actions to ing before it is sent to the President for either a protect drinking water and its signature or a veto, assuming the rider makes it sources—rivers, lakes, reser- out of the conference committee. Some riders voirs, springs, and groundwa- are removed through negotiations before bills ter wells. (See the Winter 1996 ever reach the President.
On Tap . Fall 2001 . 31 determine whether the contaminant may Presidential Powers Enter the Mix adversely affect public health, evaluate where But Congress isn’t the only player in the the contaminant occurs in drinking water process. The President wields considerable with the frequency levels of public health con- power in how EPA carries out its oversight and cern, and decide whether regulating a con- regulatory functions. From an administrative taminant poses a meaningful opportunity to and political point of view, the President’s selec- reduce risk. EPA identifies these contami- tion of EPA Administrator is nants for further study, and determines con- often seen as a barometer of taminants to potentially regulate. how the agency will operate. Second, EPA determines a maximum con- “A lot of [EPA’s] Administrators set priorities taminant level goal (MCLG) for contaminants within the agency, which it decides to regulate. This goal is the level of rules don’t apply to often dictate how the a contaminant in drinking water below which agency will approach a there is no known or expected risk to health. small communities. regulation’s development. These goals allow for a margin of safety. As occurred with the Third, EPA specifies a maximum contami- Small communities’ change from the Clinton nant level (MCL), the highest permissible level Administration to the Bush of a contaminant in drinking water delivered problem is a Administration in January, to any public water system user. These levels resource problem the President can also exert are enforceable standards, and are set as his influence over regula- close to the MCLG as feasible. SDWA defines rather than a tions passed by a previous feasible as the level that may be achieved administration. President using the best technology, treatment tech- regulatory problem.” Bush directed that all fed- niques, and other means that EPA finds (after eral agencies had 60 days examining for efficiency under field conditions) to review any standards are available, taking cost into consideration. Mike Keegan, passed in the waning days analyst, When it is not economically or technically feasi- National Rural of the Clinton Administra- ble to set an MCL, or when there is no reliable Water Association tion. President Bush dis- or economic method to detect contaminants agreed with the Arsenic in the water, EPA instead sets a required Standard as developed by Treatment Technique, which specifies a way EPA and put it on hold through the 60-day to treat the water to remove contaminants. review. Once EPA promulgates a regulation (publishes a final rule in the Federal Register), How EPA Develops Regulations 180 days must pass before the regulation goes The process EPA uses to develop regula- into effect. The President’s hold on regulations tions becomes a little more complicated when fell within this 180-day wait period. The House you look at the specifics. The steps the and Senate’s riders arose as a direct response. agency uses include tiering, analytic blue- Once the conference committee completes final print, options development, options selection, negotiations, we’ll know what shape the final and final agency review. Arsenic Standard will take. Under tiering, the EPA lead office responsible for the rule—the Office of Ground Water and SDWA Steers EPA Drinking Water for drinking water regulations— Under the SDWA, Congress requires EPA to assigns the rule to one of three tiers. Tier 1 review existing regulation to see if any regula- includes the rules that are the most visible tions need to be updated, which is often referred and controversial, and of most interest to the to as the six-year review process. Congress also agency’s administrator. Tier 2 includes rules requires EPA to develop regulations for a specific with extensive cross-media issues or which list of contaminants, including microbial disin- require extensive cross-agency involvement. fection products, radon, arsenic, and the ground Tier 1 and 2 regulations require a cross-agency water rule. And finally congress requires EPA to workgroup and early senior management direc- address new contaminants through a risk-based tion. Tier 3 includes all rules not considered analysis of contaminants listed on EPA’s con- Tier 1 or 2. The Regulatory Steering Committee, taminant candidate list. which consists of representatives of EPA’s When EPA considers a contaminant as assistant administrators and is approved by identified through legal requirement, court the Administrator’s Office, receives the tier order, Presidential initiative, or administrator designation. priority, the SDWA requires EPA to establish From there, the cross-agency workgroup a primary drinking water standard. At its coordinates the regulation’s development and, simplest, EPA does this through a three-step as a first step, prepares an analytic blueprint— process. the plan for the analyses, consultation, and First, EPA identifies contaminants for reg- other activities that support the regulation. ulatory consideration. To do this, it must The blueprint details how EPA will gather the On Tap . Fall 2001 . 32 economic, scientific, technical, and intergov- Stakeholders Get Involved ernmental information needed to make sound The 1996 amendments to the SDWA decisions, as well as the analyses required by greatly enhanced the general public and law or Executive Order. It also addresses sig- drinking water stakeholders’—operators, utili- nificant policy issues, including implementa- ties, water association members, environmen- tion issues, such as the need for real-time tal groups, and other drinking water compliance assistance tools, as well as interna- professionals—input into the rule-making tional factors like treaties, transboundary or process. EPA takes comments through public global pollution, and other countries’ relevant meetings, presentations at conferences, and experiences. Senior management in the program workgroup meetings. offices, and in some cases, the Administrator’s Jerry Biberstine, a senior environmental Office guides the blueprint development. It is engineer with the National Rural Water then circulated for approval by workgroup pro- Association (NRWA), says EPA’s openness to gram managers and, in the case of Tier 1 and 2 others’ input has been helpful for small and rules, senior management. A blueprint is rural drinking water utilities. required for Tier 1 and 2 regulations, and “Small and rural systems have special strongly recommended for Tier 3. problems that are difficult to determine when The next step is to develop options. To you’re just looking at large systems when develop regulatory options, the lead program writing rules,” says Biberstine. “Such things office consults with a broad range of stakehold- as the cost of treatment and the scope of the ers, which may include state, local, and tribal rule are important to small systems, so we governments, industry, small businesses, public offer EPA that insight. interest groups, and others. The workgroup “We feel the impact on small systems—75 conducts the analyses in the analytic blue- percent of all systems—is difficult for EPA print and considers other issues such as dis- to determine because they are most familiar proportionate impacts on minority groups, with larger systems and the cost impacts to children’s health issues, and innovative alterna- EPA, States Enforce Regulations tives to the regulation. Once the options are developed, EPA manage- The Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA) applies the District of Columbia, have received pri- ment considers the scien- to every public water system in the U.S. More macy.While no Indian tribe has yet applied tific findings, the relative than 170,000 public water systems provide for and received primacy, four tribes current- benefits and costs, and the water to almost all Americans at some time in ly receive “treatment as a state”status, and policy issues identified their lives.The responsibility for making sure are eligible for primacy. through the various analy- these public water systems provide safe ses and consultations. If drinking water is divided among EPA, states, States, or EPA acting as a primacy agent, management selects a tribes, water systems, and the public. make sure water systems test for contami- rulemaking option, the nants, review plans for water system workgroup drafts the pre- EPA is expected to set national standards for improvements, conduct onsite inspections amble to the rule, the pro- drinking water based upon sound science and sanitary surveys, provide training and posed regulatory text, and that protects against health risks and consid- technical assistance, and take action against supporting documents. ers available technology and costs. Each stan- water systems not meeting standards. At the end of the dard also includes requirements for water process, the lead office systems to test for contaminants in the water To ensure that drinking water is safe, SDWA prepares a final draft and to make sure standards are achieved. In addi- sets up multiple barriers against pollution. circulates it to the work- tion to setting these standards, EPA also These barriers include: source water protec- group for final review and offers guidance, assistance, and public infor- tion, treatment,distribution system integrity, approval. If the rule is in mation about drinking water, collects drink- and public information. As operators well Tier 1 or 2, the Office of ing water data, and oversees state drinking know, water systems are responsible for Policy, Economics and water programs. ensuring that contaminants in tap water Innovation chairs a final do not exceed the standards.Water systems agency review meeting to While EPA is the regulatory program overseeing treat the water, and must test their water assure that all issues are drinking water systems, state drinking water frequently for specified contaminants and resolved, that all require- programs provide the most direct oversight. report the results to states. If a water system ments have been met, and States may apply to EPA for “primacy,”the is not meeting these standards, it is the that the rule is ready for authority to implement SDWA within their juris- water supplier’s responsibility to notify its Office of Management and dictions,if they can show that they will adopt customers. Most water suppliers now are Budget review (where standards at least as stringent as EPA’s and also required to prepare an annual required) or Federal make sure water systems meet these standards. Consumer Confidence Report for their Register publication. All states and territories, except Wyoming and customers.
On Tap . Fall 2001 . 33 them,” he says. “NRWA has been providing 3. develop rules that, according to sound EPA with a sense of scope, cost, and other analysis, are cost-effective and have ben- factors that represent a small or rural water efits that justify their costs; utility’s perspective. We give them input that 4. consult with those affected by the regu- hopefully helps them make regulations that lation, especially state, local, and tribal are both affordable and implementable for governments; small water systems. 5. ensure that agency rules are well coor- “We’ve been lucky to have someone sit in on dinated with rules or policies of other almost every workgroup on rule-writing,” agencies; and Biberstine says. “We’ve had members involved in 6. streamline, simplify, and reduce the committee meetings and public meetings, and burden of federal regulation. Rural Water has also offered written comments to the agency. In addition we’re in contact with EPA Is Criticized EPA personnel directly.” But just because a federal agency says it The American Water Works Association is being more accountable and less burden- (AWWA) also takes an active role in EPA’s rule some to the community it regulates doesn’t making. Under the direction of the AWWA Water always sit well with those facing compliance Utility Council (WUC) and AWWA Executive issues with new or more stringent regula- Committee, association volunteers serve on tions. Aside from those stakeholders being Technical Advisory Workgroups (TAW) to partici- regulated, EPA officials have also criticized pate in developing new regulations, preparing the agency. comments on proposed regulations, and imple- In 1996, David Lewis a researcher with the menting projects under the Water Industry EPA National Exposure Research Laboratory Technical Action Fund. AWWA’s Government in Athens, Georgia, wrote a commentary in Affairs Division supports the activities of the the Athens Banner-Herald, that the EPA’s WUC and TAWs and periodically prepares sta- environmental policies were misguided. tus reports on upcoming regulations. In addi- Lewis’ guest column read, in part, that tion, AWWA members often offer testimony to “federal regulators assume that everything Congress and EPA about proposed legislation humans do will ulti- and regulations. mately harm the envi- ronment. Therefore, Improving the Regulatory they promulgate regu- Process lations aimed at mak- It’s no secret that most ing it extraordinarily groups that are regulated dis- difficult and expensive like being so. And they often to do anything that disagree with the scope and changes the environ- impact that requirements place ment in any way.” on them. The federal govern- EPA investigated ment recognized this, and Lewis for alleged ethics in 1996, President Clinton violations as a result of issued an Executive Order the commentary. instructing agencies to Investigators looked into adhere to 12 “principles of whether an editor’s note in regulation.” These princi- Lewis’ column violated a ples, which provide a rule because it over- series of guideposts for agen- emphasized his position cies to follow in developing more focused, with the agency. effective, efficient, and less burdensome rules, In June 2000, David were grouped into six broad themes that call on Paris testified before Congress where he agencies to: offered a number of criticisms of EPA’s work 1. properly identify problems and risks to in implementing the 1996 SDWA amend- be addressed, and tailor the regulatory ments. Paris, a water supply administrator approach narrowly to address them; with the Manchester Water Treatment Plant 2. develop alternative approaches to tradi- in Manchester, New Hampshire, spoke on tional command-and-control regulation, behalf of the AWWA. such as using performance standards While complimenting EPA’s Office of (telling people what goals to meet, not Groundwater and Drinking Water for involv- how to meet them), relying on market ing the public in developing regulations, he incentives, or issuing non-binding guid- noted that, “AWWA does have a major con- ance in lieu of rules;. cern that EPA is not conducting essential
On Tap . Fall 2001 . 34 research and developing new data to support are not talking about water drinking water regulations as expected in the quality problems, but rather 1996 SDWA Amendments. administriatve problems.” “We feel the impact “There is also a long-term concern that the Keegan says that the authorizations for the new drinking water state current EPA rulemaking on small systems— revolving fund will not be adequate to address process also doesn’t allow the needs identified to comply with SDWA regu- for much leeway for locals 75 percent of all lations and upgrade drinking water infrastruc- to make decisions. ture to ensure that high quality safe drinking “The people who run the systems—is difficult water is provided to the American people.” town’s water system and the NRWA’s Jerry Biberstine says one of the local community should have for EPA to determine biggest problems EPA has with rulemaking is some choice in the matter,” the amount of time it has to consider sound sci- he says. “The SDWA is blind because they are ence that shows the benefits and the cost of the to nuances at the local level. most familiar with rules. “It’s the time frame that is the problem,” “Let’s say that when the he says. “Congress forces EPA to address all the new arsenic regulation is larger systems and concerns of a proposed regulation in a short finalized it allows only 10 amount of time. I fault the process rather than parts per billion and a certain the cost impacts EPA. They are under considerable pressure.” town’s water tests at 10.5 parts per billion. In the gray to them.” EPA Recognizes Problems area like this, I want the local EPA itself recognized problems and that its community to have more con- Jerry Biberstine, regulatory process needed to be improved. In trol on the issue rather the senior environmental engineer, a June 2001 EPATask Force Report titled requirements be set in stone,” National Rural Improving Regulations, the agency acknowl- Keegan says. “They should Water Association edged problems and ways to improve the have some say as to whether process, primarily the quality of supporting they want to install an scientific, economic, and policy analysis. expensive treatment process for 0.5 parts per The report said that EPA needed, “better billion. Scientists can’t claim that their water science and economic analysis, broader con- would be any safer having that small amount sideration of policy options, and greater removed. accountability.” “If you went out and told them (small utili- EPA acknowledged that, “It is absolutely ties) what they needed to do to improve their essential that EPA leaders have the best possi- water and make it sensible, then they could ble scientific and economic information to con- take care of their problems much easier,” sider when making decisions. But it’s important Keegan says. “Regulations just don’t fit. We to note that science and economics are only two try to get in there (the rule-making process) of the many factors that must be considered. to hopefully make sure the rules don’t do any Other factors might include implementation by harm. states or local governments, disproportionate “I think one of the biggest problems has impacts on low income communities, the limita- been the environmental groups constantly mis- tions of available technology, or whether a cer- leading the public on who is in control of their tain approach can actually be enforced. The role local water quality,” continues Keegan. “A local of science and economics is, therefore, to inform community has complete control over quality the decision making, not to dictate the final issues, however, big environmental groups pro- decision.” mote the image of a sinister force attempting to harm your family. They should be educating the Regulations Affect Small Systems public on civics and how to empower locals to Mike Keegan, an analyst with the NRWA, better make local decisions instead of always says that small and rural water systems often removing local authority and replacing it with face the brunt of regulations and may not have federal authority. the resources to cope with them. “We have an open challenge to the green “We try to advocate for the small town’s best groups: If they can get the local votes to imple- interest and help EPA look at the big picture,” ment any of their policies we would back them he says. “A lot of their rules don’t apply to small 100 percent. However, the reality is that locals communities. Small communities’ problem is a don’t back their agenda so they need to override resource problem rather than a regulatory the local will with EPA authority.” problem. EPA comes at it with a regulatory For more information about EPA’s regulatory solution saying a system needs to meet a process, visit the Office of Ground Water and standard and then they fine you if you don’t Drinking Water’s Web site at www.epa.gov- comply with that standard. We’re saying small /OGWDW/ or call the Safe Drinking Water utilities need the resources to correct the Hotline at (800) 426-4791. For more information problems, not a regulation—and usually we about NRWA, visit their site at www.nrwa.org or call them at (580) 252-0629. On Tap . Fall 2001 . 35 OPERATIONS
EPA’s Clean Water State Revolving The Odd Fund and Couple: The Nature Conservancy Photos courtesy of The Nature Conservacy EPALoan Helps Nonprofit Preserve Wetlands
by M ark Kemp-Rye and bustle of Sacramento (the state On Tap Managing Editor capital and a city rapidly approaching two million population), but mostly A red-shouldered hawk circles because, not long ago, the area overhead as Mike Eaton puts his seemed destined for development. canoe in the Cosumnes River, in Thanks to the work of Eaton, director the heart of California’s Great of the Nature Conservancy’s Central Valley. Two or three times a Cosumnes River Project, and a host month Eaton comes here to paddle of others including the U.S. for a few hours after work and soak Environmental Protection Agency up the solitude the river affords (EPA), this pristine region will remain him. As he drifts past blue oak as it has for centuries. woodlands and cottonwood trees “This really is a unique area,” covered in wild grape vines—near says Eaton. “We’re only a few miles an area known locally as the from Interstate 5 here, but, if you “Howard Ranch”—he watches a were to look around, you might flock of sandhill cranes, searching guess you were in the middle of the the riverbank for their dinner. Louisiana bayou. In places the river This pastoral scene never ceases is nearly 300 yards wide, which to amaze Eaton; partly because it’s kind of defies the stereotype of a a mere 20 miles from the hustle California river.
On Tap . Fall 2001 . 36 “The Howard Ranch property working farmland into the pre- is a combination of extensive serve; to establish cooperative woodlands of several native “We’re only a few arrangements with neighboring species, a productive rangeland, miles from Interstate landowners, as well as water and and vernal pools, one-of-a-kind flood-control authorities; and to springtime wetlands,” he contin- 5 here, but, if you share ownership and manage- ues. “And, it’s the only remain- ment responsibility with the U.S. ing free-flowing river coming out were to look around, Bureau of Land Management, of the Sierra Nevada Mountains. Ducks Unlimited, Sacramento Preserving these important you might guess County, and the California watershed lands is absolutely departments of Water Resources essential to the environmental you were in and Fish and Game. health of the river and this The Nature Conservancy region.” the middle of the became interested in preserving Tim Vendlinksi, a life scien- the Howard Ranch as rangeland tist with EPA Region 9, agrees. Louisiana bayou.” in order to mitigate two ongoing “Pressures to subdivide and threats to the area: conversion to develop farms, ranches, and Mike Eaton, vineyards and future conversion to natural sites on the fringes of director, urban and suburban uses. metropolitan areas—or to Cosumnes River Project According to the Nature Conser- develop new towns entirely vancy’s Web site, “much of the from scratch—threaten both property to the west and south of the long-term security of our combination of public and private the ranch has been converted to nation’s food supply and the sources (see below). This purchase vineyards over the past three years, ecological underpinnings of is the latest in a series—dating back using a plowing process (known as California’s way of life,” he says. to 1984 with a modest stand of val- “deep ripping”) which destroys the vernal pools and reduces the natural The Cosumnes River Preserve ley oaks—that brings the Cosumnes River Preserve to approximately watershed values of the landscape. The Nature Conservancy of 35,000 acres. This in turn eases the way for major California purchased the 12,362-acre Begun in 1993, this plan calls for housing development in the area.” Howard Ranch for $13.6 million in the Conservancy to incorporate In addition to preserving the natu- April 1999. Funding came from a ral habitat, the Preserve has impor- tant implications for the water industry. Drinking water for much of the San Francisco Bay area Cosumnes River Preserve comes from the Mokelumne River, Sacramento which joins the Cosumnes near San Galt, California. The Nature Francisco Conservancy’s preservation efforts Sier also mean that drinking water is ra N protected from agricultural and ev ada M other pollutants. oun Cosumnes River “The Howard Ranch purchase tains and the Cosumnes River Watershed Project will protect critical habi- tats, open spaces and water qual- ity in one of the state’s most rapidly-growing areas, the Central Detailed Area Valley,” says Steve McCormick, for- mer executive director of The Nature 99 Conservancy of California and now the Conservancy’s national director. “Our partners’ commitment is criti- cal to our California program. With their support, The Nature Conser- vancy can take lands that are wild Mokelumne River by nature and preserve them by design. “Here, as elsewhere in California, 5 Area of Cosumnes explosive growth threatens our River Preserve remaining natural landscapes,” he continues. “California’s population Source: The Nature Conservacy On Tap . Fall 2001 . 37 Photos courtesy of The Nature Conservacy
is expected to increase by almost “In the Golden State, rivers are supposed to be meager, dusty little things,” writer David 50 percent over the next 25 Wicinas observes in the September/October issue of the Nature Conservancy newsletter. years—that’s as if everyone in “But this one—the Cosumnes—looks anything but small, or dry. It sprawls 300 yards wide. New York State were to move here Water the color of café latte swirls waist deep between the oaks.” by the year 2025.” The Nature Conservancy even- tually hopes to expand the Cosum- project using this fund. nes River Preserve to include the In all, the Howard Ranch pur- entire Cosumnes watershed—from chase came to $13.6 million. Of the river’s headwaters in the Sierra this amount, the CWSRF supplied “California’s popula- Nevada Mountains to its terminus an $8 million loan. The remaining near Galt—an area of some 800,000 funds came from the federal tion is expected to acres in all. Natural Resources Conservation How did this project happen? Service, the State Wildlife increase by almost Conservation Board, the North “We knew that we couldn’t buy American Wetlands Conservation 50 percent over the the Howard Ranch property on our Council, the Packard Foundation, own,” says Eaton. “So, we approached and the U.S. Fish and Wildlife next 25 years— the State Water Resources Control Service and Bureau of Board (SWRCB) to see if they had any Reclamation (Central Valley that’s as if everyone suggestions.” They did. Project Improvement Act funds). Bill Campbell, supervisor of the in New York State Congress created the CWSRF to SWCRB Watershed Projects Support aid virtually any type of water quality Section, suggested that the project were to move here project, including nonpoint source, might be eligible for a clean water wetlands, estuary, and other water- state revolving fund (CWSRF) by the year 2025.” shed projects. Loans are issued at loan. Working with EPA’s below market rates (some at zero per- Vendlinski, Eaton and the Nature Steve McCormick, cent) and may be paid back over as Conservancy began to cobble national director, much as 20 years. Nonprofit groups, together a plan which would The Nature Conservancy such as the Nature Conservancy, are become the largest land acquisition eligible to apply for funds. ever funded by the CWSRF, as well as The Nature Conservancy will being the first wetlands preservation repay the CWSRF loan by
On Tap . Fall 2001 . 38 reselling portions of the Howard been possible under the CWSRF Ranch to a private rancher for since its inception in 1987. “Based grazing livestock. Through a strict on the serious threats to wetlands agricultural easement, the rancher resources across the country, EPA will guarantee that the ecosystem would like to see the CWSRF and water quality on the ranch become a major source of funding will not be degraded. for wetlands protection,” EPA states in their brochure “Protecting A Legacy for Future Generations Wetlands with the Clean Water Funding wetlands projects has State Revolving Fund.” However, in spite of total loans of approximately $3 billion What about EPA’s drinking each year, wetlands projects, water state revolving fund? such as the Howard Ranch purchase, are a rarity. “This The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency’s capacity has yet to be uti- (EPA) clean water state revolving loan fund lized,” EPA’s brochure contin- (CWSRF) was an integral part of the funding ues. “We need to make better for The Nature Conservancy’s Howard Ranch use of the CWSRF for impor- purchase. Can EPA’s drinking water state tant wetlands protection proj- revolving loan fund (DWSRF) be used for ects.” similar purposes? “The vast scale of this [Howard Ranch] deal sends a clear message nationwide. By According to Kimberley Roy, EPA environ- Photo courtesy of The Nature Conservacy protecting ecosystems we are mental protection specialist, the DWSRF has According to the California State Water different stipulations. “The 1996 Safe safeguarding water quality— and the state revolving fund Resources Control Board, the vernal pools Drinking Water Act requires that loans for found in the Cosumnes River Watershed land acquisition or easements be made to is here to help,” says EPA’s “contain in themselves a uniquely diverse public water systems,“ she says. “Therefore, Vendlinski. flora and fauna found nowhere else and, unlike the CWSRF,we do not have the flexi- “The Howard Ranch pur- because of this fact, contribute to the bility in our program for states to make chase fits the Conservancy’s preservation of the region’s biodiversity.” loans directly to organizations like The master plan of smart science Nature Conservancy.The only thing that and savvy economics,” says states can do is allow nonprofits to be part- Eaton. “It will protect water vision of preserving a single commu- ners in the loan agreements. Alternatively, quality, maintain a wildlife- nity—an individual stand of oak water systems can make arrangements with compatible agricultural trees—to today, when we’re working the nonprofits to help with monitoring or enterprise, and keep the with entire landscapes and ecore- managing land use activities on the sites.” land on the tax roll—goals gions, cooperating with local commu- which we share with nities, experimenting with new One example of this type of arrangement is Sacramento County and our techniques. This is the future of con- the Androscoggin Land Trust and the City of agency partners. Everyone servation.” For more information about the Auburn, Maine.To maintain the quality of wins—cattle ranchers, the Cosumnes River Preserve call (916) Lake Auburn—the area’s primary water public, and the myriad of 684-2816 or visit their Web site at source—the water district devotes $100,000 species which depend on www.cosumnes.org or write to 13501 annually toward purchasing land, conserva- healthy natural systems like Franklin Blvd., Galt, CA, 95632. tion easements, and life estate interests the vernal pools and blue To learn more about the Nature around the lake. oak woodlands of the Howard Ranch.” Conservancy, write to 4245 North Fairfax Dr., Suite 100, Arlington, VA, With a DWSRF loan, the district recently pur- In many ways, the work 22203-1606 or call toll-free (800) chased an additional 435 acres of shoreline being done in California 628-6860 or visit their Web site at land from a developer for $550,000. Auburn mirrors the growth and nature.org. officials see this as a cost-effective alterna- development of the Nature Information about the drinking tive to a new filtration plant, estimated at Conservancy organization. water state revolving fund and the $30 million with an additional $750,00 in “The Cosumnes River clean water state revolving fund yearly operating costs.The Androscoggin Preserve embodies The Nature may be found at the U.S. Land Trust shares overall easement monitor- Conservancy and the changes Environmental Protection Agency ing responsibilities. it’s going through,” says Rich Reiner, Nature Conservancy Web site at www.epa.gov or by writing to 1200 Pennsylvania Ave., In all, the district now owns or controls more ecologist, in the September- NW Washington, DC 20460 or by than 800 acres and 70 percent of Lake /October issue of their calling (202) 260-7786. Auburn’s shoreline. newsletter. “Starting with the
On Tap . Fall 2001 . 39 QUESTION & ANSWER
Desalination is a process that What is desalination? removes dissolved by Babu Srinivas Madabhushi minerals including URS Corporation salts from saline water and produces Why desalinate? potable water. How do I desalinate? Desalination has become A number of technologies, such increasingly important in the last as the membrane process, distilla- four decades due to the tendency, in tion, and vacuum freezing, have Desalination is recent years, for the world’s swelling been developed to perform desalina- a natural and con- population to dwell in areas where tion. Distillation and the membrane supplies of high quality fresh water process are the techniques used the tinuous process sources are less than adequate. most. Nearly 60 percent of the and a part of the Moreover, as there are a considerable world’s desalination systems use number of saline sources available, distillation, heating the salty water natural water desalination is becoming an attractive to produce water vapor that is then possibility. More than three quarters condensed to form fresh water. cycle. Seawater of the earth’s surface and more than evaporates and 95 percent of the world’s water is What are the distillation techniques? either salty or brackish, and therefore The most commonly used distil- returns to earth not potable. Desalination increases lation methods are multistage flash as desalinated the range of water resources available distillation (MSF), multiple effect for use by communities. distillation (MED), and vapor com- rainwater. According to Ron Linsky of the pression (VC). In MSF, the raw National Water Research Institute water is heated and pressure is low- in California, “the country needs to ered, so that the water flashes into improve the reliability of its sup- steam. This process is carried out ply. Water could be on the com- in a number of stages, in which the modities market in the next century. pressure is gradually reduced. In the We may ultimately face rationing MED process, the raw water passes or importing.” through a number of evaporators con- nected in a series. Interestingly, the Can I drink desalinated water? vapor in the earlier stage is used to Yes, desalinated water can evaporate the water in the later be used for drinking purposes, stages. In the VC process, the raw groundwater recharge, and water is evaporated, the vapor pro- also for irrigation. During the duced is compressed, and the com- Persian Gulf War, the U.S. pressed vapor is used again for Army used mobile units that heating the additional raw water. could produce 3,000 gallons VC is generally used for small and of potable water per hour from medium scale desalination units. brackish water sources. If the desalinated water Can RO be used to desalinate? is to be used for domestic Yes, there are several mem- use, post treatment brane processes, such as reverse should be done to ensure osmosis (RO) and electrodialysis, that treated water meets which can be used for efficient the health and anti-corro- desalination. In RO, the water is sive standards. pumped through semipermeable membranes to separate and remove the minerals from the saline water.
On Tap . Fall 2001 . 40 Before being pumped through the membranes, the water is pretreated to remove any particles that might clog membrane pores. Suspended solids in the raw water can be removed by using coagulation and filtration.
What is the desalinated water quality? Distillation plants produce water with total dissolved solids (TDS) concentrations ranging from 1 to 50 milligrams per liter (mg/l) and RO plants produce water with TDS concentrations ranging from 10 to 500 mg/l. The quality of the Photos by Harriet Emerson treated water depends on the con- Three-quarters of the centration of salts in the raw water, Earth's surface is water. and, in the case of RO, the mem- However, nearly 97 per- branes selected and the pressure cent of this water is salty applied. In distillation, the quality or otherwise undrinkable and another 2 percent is depends upon the heating system, locked in ice caps and the pressures applied, etc. Quality glaciers.That leaves just of treated water can be improved by one percent of the plan- repumping the water through the et's water for all our agri- membranes. cultural, commercial, community, and residen- Why is pretreatment required? tial uses.With the world's Pretreatment is required to population expected to top 10 billion by the year avoid substances that could inter- 2035 (and with the same fere with the process and reduce amount of water as when desalination efficiency. Bacteria the Earth was formed), can grow in RO and distillation interest in desalination plants, hence disinfection may be technologies—the process required. Metals should be removed of making salt water from the raw water as they may potable—is growing. contribute to corrosion problems in Is any secondary waste produced? distillation plants. desalting is estimated at $4 to $16 Desalination plants produce liq- per 1,000 gallons. Comparison of Distillation and RO uid wastes with high concentrations of salts, metals, etc. Liquid wastes References According to some sources, the Buros, O.K. 1990.“The Desalting ABCs.” distillation process produces better may be discharged in the ocean Saline Water Conservation Research quality water more economically after making sure that they satisfy Department. Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. than does RO. There is no break in the discharge requirements. Porteous, Andrew. 1983. Desalination operation for cleaning and replace- Otherwise, they have to be treated Technology, Development, and ment. Pretreatment requirements and disposed. Practice. Applied Science Publishers. are fewer for distillation, as coagula- Howe, Everette D. 1974. Fundamentals What is the energy requirement? tion and filtration have to be carried of Desalination. Marcel Dekker Inc. out to prevent clogging of membrane The desalination process uses Bates, Lincoln. 1995. American City and pores in RO. Moreover, distillation mainly electricity and heat. The County.“Water Issues Prompt New plants do not produce secondary energy required depends on the Look at Desalination.” wastes from backwash of filters raw water quality, temperature and the treated water quality, used for pretreatment. Babu Srinivas Madabhushi But, in the case of RO, no heat- and on the process used. was previously a technical ing is required, and hence, less assistance specialist with the energy is required. No corrosion How much does desalination cost? National Drinking Water problem is faced. Simultaneously, For brackish water, the treat- Clearinghouse. This article RO can remove other contami- ment costs may range from approx- was reprinted from the Winter 1998 nants and requires less space for imately $1 to $2.40 per 1,000 On Tap. installation of the equipment. gallons. The cost for sea water
On Tap . Fall 2001 . 41 TECHNOLOGY
TECH Package
Trendsby Vipin Bhardwaj Plants Technical Assistance Specialist
Conventional water treatment systems system can have an automatic backwash include steps such as coagulation, floccula- operation in the absence of an operator and tion, sedimentation, and filtration. In package can have the filters returned to service on water treatment plants, the same steps are a pre-programmed basis. combined in one unit. In these plants, the equipment is pre-designed, assembled in a Types of Package Plants factory, skid mounted, and transported fully The three basic types of package plants are assembled to the site, including the control (1) conventional package plants, (2) tube-type system. At the site, the treatment unit requires clarification package plants, and (3) adsorption only plumbing and electrical hook up to com- clarifier package plants. plete installation. Conventional package plants, as the name The popularity of package plants increased suggests, contain the conventional steps of during the last decade. In 1990, there were coagulation, flocculation, sedimentation, and approximately 650 to 700 such units in the filtration. Package water treatment plants are U.S., according to the U.S. Environmental available from several manufacturers in a Protection Agency (EPA). As of 1998, there wide range of capacities. Design criteria used were more than 2,000 package units in service for these modular units vary widely. Some across the country. manufacturers adhere closely to accepted conventional design practices, such as 20- to Package Plants Have Advantages 30-minute flocculation detention time, a 2- For small communities, package plants hour sedimentation detention time, and rapid offer four distinct advantages: sand filters rated at 2 gpm/ft2. 1. compact size, In tube-type clarifier package plants, man- 2. cost effectiveness, ufacturers have used new technology, includ- 3. ease of use, and ing tube settlers and high-rate dual- and 4. unattended operation. mixed-media filters to reduce the size of a plant and extend the capacity range of single Because package plants offer savings in the factory-assembled units. engineering, design, installation, and operation An adsorption-clarifier package plant fea- and maintenance costs, they are economical for tures an up-flow filter with low density plastic treating smaller volumes of water. bead media (called the adsorption clarifier), Package plants can effectively remove tur- followed by a mixed media filter to complete bidity and bacteria from surface water with the water treatment. The flocculation and sed- consistently low to moderate turbidity levels. imentation basins have been replaced by the Package plants can treat water with varying adsorption clarifier bed, thus combining the water quality, although such treatment may two steps into one. require more skilled operators and closer attention. Selecting a Package Plant System Small system managers typically prefer Package plant systems are most appropriate treatment protocols that require minimal opera- for treatment unit sizes ranging from 25,000 to tor skill and attention. Package systems fulfill 6 million gallons per day (95 to 23,000 cubic these requirements. For example, a package meters per day) of water treated.
On Tap . Fall 2001 . 42 Package Plan t
Effluent Connection
Polyelectrolyte em ube st ettling T Clear Water y S Mixed hamber and
hamber C Alum tion Media Backwash
eed S Filter ix C Storage ccula al F lo F lash M
Chlorine F hemic
C To Service Influent Raw Water Connection Waste Backwash Connection
Source: EPA’s Technologies for Upgrading Existing or Designing New Drinking Water Treatment Facilities
Influent water quality is the most important helping small systems comply with treatment consideration in determining the suitability of regulations and the needs of the communities a package plant application. Complete influent they serve. water quality records should be examined to Over the years, manufacturers have determine turbidity levels, seasonal temperature incorporated new technologies into their fluctuations, and color level expectations. designs. But, because many existing state Both high turbidity and color may require design standards recognize only conven- coagulant dosages beyond many package plant tional treatment processes, package plants design specifications. In cases of consistently employing innovative technologies sometimes high levels of turbidity and color, the package encounter regulatory barriers. Some states plant capacity must be down-rated or a larger consider package plants to be an “alternative model selected. Where turbidity exceeds 100 treatment,” which means that manufactur- to 200 NTU, pre-sedimentation may be required ers need to put their equipment through as a pretreatment. Pilot tests may be necessary lengthy pilot studies from state to state. to select a package plant for more innovative At the national level, at least two organiza- designs using high flow rates and shorter tions are interested in package plants. EPA— detention time unit processes. in partnership with the NSF International— Highly variable influent water quality has initiated an Environmental Technology requires a high level of operational skill and Verification program for verifying the effective- attention, which tends to negate the package ness of these package plants. The Association plant advantages of low cost and automation. of State Drinking Water Administrators has Package Units Can Have Varying Applications developed a protocol for approving package plants and treatment modules. With these Package units can be used to treat water national initiatives and the many advantages supplies for communities as well as non-com- of the plants described above, the use of munity water systems, such as those in facto- package plants will undoubtedly continue ries, schools, recreational areas, state parks, to increase. construction camps, ski resorts, remote military installations, and other locations where potable References: water is not available from a municipal supply. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Drinking Water. 1990. Technologies for Upgrading Existing or Several state agencies have mounted pack- Designing New Drinking Water Treatment Facilities. age units on trailers for emergency water treat- EPA/625/4-89/023. Cincinnati, OH. ment. Their compact size, low cost, minimal HDR Engineering, Inc. 2001. Handbook of Public Water installation requirements, and ability to operate Systems, 2nd Edition. John Wiley and Sons, Inc.: New virtually unattended make them an attractive York, NY. option during emergencies and in locations Goodrich, James et al. 1995. “Package Plants for Small where revenues are not sufficient to pay for Systems: A Field Study,” AWWA Journal. November a full-time operator. 1995, pp. 39–47. Adams, Jeff and C. Bruce Bartley. 2000. “The EPA’s Future Applications of Package Plants Environmental Technology Verification Program for Packaged Drinking Water Treatment Systems.” When installed correctly and maintained Presented at the Small Drinking Water and properly, package plants will operate suffi- Wastewater Systems Conference. January 12–15, ciently. These systems have the potential for 2000. Phoenix, AZ.
On Tap . Fall 2001 . 43 DRINKING WATER PRODUCTS WC
ProductsND
Note: Call (800) 624-8301 or (304) 293-4191 to order products. Action Guide for Source Please allow three to four weeks for delivery. Actual shipping Water Funding: Small Town charges are added to each order. National Drinking Water and Rural County Strategies Clearinghouse products also may be ordered via e-mail at for Protecting Critical Water [email protected]. Products are subject to Supplies availability. Please verify price when ordering. This guide summarizes the drinking water protec- tion responsibilities of All About Water local governments. It explains assistance available to local governments through the This activity book, 1996 amendments to the Safe Drinking Water designed for school chil- Act (SDWA) and identifies key points at which dren grades K through 3 local, timely input can help determine state- is separated into five based water priorities. (National Center for sections of activities Small Communities) and lab experiments. DWBLFN12/Booklet, 27 pp. — 1997 The sections cover top- ics such as the water Alternative Funding Study: Water Quality Fees and cycle, fresh water on Debt Financing Issues Earth, how humans This study evaluates specific revenue use water, pollution sources to increase capital investment in local and conservation. drinking water and wastewater related proj- (California Department ects. This document focuses on funding from of Water Resources) DWBKPE107/Book, 119 federal, state, or local fees to supplement exist- pp. — year unkown ing subsidies. It also looks at the expanded use of debt financing. (U.S. EPA) DWBKFN08/Book, 136 pp. — 1996
Manual of Water Well Clean Water Action Plan: Restoring and Protecting Construction Practices America’s Waters This manual provides This action plan builds on the solid foun- information about well construction techniques dation of existing clean water programs and and addresses the intended use of the water, proposes new actions to strengthen efforts to required capacity of the well, intended drilling restore and protect water resources. Under this method, and how the construction costs will be plan, the federal government will support locally paid. (U.S. EPA) DWBKDM01/Book, 169 pp. — 1975 led partnerships, increase financial and techni- cal assistance to states, and help restore and sustain the health of aquatic systems. (USDA and US EPA) DWBKPE80/Book, 101 pp. — 1998
On Tap . Fall 2001 . 44 NDWC Products
Designing a Water Conservation Program: An Give Water A Hand Annotated Bibliography of Source Materials This two-book set is aimed at making stu- Developed to be used as a starting point dents more aware of what they can do to pro- for designing a community water conservation tect and conserve water. It provides a number program, this book provides an extensive list of activities and tips to educate students about of resources on water conservation. Topics water issues. (U.S. Department of Agriculture) include public education projects, community DWPKPE49/Packet, 98 pp. — 1996 water conservation programs, reducing water losses in distribution systems, economics of EPA Safe Drinking Water Is In Our Hands water conservation, agricultural water conser- This booklet lists the primary drinking vation, and a list of companies selling water water contaminant standards that systems conservation products. (U.S. EPA) must comply with to satisfy the Safe Drinking DWBKGN28/Book, 87 pp. — 1993 Water Act (SWDA) requirements. It lists the regulated contaminants, the maximum con- Drinking Water Glossary: A Dictionary of Technical taminant levels (MCLs), the maximum contam- and Legal Terms Related to Drinking Water inant level goal (MCLGs), and the potential This glossary lists hundreds of drinking water health effects of each contaminant. It also lists and groundwater terms and their definitions. the secondary drinking water regulations for (U.S. EPA) some contaminants. Future activities of SDWA DWBLGN24/Book, 34 pp. — 1994 are listed. (U.S. EPA) DWPKRG47/Booklet, 12 pp. — 1998 Environmental Planning for Small Communities: A Guide for Local Decision Makers Your Drinking Water: From Source to Tap, EPA This guidebook presents ideas for develop- Regulations and Guidance ing a community environmental plan to protect Intended to help answer questions about the people and the environment. It addresses drinking water supplies, this document address- creating a planning team, determining needs, es such topics as water sources, possible con- defining problems, reviewing regulations, taminants, how scientists determine acceptable developing strategies, and implementing the contaminant levels, and how the government environmental plan. (U.S. EPA) establishes drinking water laws and guidelines. DWBKMG14/Book, 159 pp. — 1994 (U.S. EPA) DWBLRG04/Booklet, 16 pp. — 1990 Bacteria and Water Wells This document provides information and Benefits of Water guidance about what steps should be taken and Wastewater if bacteria are present in a water well. It is Infrastructure intended for consumers using private wells as This report water source. It also gives the necessary back- addresses the need for ground information about bacteria, treatment the U.S. government techniques, and well water protection strategies. to continue to support A list of sources for additional information is water and wastewater included. (U.S. EPA) infrastructure funding. DWPKPE78/Booklet, 19 pp. — 1997 The document dis- cusses clean water’s Fact Sheet: Water Conservation Measures benefits to health, eco- This fact sheet explains various methods of nomic development, water conservation, such as metering, account- environmental pro- ing for water consumed, and detecting and tection, standard of repairing leaks in the distribution system. It living, and technology also stresses that information and education development. (NDWC, help people understand the importance of National Small Flows water conservation. (NDWC) Clearinghouse) DWBLPE74/Fact Sheet, 4 pp. — 1998 DWBLRE06/Booklet, 14 pp. — 1996
On Tap . Fall 2001 . 45 NDWC Products
Tech Brief Package The NDWC’s Tech Briefs are four-page fact sheets included in On Tap. Each fact sheet provides concise technical information about a drinking water treatment technology relevant to small systems. The documents are aimed at drinking water professionals, particularly small system operators, and the content is fairly technical. Tables and/or helpful illustrations are provided as are sources for more information. A three ring binder holds all the current Tech Briefs in print. New selections can be easily added to the package as they become available. (NDWC) DWPKPE71/Packet — 1998
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On Tap . Fall 2001 . 46 NEWS & NOTES “One-Stop Shop” Web Site for Federal Grants
The Federal Commons, a new line the grant application process. The has promised to develop a common Web site recently launched by the committee itself is the byproduct of an electronic grant application form. Inter-Agency Electronic Grants earlier Department of Transportation To access Federal Commons and Committee, will provide a “one-stop pilot project to create a government- perform a search of grant programs, go shop” for the entire federal grant wide grant site, the Electronic Grants to www.cfda.gov/federcomons/. application process. Currently, users Project. The Federal Commons initia- $ can search the General Services tive was aided by the 1999 Federal $ $ $ Administration catalog of federal grant Financial Assistance Management $ $ programs from the site. However, the Improvement Act, which set a Nov- $$ site will eventually allow applicants ember 2002 deadline for agencies $ $ $ to submit and track their grant appli- to begin accepting grant applica- $ $ cations online. This site may prove tions electronically. After the law $ $ to be a valuable resource for local was passed, the committee pitched $ governments searching for funding the Federal Commons project to the $$$ $ $ for specific projects. Office of Management and Budget $$$ The Inter-Agency Electronic (OMB) as a way of achieving govern- $ $ Grants Committee is made up of ment-wide compliance with the act. members from 23 grant-making OMB has supported the project as it agencies who are working to stream-
USDA Studies E.coli Testing
U.S. Department of Agriculture Electrochemiluminescence,” USDA Other testing methods are suitable (USDA) scientists have developed scientists used the test to analyze for detectimg E. coli O157 in fecal, a new test to detect potentially creek water samples spiked with food, or water samples that have been pathogenic E. coli O157 bacteria known concentrations of E. coli enriched or subjected to chemical in creek water. O157. They tested raw water sam- treatment to extract the bacteria. But In a report of their study, the ples, in which bacteria had been none of these other methods has been investigators concluded the test concentrated, and enriched sam- shown to detect E. coli O157 in raw or appears suitable for routine water ples, in which bacteria had been concentrated surface water samples, sample screening, tracking the allowed to grow before testing. which contain sediments, organic par- spread of bacteria in contaminated The results suggest the test ticles, and unidentified microorgan- water supplies, and pinpointing detects as few as 25,000 E. coli isms that can distort test results, sources of waterborne infections. O157 cells per liter (roughly one according to investigators. As reported in the July issue quart) of raw water, 250 cells per For more information about the of the Journal of Applied and liter in concentrated samples, and report, write to the American Society Environmental Microbiology and one or two viable cells per liter in for Microbiology, 1752 N St., NW, titled “Quantitative Detection of samples that are both concen- Washington, DC, 20036-2904; call Escherichia coli O157 in Surface trated and enriched. (202) 942-9319 or visit their Web site Waters by Using Immunomagnetic at aem.asm.org.
Fun Time Puzzle Solutions
1234 56789 10111213 DEAL WA T ER TRUE How Things Work 14 15 16 ARMY ALONE OURS 17 18 19 UR I C ROWAN ISNT 20 21 22 NONESSENT I AL 23 24 25 26 “The strongest princi- TROUT EGRESS 27 28 29 30 31 32 MIDAS ETHYL ple of growth lies in 33 34 35 36 37 38 ISM RESP I RATORY the human choice.” 39 40 41 42 AM I D LE I LA ER I N 43 44 45 46 MATER I AL I ZE TAX 47 48 49 Mary Ann Evans, BREDE TAZZE 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 also known as George Eliot TRUDGE RISHI 57 58 59 60 (1819-1880) CONSERVAT I ON 61 62 63 64 65 TINT ASC I I HEME 66 67 68 TREE TERNE EVER 69 70 71 LEWD SNUGS REST
On Tap . Fall 2001 . 47 FUN TIME
NDWC Crossword Puzzle Solution on page 47
Across 1234 56789 10111213
1. FDR’s Programs (with 63 14 15 16 down) 17 18 19 5. Necessity for life on Earth 10. Faithful 20 21 22 14. Affectionate name for the CCC (with 66 across) 23 24 25 26 15. Unaccompanied 27 28 29 30 31 32 16.Things belonging to us 17. Related to urine 33 34 35 36 37 38 18.“_____ and Martin's Laugh In” 39 40 41 42 19. Is not 20. Not absolutely necessary 43 44 45 46 23. Cool water fish 47 48 49 24. Depart 27. King with the golden touch 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 31. _____ alcohol 33. Doctrine 57 58 59 60 36. ______tract (what a gas- 61 62 63 64 65 mask protects) 39. Amongst 66 67 68 41. Brazilian volleyballer Barros 42. Ireland to poets 69 70 71 43. Happen 46. Levy Crossword by Mark Kemp-Rye 47. Embroidery design 48. Ornamental cup (var.) 50. Plod Down 30. Overflow 53. Rush plant (var.) 32. Catamount 57. Preservation 1. Scare 33. Poetic unit 61. Shade 2. Mistake 34. _____ growth (community planning) 64. American Standard Code 3. _____ Acid 35. Bishop’s headdress for Information 4. Lecture hall 37. Hipbone Interchange (abbr.) 5. Armed conflicts 38.Tease 65. Red organic pigment 6. Succulent plant 40. Subtracted 66. (see 14 across) 7. Small city 44. Do over 67. Seagull (var.) 8. Related on the mother’s side 45. Poet Pound 68. Always 9. Go back on an agreement (var.) 49. One or the other 69. Salacious 10. Eau de _____ 51. Annoying insects 70.Tightens 11. NDWC Funder 52. German industrial city 71. Relax 12.Vase 54. Strainer 13. Fifth time zone west of Greenwich 55. Dwellings (abbr.) 56. Unable to move 21. Agitate 58. Beige 22. Region 59. Circle 25. Brusk 60. Competes 26. Neighbor of Lebanon 61.Tuscaloosa Testing Labs (abbr.) 28. Pastrami place 62.Wrath 29. Sailing 63. (see 1 across)
On Tap . Fall 2001 . 48 Word Search Solution on page 47 Quotes
“A human being is part of a whole, called by us the Universe, a part lim- N O I T A V R E S N O C S I Y ited in time and space. He experiences Q Y Y P E N J L Z O G C N G G himself, his thoughts and feelings, as W G R V L R L M U H R F O R R something separated from the rest—a kind of optical delusion of his con- G W Y O Y A K I R C R E I U D sciousness. This delusion is a kind of C C C M T M N I L A C N T S H prison for us, restricting us to our per- S V R T B A G N S F O E A A H sonal desires and to affection for a G A J H F H R T I I D Y L I W few persons nearest us. Our task must be to free ourselves from this E P V P T W R I T N N R U U Z prison by widening our circles of E F I S W U I A P W G E G T Y compassion to embrace all living R L Q F C J M X X S P K E M G creatures and the whole of nature T O V T B A V B Y A E Y R L R in its beauty.”
M B U U L X L H S H B R N E O Albert Einstein, (1879–1955) W R T C D E P R E S S I O N W E K E T R A M S W C N D A U T “I worked myself up from nothing to a state of extreme poverty.” D R F Y P B O U R C T N S Q H Groucho Marx, (1890–1977)
Tree FDR Regulations Army Smart Respiratory Water Fact CCC Growth Water Conservation Infrastructure Rights Water is the only substance found on earth in three different forms—solid, liquid, and gas. Depression Planning RUS EPA Reclamation Source: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Drinking Water Trivia
What percentage of water in the United States is located underground?
(a) 25 percent (b) 50 percent (c) 60 percent (d) 75 percent (e) 99 percent
Answer: According to the American Water Works Association, more than 75 percent of water in the U.S. is located underground. However, they note, half of all U.S. drinking water is from surface sources.
On Tap . Fall 2001 . 49 UNTIL NEXT TIME . . .
Water,Geography, and Politics
by Mark Kemp-Rye And, it’s not just a problem for “other” parts On Tap Managing Editor of the world. Increasingly, water will be a point of contention in the U.S., particularly in the It’s true confession time: When I started West where water is scarce. (On Tap Assistant working at the National Drinking Water Editor Jamie Knotts explores this subject in Clearinghouse three-and-a-half years ago, more detail in “Water Wars” on page 18 of this I took drinking water completely for granted. issue.) Students of resource and political geogra- When I turned on the tap for a glass of water phy will be tempted to say “we’ve been talking or to run a bath for my children, I didn’t give about this for decades.” it a second thought. Living in a water-rich In his 1981 book The Nine Nations of North area like West Virginia it’s an easy thing to America, Joel Garreau, for example, writes do. It’s also symptomatic of how many of us “The [water scarcity] problem is consider water, as a resource, and how simply stated: the thin strip under-valued it is in much of the world. of the Pacific shore along Taking water for granted, though, the Coast and Cascade may soon be a luxury we Mountain ranges from can ill afford. In a new Northern California to book titled Resource Wars, southern Alaska is the Michael Klare, director of only place in the West the Five College Program in with enough water. Peace and World Security Everything else for a Studies at Hampshire thousand miles in any College, argues that direction is basically resources—especially oil, desert.” but, increasingly water—will While all of this might replace ideology as the main seem like nothing but gloom and cause of strife in the post-Cold War era. doom, I believe that there are encouraging In an interview with Tamara Straus, a signs. If successful movies can serve as one reporter with the AlterNet news service, Klare measure of public interest, then water issues predicts “… a much higher level of international can be seen as a growing part of our societal conflict over access to critical sources of oil and consciousness. Witness the popularity of water, such as the Persian Gulf area, the Nile films such as 1988’s The Milagro Beanfield River basin, the Jordan and so on. Conflict will War—the tale of a small community fighting also erupt within many countries, as various a huge development over water rights—or groups (whether defined by class, ethnicity, tribe 1998’s A Civil Action—where a lawyer inves- or religion) fight over the control of arable land, tigates deaths associated with contaminated energy supplies, water and so forth. We could water—and it seems fair to say that awareness also see unprecedented levels of international of water’s importance is on the rise. migration, as people move from overpopulated The bottom line, I’ve come to realize, is that and drought-stricken areas to countries with water is a precious resource and we should treat adequate supplies of land and water.” it as such. We can’t survive on this planet with- Water as a valuable commodity and possi- out it. As Garreau points out, “You can make ble source of conflict is also a concern to the gasoline out of cow manure if you have U.S. Central Intelligence Agency (CIA), reports to, but you can’t make water.” syndicated columnist Jack Anderson. George Tenet, CIA director, notes that the world’s pop- Managing Editor Mark Kemp-Rye ulation will reach 7 billion by the year 2015 and that most of the increase will occur in Africa studied resource geography and and Asia, where, the CIA expects the “primary political science at West Virginia fallout will be a lack of water.” University and the University of Toronto, Canada.
On Tap . Fall 2001 . 50 The NationalNational Environmental Environmental ServicesServices Center Center NSFC NDWC NETCSC NODP The National Environmental Services Center (NESC, pronounced “nessie”) is an organization that specializes in providing technical assis- tance and information about drinking water, wastewater, and environ- mental training to communities serving fewer than 10,000 individuals. You may be familiar with our individual programs, each well established
(800)8301 62 4- as a national leader in its areas of expertise.
National Small Flows Clearinghouse (NSFC) is a IN COMING ISSUES national information and assistance program that helps small communities identify appropriate wastewater tech- Protecting Small Water Systems: Special nologies. NSFC offers more than 400 free or low-cost Counter-Terrorism Issue products, including posters and brochures; Small Flows Quarterly, a magazine for the wastewater industry with The Canaan Valley Institute: Helping nearly 45,000 subscribers; and Pipeline, a newsletter written for the public with approximately 20,000 subscribers. The NSFC Appalachian Communities Help Themselves maintains five databases—bibliographic, manufacturers and consultants, state regu- lations, health department, and facilities databases. The NSFC annually hosts a Wastewater Reclamation and Dual Systems: conference where state regulators share information. Can wastewater reclamation save water for communities and utilities? National Drinking Water Clearinghouse (NDWC) servic- es include a toll-free technical assistance hotline; On Tap, a quarterly magazine that combines the NDWC’s newsletters Alternate Funding for Water Projects in Rural On Tap and Water Sense into a single publication with America: The Housing Assistance Council approximately 25,000 subscribers; more than 300 free products; a literature database, and RESULTS [Registry of Equipment Suppliers of Treatment Technologies for Small Public Participation: How can you involve Systems] database. citizens in community decisions? www.nesc.wvu.edu National Environmental Training Center for Small How To Prevent Water Hammer Communities (NETCSC) services include E-Train, a quar- terly newsletter with approximately 7,000 subscribers; five databases that provide information about trainers and envi- Local Government Environmental Advisory Boards ronmental training activities; and many free and low-cost products as well as the NETCSC Environmental Training Resources Catalog. NETCSC has helped develop 30 training curricula and hosts an annual national environmental training institute for local officials. Do You Have Great Ideas? National Onsite Demonstration Program, (NODP) encourages the use of alternative, decentral- Do you have a great question for our ized wastewater treatment technologies in small and “Ask the Experts” column? For that rural communities. The NODP assists communities in matter,do you have a great idea for funding, installing, monitoring, and managing model national onsiten demonstrationO programdp an article we should publish in wastewater treatment systems as cost-effective alterna- this magazine? The On Tap editors tives to centralized sewage systems. are always eager to hear story ideas and topics we should cover in these pages. Located in Morgantown, West Virginia, NESC Write to us at: is based at one of the nation’s major doctoral- On Tap Editor, granting research institu- National Drinking Water Clearinghouse tions, West Virginia West Virginia University University. PO Box 6064 (800) 624-8301 Morgantown WV 26506-6064 (304) 293-4191 You may also send an e-mail to editors Mark Kemp-Rye (mkemp@w vu.edu ) or Kathy Jesperson ([email protected]) or give us a call, toll-free,at (800) 624-8301.We’d love to hear from you! The National Drinking Water Clearinghouse assists small communities by collecting, developing, and providing timely information relevant to drinking water issues.
Our mission at the National Drinking Water Clearinghouse (NDWC) is to make sure people in small towns and rural areas have the best drinking water possible. The NDWC has information available to help your community achieve that goal. If you have questions about drinking water issues, look to the NDWC for answers. We provide a variety of services, including a toll-free technical assis- tance hotline, more than 300 free and low-cost educational products, and the free magazine On Tap. The NDWC also sponsors conferences, workshops, and Photo by Laura Kemp-Rye seminars to bring our services to you in person. Adrienne Kemp-Rye (age 2) frolics in a public fountain Our staff is made up of engineers, researchers, technical writers, and editors outside of the Children’s Museum at Navy Pier, Chicago. who locate and distribute information on subjects, such as: • water treatment technologies, • source water protection issues, • operation and management strategies, CELEBRATE... • regulatory updates, and • funding sources for community water treatment infrastructure. NDWC maintains three information databases: RESULTS 3.0 [Registry of Equipment Suppliers of Treatment Technologies for Small Systems], an organiza- tional database with more than 300 drinking-water related groups listed, and a general information database with close to 2,000 water-related article topics. All three databases are accessible to the public through our Web site at www.ndwc.wvu.edu. The technical assistance hotline may be reached Monday through Friday from 8 a.m.–5 p.m. Eastern Time. Water! Contact us today for a free information packet.
(800) 624-8301 . (304) 293-4191 . www.ndwc.wvu.edu National Environmental Services Center NSFC NDWC NETCSC NODP National Drinking Water Clearinghouse . West Virginia University . P.O. Box 6064 . Morgantown,WV 26506
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