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As to the Proper Place to Be Assigned to Slavery in the Context Of ON THE mas 'obed DURING THE PERIOD OF THE UNITED MONARCHY OF ANCIENT ISRAEL* MASAO TAKAHASHI Dokkyo University I. Introduction II. Slaves, Sources of Slaves and Various Forms of Slaves III, mas 'obed IV. Conclusion I. Introduction As to the proper place to be assigned to slavery in the context of the whole structure of the society of the Ancient Near East, there are two opposing views of the "European" school and of the "Soviet" school.(1) The former, while recognizing the existence of slavery in the history of the Ancient Near East, assesses its economic and social role as subsidiary and recognizes feudal rela- tions in the society of the Ancient Near East. The latter recognizes positively the stage of slavery as a stage-wise division of social structure or a stage of socio- economic development and asserts that slavery was an inevitable developmental stage, in sharp opposition to the former view. As the work or paper discussing the problem of mas 'obed in ancient Israel, so far as the writer knows, there are only those by I. Mendelsohn(2) and A. Briam(3) (which I have not seen yet). * This paper was published in Japanese in Bulletin of the Society for Near Eastern Studies in Japan (Nihon Orient Gakkai), Vol. IX, Nos. 2-3 (1967), pp. 63-82. (1) Ishimoda, Sho et al (ed.): Kodaishi Koza (Lectures on Ancient History), Vol. 7, Tokyo, 1963, pp. 28-32. (2) Mendelsohn, I.: "State Slavery in Ancient Israel," Bulletin of the American Schoolsof Oriental Research (=BASOR), 85 (1942), pp. 14-17. Mendelsohn, I.: Slavery in the Ancient Near East, 1949. (3) Biram, A.: "mas 'obed," Tarbiz, 23 (1952), pp. 137-142 (in Hebrew), in Malamat, A.- Reviv, H. (ed.): A Bibliography of the Biblical Period-with Emphasis on Publications in Modern Hebrew-, Jerusalem, 1964, p. 30. 47 In this book, the former attaches importance to considering, from the viewpoint of comparative economic history, the slavery in Babylonia, Assyria, Syria and Palestine from the middle of the third millennium B.C. to the end of the first millenium B.C., while no mention is made of the difference in terms of structure and stage between the different periods. The present paper is an attempt to ascertain the social structure of Ancient Israel and is written to grasp the reality of mas 'obed (the king's slave) in the days of Solomon (ca. 961-22B.C.) which may afford an important clue for clarifying it, in the light of both the Old Testament and archaeological materials, without being bound by the aforementioned two different views, to consider how it had been produced in what relationship to the establishment of the kingdom, and to ask for the instructions of his predecessors in this line of study. II. Slaves, Sources of Slaves and Various Forms of Slaves The existence of slaves in the society of the Ancient Near East, has been known since the protoliterate period (later Uruk period, ca. 3500B.C.) by pictures, sculptures and picture words. However, it is from ca. 2800B.C. in the case of Mesopotamia, that is, the period of change of supremacy, when the struggle for power among city-states became intensified that it is attested, and in the case of Egypt in the early dynasties period (the first and the second).(4) The Old (4) From hieroglyphs it may be gathered that the ancient sources of slaves had been prisoners of war (war captives). The early Sumerian words meaning a male slave and a female slave respectively are compound ideographs: the word for a male slave: nita (male)+kur (foreign country)=eri3, while the word for a female slave: munus (female)+kur (foreign country) =geme3 [cf. Deimel, P.A.: Sumerisches Lexikon, II Teil, Band 1, Heft 3, 1927, S. 95, Nr. 51: 1), II Teil, Band 4, Heft 18, 1933, SS 1026-30, Nr. 558: 1),2). Тюменев, А.И.: Госу- парственное хозяйство древнело Шумера, Москва, 1956.; Kayama, Yohei (trans. & ed.): Doreisei Shakai no Shomondai (Problems of Slavery Society), Tokyo, 1958, p. 26. As for kur, see Thurean-Dangin, F.: Archiv Orientalni, 1 (1929) p. 272]. These words show, as a 'male or female of foreign country' does, at the same time, 'a male or female slave', that the first enslaved persons in the Sumerian community had been captives of a different tribe in mountaineous districts. Members of a different tribal community who became captives in a tribal war were formerly killed or reduced to a subordinate position as a non-member of the community. Consequently, in the case of these tribes, war captives were killed in most cases. Subsequently, war between city-states became the rule. In addition, with the progress of class differentiation resulting from the develop- ment of private ownership, captive slaves came to take on a greater social significance. Thus, slaves came to be regarded as part of chattels, and this situation required the reform by which war prisoners who had been killed were to be saved and employed. In this 48 ON THE mas 'obed DURING THE PERIOD OF THE UNITED MONARCHY OF ANCIENT ISRAEL Testament reports their existence as early as the period of patriarchs (in the first half of the second milleium B.C.).(5) In the Old Testament, the following three different words(6) are mostly used to mean 'a slave': (1) For a male slave, 'oeboedis used. This is the most general use, was original- ly derived from the verb 'bd (to work, to do) and expresses 'servitude' of vari- ous concepts. For example, the ruled against the ruler, the subject against the king, the minor against the superior and the servant as against the Lord. Consequently, 'oeboedmeans a man working for (or serving) another. (2) For the a female slave, 'amah and sifehah, and on rare occasions miqenat- koesoep (aperson bought for silver or for money) are used. (3) na'ar(7) (a young man, a servant, an attendant) and noepoes(a person) also respect, it has to be noted that, employment of many male slaves who had thus far been free warriors, by reducing them to slavery must have been greatest danger to the existing social and national systems. For this was only possible under the conditions that producti- vity was remarkably developed and an overwhelming armed force, particularly military techniquc, exists. (As regards the Sumerian period and the Accad Dynasty, see Дьяконов, И. М.: Becmнuк npeвнeu ucmopuu (1952-1); by Kayama, Y. (trans. & ed.) pp. 44-45.) Then, more female captives who were more obedient were presumably employed than male captives. This presupposes a certain measure of development of productivity and indicates that there came into existence various material conditions which would permit anyhow the survival of the people who were not the component members of the community and who had thus far been killed, whether as slaves, an improvement of the state of affairs for slaves as well as their owners. Jemdet Nasr documents which are presumed to be dated around 3000B.C. mention gim (female slave). In those days, female slaves were then yet to assume any important economic significance(see Tюменев, А. И.: op. cit.; trans. and ed. by Kayama, pp. 26- 27). In the later Sumerian period, slaves had been called simply 'sag'. For example, 'sag nita' for a male slave and 'sag geme' for a female slave. This 'sag' is a term derived from the image of man's head, first indicates mainly 'person' and the 'number of persons' or means the 'head' or 'supervisor' and at the same time a 'strong man' or 'person capable of heavy physical labour', but came gradually to mean a 'labourer'. In Accadian, 'wardu(m)' is used to mean a male slave and 'amtu(m)' a female slave, and these terms are often placed before the determinative resu (rasu) (head) (cf. Ungnad, A.: Babylonische Briefe aus der Zeit der Hammurabi-Dynastie, 1941, SS. 295, 260, 378). In Ugaritic documents 'bd(m) is used to mean a male slave and amt (amht) a female slave (cf. Gordon, C. H.: Ugaritic Manual II, 1955, p. 302, No. 1361; p. 238, No. 147.). (5) e.g, see Genesis xii, 16. (6) As regards (1), (2) and (3) below, refer to the corresponding sections in Kaehler, L.- Baumgartner, W.: Lexicon Vetris Testamenti Libros, 1958. (7) As to na'ar, see Shibayama, Sakae: "On the Translation of na'ar in the Old Testament", Bulletin of the Society forNear Eastern Studies in Japan (Nihon Orient Gakkai), Vol. 8 No. 2 (1966), pp. 25-42. 49 express a male or female slave. These words are employed as synonyms for 'oeboed and 'amah. Words in (1), (2) and (3) above each mean that one is under restraint by ano- ther. The Accadian, Ugaritic and Hebrew for a slave are often employed to ex- press a unfree person of a low status, religiously, socially and economically, as against the king or the God. On the other hand, the adjective 'iberi is sometimes used for a native or alien unfree person in the records of the Old Testaemnt, unlike the usages of the Sumerian, the Accadian and Ugaritic. For example, 'oeboed 'iberi (a Hebrew slave) or 'is 'iberi, na'ar 'iberi (a Hebrew male or female). In some cases, no express distinction is made specifically between a male slave and a female slave. Incidentally, sakir (an employee) or waged labourer was not a slave. piloegoes (a concubine) usually had the status of slave, but it is suspected that this word expresses an aspect of the ancient matriomonial institution rather than the ancient institution of slavery.
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