United States Department of State

Bureau of Oceans and International Environmental and Scientific Affairs

Washington, D.C. 20520

4 September 2015

Dr. Braulio Ferreira de Souza Dias Executive Secretary Convention on Biological Diversity World Trade Centre 393 Saint-Jacques Street, Suite 300 Montréal, Québec, Canada H2Y 1N9

Dear Dr. Dias:

In response to CBD Notification 2015-052 – Submission of Information on Invasive Alien Species Management, the United States has the pleasure of providing the attached resources on invasive alien species management.

Thank you for your consideration.

Sincerely,

Jean Preston Acting Director Office of Conservation and Water On behalf of Barbara M. De Rosa-Joynt Chief for Biodiversity U.S. National Focal Point for the Convention on Biological Diversity

Attachments: Submission of Invasive Alien Species Management Information

United States

COVER NOTE FOR SUBMISSION OF INVASIVE ALIEN SPECIES MANAGEMENT INFORMATION Use one sheet per each type of information submitted

NAME OF COUNTRY or ORGANIZATION United States of America CONTACT PERSON ON TECHNICAL CONTENTS OF THE INFORMATION Name of the contact Mr. Stanley W. Burgiel person Name of her/his National Council organization Postal address of the c/o U.S. Department of the Interior organization 1849 C Street NW MS-3529 Washington DC 20240 USA Phone number +1 (202) 208 4163

E-mail address [email protected] TYPE OF INFORMATION SUBMITTED – Tick one information source in the right column Peer reviewed journal publication X Other publication, e.g. case study, legislation, best practice X Unpublished (sharable) Suggested citation in See summary information below for references. the CBD document(s), if any preference exists SUGGESTED CATEGORY OF THE INFORMATION SUBMITTED Tick in the right column for relevant session (multiple answers allowed if needed) Wildlife trade e-commerce X Positive case of biological control on IAS X Negative case of biological control on IAS A tool on assessing or evaluating social consequences of IAS introduction A tool on assessing or evaluating economic consequences of IAS introduction A tool on cost-benefit analysis for eradication of IAS X Management measures on IAS X Control measures on IAS X A tool for examining impact of climate change on IAS X establishment/spread A tool for examining impact of land-use change on IAS establishment/spread Other SHORT DESCRIPTION OF THE INFORMATION SUBMITTED See summary information below.

OTHER INFORMATION, IF ANY URL to download http://

By submitting this information, I agree that Secretariat of the CBD may use the contents in line with the relevant decisions of the Conference of the Parties.

United States

Biological Control

Classical (Importation) Biological Control Invasive pests and undesirable plants arrive in North America on a regular basis and will continue to challenge U.S. agriculture, forests, landscapes and natural habitats in the years to come. For example, the invasive brown marmorated stink bug caused an estimated $38 million in 2010 alone in U.S. apples, just one of many crops impacted. Another emerging pest, Drosophila suzukii, threatens high-value small fruit production in the U.S., which is valued in alone at over $405 million per year. Natural enemies (predators, parasites and diseases) of invasive species can provide an important service by reducing the impact of invasive species (Costanza et al. 1997). By utilizing natural enemies of an invasive species, importation (classical) biological control is an economically and environmentally preferred method of managing these invasive pest species (e.g., Hoddle 2004, Naranjo et al. 2014). When successful, introduced biological control agents provide long-term or permanent reductions in pest population levels that reduce the costs of managing the invaders and help to minimize environmental impacts of other management methods, such as pesticides. The risk that a biological control introduction may have unintended non-target impacts that cannot be reversed is minimized with proper attention to agent selection and range testing during evaluation research, and the modern application of biological control has an excellent record of environmental safety (e.g., Suckling and Sforza 2014). A classical biological control program begins with discovery and identification of candidate agents. Field exploration in the native range of the target pests is a key aspect for the success of an entire program. This process requires searching for effective, adapted natural enemies of the target invasive species in their native regions. Increasingly, permits are required from host countries and regional authorities for field surveys and collections. Live material must then be exported to certified quarantine containment laboratories in the U.S. (or elsewhere) for further evaluation, which requires additional permits and concurrence of the host countries. Importation for further research also requires permits from authorities in the receiving country. Harmonizing the many permit processes is increasingly a challenge for biological control practitioners (e.g., Bale 2011). New access and benefit-sharing regulations mandated by the CBD’s Nagoya Protocol have added to this complex process and threaten to delay new biological control projects by constraining the ability of researchers to discover and obtain new agents for projects (e.g., Cock et al. 2010a, Cock et al. 2010b, Coutinot et al. 2013, FAO 2009). Bale, J. 2011. Harmonization of regulations for invertebrate biocontrol agents in Europe: Progress, problems and solutions. Journal of Applied Entomology 135: 503-513. [attached] Cock, J.W., J.C. van Lenteren, J. Brodeur, B.I.P. Barratt, F. Bigler, K. Bolckmans, F.L. Consoli, F. Haas, P.G. Mason and J.R.P. Parra. 2010a. Do new access and benefit sharing procedures under the Convention on Biological Diversity threaten the future of biological control? BioControl 55: 199-218. DOI 10.1007/s10526-009-9234- 9. [attached] Cock, J.W., J.C. van Lenteren, J. Brodeur, B.I.P. Barratt, F. Bigler, K. Bolckmans, F.L. Consoli, F. Haas, P.G. Mason and J.R.P. Parra. 2010b. Do new access and benefit sharing procedures under the Convention on Biological Diversity threaten the future of biological control? BioControl 55: 199-218. DOI 10.1007/s10526-009-9234- 9. [attached] Costanza, R., R. D’Arge, R. de Groot, S. Farber, M. Grasso, B. Hannon, K. Limburg, S. Naeem, R.V. O’Neill, J. Paruelo, R.G. Raskin, P. Sutton and M. van den Belt. 1997. The value of the world’s ecosystem services and natural capital. Nature 387: 2530260. [attached] Coutinot, D., J. Briano, J.R.P. Parra, L.A.N. De Sa and F.L. Consoli. 2013. Exchange of natural enemies for biological control? The road in the Euro-Mediterranean region and the South American Common Market. Neotropical Entomology 41: 1-14. DOI 10.1007/s13744-012-0103-3. [attached]

- 2 - United States

FAO (U.N. Food and Agriculture Organization). 2009. The use and exchange of biological control agents for food and agriculture. Background Study Paper No. 47. Commission on Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture. Hoddle, M.S. 2004. Restoring balance: Using exotic species to control invasive exotic species. Conservation Biology 18(1): 38-49. [attached] Naranjo, S.E., P.C. Ellsworth and G.B. Frisvold. 2014. Economic value of biological control in integrated pest management of managed plant systems. Annual Review of Entonology. 60(32): 1-25. DOI 10.1146/annurev-ento-010814-021005. [attached] Suckling, D.M., and R.F.H. Sforza. 2014. What magnitude are observed non-target impacts from weed biocontrol? PLoS ONE 9(1): 1-12. DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0084847. [attached]

Biological Control of the Ash Whitefly in California The ash whitefly (Siphoninus phillyreae [Haliday] [Homoptera: Aleyrodidae]), invaded and rapidly spread throughout California beginning sometime before August 18, 1988, when it was first detected. The ash whitefly's previous distribution was limited to Europe, the Middle East, and northern Africa, where it feeds primarily on trees and woody shrubs. In 1989, outbreak populations of the ash whitefly occurred in several major urban centers in California, defoliating ornamental trees commonly planted by local governments and homeowners. Outdoor activities by homeowners also were curtailed by the high number of adult whiteflies in the air that posed a respiratory health threat. Within 3 years of the whitefly's invasion of California, Encarsia inaron (Walker) (Hymenoptera: Aphelinidae), was imported, mass reared, and released in 43 of 46 affected counties. The summer infestation density of the ash whitefly before releases of E. inaron averaged 8 to 21 individuals/cm(2) leaf. Within two years of E. inaron releases, the infestation density of the ash whitefly averaged 0.32 to 2.18 individuals/cm(2) leaf. The decrease in the ash whitefly density resulted from the rapid spread and establishment of E. inaron. Parasitized ash whitefly, one year after E. inaron releases, averaged between 63 and 97% throughout the summer. Based on the economic value of preserving healthy ornamental/evergreen pear and ash trees, the ash whitefly biocontrol effort provided $219,822,823 and $298,803,970 in esthetic benefits to California in wholesale and retail replacement values, respectively. For every dollar spent by the State Biological Control Program and the University of California, approximately $181 in wholesale and $245 in retail esthetic value for the primary hosts of the ash whitefly were preserved. Pickett, C.H., J.C. Ball, K.C. Casanave, K.M. Klonsky, K.M. Jetter, L.G. Bezark and S.E. Schoenig. 1996. Establishment of the ash whitefly Encarsia inaron (Walker) and its economic benefit to ornamental street trees in California. Biological Control. 6(2): 260-272. [attached]

Biological Control of Leafy Spurge in Wyoming Three thousand black flea beetles (Aphthona lacertosa) and 3,000 brown flea beetles (A.nigriscutis) were released in 1998 at 76 sites in the vicinity of Devil’s Tower, Wyoming. At each of these sites, leafy spurge had become the dominant ground cover and had greatly reduced rangeland productivity. These release sites and 33 control sites were monitored for six years after the release to determine how effective the beetles would be in controlling leafy spurge. In the final years of the study, measurements documented recovery of grass and forbs as leafy spurge cover diminished. Beetles were also captured and counted to assess their long-term survival. Within three years the beetles had reduced the average leafy spurge cover from 60% to less than 10% on treated sites. Over the next four years, steady recovery of the range was documented as average leafy spurge cover continued to fluctuate between 8% and 22%. In general, grass cover increased from 34% to over 80% in the six years following the release.

- 3 - United States

Kazmer, D., R. W. Marrs, R. Hunt, A. Parker-Williams, and J. Boersma. 2005. Assessing Long-term Impact of Leafy Spurge Biological Control Agents: Conclusions from a 6-year study. Report for Project USDAAPHIS5179 #58-5436-1-221. [attached]

Biological Control of Tansy Ragwort in Oregon Successful biological control of tansy ragwort in Oregon provides an estimated annual benefit of more than US$5 million, with a minimum benefit-to-cost ratio of 13:1. Losses of livestock have been reduced by $3.7 million/year. Additional savings have accrued through increased productivity of pastures ($1.27 million/year) and by reducing herbicide use ($0.85 million/year). Control of ragwort was achieved at a cost of about $5/ha. Non-market benefits include return of desirable flora in habitats once dominated by ragwort and a reduction in herbicide in the environment. Several correlative observations substantiate evidence used in estimating benefits of the regional control of ragwort. In western Oregon, control of ragwort reduced propagule production, which correlated with a decline in the number of new infestations in eastern Oregon, despite increased detection efforts. The number of releases of the cinnabar moth, Tyria jacobaeae, the ragwort flea beetle, Longitarsus jacobaeae, and the number of cattle deaths attributed to pyrrolizidine poisoning both decreased by more than 90% in relation to declining ragwort densities. Coombs, E.M., H. Radtke, D.L. Isaacson, S.P. Snyder, V.C. Moran and J.H. Hoffmann. 1996. Economic and regional benefits from the biological control of tansy ragwort, Senecio jacobaea, in Oregon. Proceedings of the 9th International Symposium on biological control of weeds, Stellenbosch, , 19-26 January 1996: 489-494. [attached]

Discovery, field release, and establishment of new natural enemies of Giant Reed in Giant Reed (Arundo donax) is a highly invasive weedy grass from the Mediterranean region that displaces native riparian vegetation in the United States and clogs waterways along the Southern border. Its dense thickets also hinder effective border patrol activities and provide habitat for the tick that carries cattle fever. Giant Reed became a problem in the United States because it lacks effective natural enemies. Scientists at the USDA Agricultural Research Service (ARS) European Biological Control Laboratory in Montpellier, France, have now identified four candidate natural enemies after making more than 250 field collections in Spain, France, Italy, and Greece. The candidates were shipped to U.S. quarantine facilities in Mission, Texas, where ARS scientists evaluated them for safety and efficacy against the weed. Two of the agents, a gall forming wasp (Tetramesa romana) and a scale insect (Rhizaspidiotus donacis), have received APHIS permits and have been released into the field. A third agent, a leaf mining fly (Lasioptera donacis), is currently being evaluated in quarantine. During the past year, ARS scientists in Kerrville, Texas, and in Montpellier, France, have also made significant advances in understanding the biological association of the defoliating leafminer fly and associated endophytic pathogens. The fly has previously undiscovered specialized organs on its ovipositor in which it stores the of a single species of fungus. The fungus appears to be necessary for complete development of the fly and is probably responsible for much of the damage to the Arundo plant. As these natural controls spread they will help to suppress the grass and restore original riparian habitats. Goolsby, J.A., P.J. Moran, A.E. Racelis, K.R. Summy, M. Martinez-Jimenez, R.D. Lacewell, A. Perez de Leon and A.A. Kirk. 2015. Impact of the biological control agent Tetramesa romana (Hymenoptera: Eurytomidae) on Arundo donax (Poaceae: Arundinoideae) along the Rio Grande River in Texas. Biocontrol Science and Technology. DOI 10.1080/09583157.2015.1074980. [Abstract available at http://www.ars.usda.gov/research/publications/publications.htm?SEQ_NO_115=316233]

U.S. Forest Service FHTET Biological Control Program

- 4 - United States

U.S. Forest Service, Forest Health Technology Enterprise Team, Biological Control Program: U.S. Forest Service, Forest Health Technology Enterprise Team’s Biological Control program (FHTET BC) is part of the broader U.S. Forest Service National Strategy and Implementation Plan for Invasive Species Management and regional plans dealing with invasive species. The focus of the FHTET-BC program is to demonstrate a strong leadership role in the development and implementation of biological control technologies to manage widespread infestations of invasive species and to use biological control as a viable component for integrated invasive pest management efforts. The FHTET-BC program benefits resource managers by: identifying natural enemies for biological control of invasive species; increasing awareness of new technologies and the implementation of biological control through publications, workshops, scientific meetings, and training sessions; coordinating and focusing funding for biological control; forming partnerships and coordinating the development and implementation of biological control technologies; and developing recommendations for the restoration of native plant species. Background and history: http://www.fs.fed.us/foresthealth/biologicalcontrol/index.shtml Overview and projects: http://www.fs.fed.us/foresthealth/technology/biological_control.shtml Publications: http://www.fs.fed.us/foresthealth/technology/pub_programareas.shtml

Climate Change

Effects of global change on insect pests of crops Global change may include an overall increase in global temperatures, redistribution of rainfall patterns with overall increase in precipitation, increased incidence of severe weather events, and increased levels of ambient carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. Agriculture must adapt to these environmental changes while increasing its total yields to meet the demand of an increasing world population. USDA Agricultural Research Service researchers in Sidney, Montana, summarized the literature on climate change effects on insect pests for the National Climate Assessment for Agriculture. Rising air temperatures affect all aspects of insect life cycles and generally result in larger insect populations, resulting from earlier emergence and more generations per year. Many pests currently limited by cooler temperatures at higher latitudes will be able to expand their ranges into these areas. Elevated carbon dioxide levels cause plants to shift their defenses from the production of defensive chemicals to the development of tougher, less digestible leaves. Beetles, aphids, and possibly other pests are favored by these changes. Plans to grow more suitable crops as conditions change will need to consider the redistribution of pests and their increasing severity. Better integrated pest management can be developed for those pests likely to cause the greatest losses in yield. http://nca2014.globalchange.gov/report/sectors/agriculture

Bioinvasions in a Changing World: A Resource on Invasive Species-Climate Change Interactions for Conservation and Natural Resource Management Responding to a 2012 recommendation by the Aquatic Nuisance Species Task Force (ANSTF), a multi- stakeholder working group was convened in collaboration with the National Invasive Species Council. The outcome was a report entitled Bioinvasions in a Changing World: A Resource on Invasive Species-Climate Change Interactions for Conservation and Natural Resource Management. The report’s objective is to assess the state of knowledge on the tools and methodologies that can assist natural resource managers in addressing the threat of invasive species within a changing climate. This includes looking at broader decision- making frameworks, as well as the role of invasive species management in the context of climate change adaptation efforts. More specifically, the report addresses:  basic linkages between climate change and invasive species,

- 5 - United States

 management paradigms for both invasive species and climate change adaptation,  relevant management tools and methods, and  opportunities for institutional coordination and outreach. Ad Hoc Working Group on Invasive Species and Climate Change. 2014. Bioinvasions in a Changing World: A Resource on Invasive Species-Climate Change Interactions for Conservation and Natural Resource Management. Prepared for the Aquatic Nuisance Species Task Force (ANSTF) and the National Invasive Species Council (NISC). DOI: 10.13140/2.1.4868.6889. [attached]

Control Measures

Causal agents discovered for maize lethal necrosis disease In 2012, a new corn disease, maize lethal necrosis, emerged in Kenya, which caused growers to experience 40 to 100 percent crop losses. While maize lethal necrosis has not yet been found in the U.S., the $60 billion U.S. corn crop is vulnerable to this disease. USDA Agricultural Research Service (ARS) researchers in Wooster, Ohio, collaborated with scientists from the International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center and the Kenya Agricultural Research Institute to identify two viruses, Maize chlorotic mottle virus and Sugarcane mosaic virus, in diseased maize that together cause the maize lethal necrosis disease. This finding enables ARS scientists and collaborators to identify disease control measures and to develop screening protocols needed to breed disease-resistant corn hybrids. Wangai, A. W., M.G. Redinbaugh, M. Kinyua, D.W. Miano, P.K. Leley, M. Kasina, G. Mahuku, K. Scheets and D. Jeffers. 2012. First report of maize chlorotic mottle virus and maize lethal necrosis in Kenya. Plant Disease 96(10): 1582. DOI 10.1094/PDIS-06-12-0576-PDN [http://apsjournals.apsnet.org/doi/abs/10.1094/PDIS-06- 12-0576-PDN] Mahuku, G., B.E. Lockhart, B. Wanjala, M.W. Jones, J.N. Kimunye, L.R. Stewart, B.J. Cassone, S. Sevgan, J.O. Nyasani, E. Kusia, P. Lava Kumar, C.L. Niblett, A. Kiggundu, G. Asea, H.R. Pappu, A. Wangai, B.M. Prasanna and M.G. Redinbaugh. 2015. Maize Lethal Necrosis (MLN), an Emerging Threat to Maize-Based Food Security in Sub-Saharan Africa. Phytopathology. 105(7): 956-965. DOI 10.1094/PHYTO-12-14-0367-FI [http://apsjournals.apsnet.org/doi/10.1094/PHYTO-12-14-0367-FI]

Flat mite identification tool on the Web Flat mites, such as false spider mites, red palm mites, citrus mites, and peacock mites, are devastating pests on citrus, tea plants, bananas, coconuts, date palms, olive crops, eucalyptus trees, and ornamental palms. In addition to directly causing damage, these mites also vector plant diseases, including citrus leprosis virus. Accurate identification of these mites is the first step in controlling them. USDA Agricultural Research Service researchers in Beltsville, Maryland, in collaboration with the USDA and Plant Health Inspection Service developed an interactive online identification key with descriptors and numerous images using light microscopy and low temperature scanning electron microscopy. Since its launch one year ago, more than 123,800 visitors from 180 countries have accessed the Web site. This tool has enabled correct identification by farmers, extension agents, State and university researchers, government agencies, and APHIS quarantine specialists in controlling mites and plant diseases vectored by mites. [http://idtools.org/id/mites/flatmites/]

Attractants for brown marmorated stink bug

- 6 - United States

The brown marmorated stink bug is an invasive insect pest that causes severe damage to fruits, vegetables, and field crops that has spread to 40 States, as well as to Canada, Switzerland, Germany, and France. A means of monitoring the numbers of stink bugs is necessary for determining when to apply treatments. USDA Agricultural Research Service (ARS) scientists in Beltsville, Maryland, have confirmed that the bug is attracted to methyl decatrienoate (MDT), a pheromone of a different Asian stink bug species. The researchers have developed and commercialized a new synthesis of this compound for use in monitoring traps. In addition, ARS scientists in Kearneysville, West Virginia, and Beltsville, discovered the true male produced aggregation pheromone of the stink bug and confirmed in field trials that it is attractive to male and female adults and immature bugs. The pheromone was developed into a commercial version that has been transferred to the private sector. ARS scientists in Beltsville also discovered that the performance of the bug’s pheromone could be enhanced (synergized) by MDT, providing a superior lure for season long monitoring. A patent application has been filed on discovery of the brown marmorated stink bug attractants. It is expected that the commercialization of this pheromone technology will lead to effective management of the pest and new trap- and-kill techniques to reduce pesticide usage. Leskey, T.C., A. Agnello, J.C. Bergh, G.P. Dively, G.C. Hamilton, P. Jentsch, A. Khrimian, G. Krawczyk, T.P. Kuhar, D. Lee, W.R. Morrison III, D.F. Polk, C. Rodriguez-Saona, P.W. Shearer, B.D. Short, P.M. Shrewsbury, J.F. Walgenbach, D.C. Weber, C. Welty, J. Whalen, N. Wiman and F. Zaman. 2015. Attraction of the invasive Halyomorpha halys (Hemiptera: Pentatomidae) to traps baited with semiochemical stimuli across the United States. Environmental Entomology. DOI 10.1093/ee/nvv049 [http://m.ee.oxfordjournals.org/content/early/2015/04/24/ee.nvv049.abstract] Morrison III, W.R., D. Lee, B.D. Short, A. Khrimian and T.C. Leskey. 2015. Establishing the behavioral basis for an attract-and-kill strategy to manage the invasive Halyomorpha halys in apple orchards. Journal of Pest Science. DOI 10.1007/s10340-015-0679-6 Weber, D.C., T.C. Leskey, G.C. Walsh and A. Khrimian. 2014. Synergy of aggregation pheromone With methyl (E,E,Z)-2,4,6-decatrienoate in attraction of Halyomorpha halys (Hemiptera: Pentatomidae). Journal of Economic Entomology 107(3): 1061-1068. DOI 10.1603/EC13502 [http://m.jee.oxfordjournals.org/content/107/3/1061.abstract]

New lures for critical pests The spotted wing drosophila (SWD) is an invasive pest of soft fruits. The brown marmorated stink bug (BMSB) is a pest of many fruits, vegetables, and field crops. Both originated in Asia and are spreading throughout North America. USDA Agricultural Research Service (ARS) researchers in Wapato, Washington, working with ARS colleagues in Poplarville, Mississippi, and Oregon State Department of Agriculture scientists, isolated and identified a set of chemicals from the odors of wine and vinegar that can be used as a lure for SWD. ARS researchers in Beltsville, Maryland, and Kearneysville, West Virginia, discovered a male-produced pheromone that causes BMSB nymphs and adults to aggregate. Both lures are being combined with traps and will be used to monitor pest populations for treatment and, perhaps, to control the via trapping or insecticidal baits. A provisional patent has been filed for the stink bug lure. Leskey, T.C., S.E. Wright, B.D. Short and A. Khrimian. 2012. Development of behaviorally based monitoring tools for the brown marmorated stink bug, Halyomorpha halys (Stål) (Heteroptera: Pentatomidae) in commercial tree fruit orchards. Journal of Entomological Science 47:76-85. Cha, D.H., T. Adams, P.J. Landolt and H. Rogg. 2012. Identification and field evaluation of wine and vinegar volatiles that mediate attraction of spotted wing drosophila, Drosophila suzukii. Journal of Chemical Ecology 38:1419-1431.

- 7 - United States

Landolt, P.J., T. Adams and H. Rogg. 2012. Trapping spotted wing drosophila (Diptera: Drosophilidae) with vinegar, wine, acetic acid and ethanol. Journal of Applied Entomology 136:148-154.

Cold treatment stops coffee berry borer Green coffee, which is shipped around the world for custom blending and roasting, carries the risk of spreading coffee berry borer. USDA Agricultural Research Service scientists in Hilo, Hawaii, tested the freezing tolerance of over 15,000 coffee berry borer insects at three different temperatures and determined the temperature and time at which they could control 100 percent of all life stages. Hawaii State regulators are using this information to implement a freezing treatment protocol that allows coffee growers in the infested area to ship green coffee to other islands without the need for methyl bromide fumigation. Hollingsworth, R.G., E.B. Jang, and P.A. Follett. 2013. Freezing as a treatment to prevent the spread of Hypothenemus hampei (Coleoptera: Curculionidae), in coffee. Journal of Economic Entomology. 106(2): 653-660. [attached]

Control strategy mitigates the threat of the invasive Argentine moth in North America Subsequent to its detection in south Florida in 1989, the Argentine cactus moth had two incursions in Mexico, expanded its range along the Atlantic Coast and west along the Gulf Coast to the barrier islands of Mississippi and bayous of Louisiana, and became an imminent threat to many cactus species, which are valued as a food, forage, wildlife habitat, and a major plant group in ecosystem structure and biodiversity. Following the successful eradication of this pest from Mexico, using control tactics including the , USDA Agricultural Research Service (ARS) scientists in Tifton, Georgia, in collaboration with those in Tallahassee, Florida, and USDA Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service (APHIS) transferred mass-rearing technology to the Florida Department of Plant Industries Laboratory in Gainesville, Florida, and assisted in the establishment of an insectary supported by APHIS to supply sterile moths for the U.S.-Mexico binational cactus moth program. To insure moth quality, laboratory and field bioassays were developed and conducted on sterile moths and the data were used as feedback mechanisms to make protocol changes in both rearing and handling that improved moth quality and performance. APHIS and SAGARPA (Mexico) continue to use these methods and tactics in their operational programs, which are part of an ongoing U.S.-Mexico binational campaign against this invasive pest to mitigate further westward expansion and population outbreaks. Carpenter, J.E., and S.D. Hight. 2012. Rearing the oligophagous cactorum (: ) on meridic diets without host plant materials. Florida Entomologist 95(4): 1132-1141. [http://journals.fcla.edu/flaent/article/view/81635] Hight, S.D., and J.E. Carpenter. 2015. Performance improvement through quality evaluations of sterile Argentine cactus moths, Cactoblastis cactorum (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae), mass-reared at two insectaries. Florida Entomologist, in press.

USDA/Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service – Wildlife Services (APHIS-WS) Currently, Wildlife Services branch of USDA’s Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service (APHIS-WS) is conducting feral swine eradication programs in many states trying to eliminate populations from states where they have minimal populations and reduce numbers in states with large populations. Initial projects in showed that eradication from particular areas was highly successful, but swine had to be monitored since new populations could arrive. The eradication of swine will not only help native wildlife, particularly ground-nesting birds, but also wetlands and carbon sequestration.

- 8 - United States

Nutria eradication efforts from the Chesapeake Bay area have proven that with concentrated efforts it could be done. Nutria have been removed from this area, along with nonnative Mute Swans that have been damaging the wetlands severely. These efforts will help restore wetlands and carbon sequestration abilities of the area. Brown tree snakes were introduced to Guam in the late 1940s. Since that time they eliminated all but two forest species including the extinction of the Guam Flycatcher. APHIS-WS has had a containment program (keeping them from invading other islands such as Hawaii), but has been effective at making areas relatively snake-free. Research is being conducted on the effectiveness of acetaminophen as a drop bait to make large areas snake free. The presence of the brown tree snake has not only caused the loss of several avian species, but without them, pollination of flora on Guam has also been hurt along with a decline in native reptiles. Their removal would be a huge benefit to the island. APHIS-WS conducts starling control, primarily to protect feedlots (e.g., feed loss and minimized disease transmission among birds and livestock), property, and human health from related diseases. APHIS-WS removes about 3 million or more a year. The starling population nationally has been declining, but habitat loss (primarily nesting structures), as well as control efforts, have likely played a role. APHIS-WS-National Wildlife Research Center (NWRC) researchers are working on a myriad of projects to look at the possibility of eradication of many invasive species from areas. Species such as the Gambian pouched rat, anaconda (e.g., amplified genetic detection from water samples), iguanas, monkeys, coqui frogs, and others have been the focus of several research projects. Programs to eradicate these species would be beneficial to native species and other resources. APHIS-WS is conducting many projects across the country to protect endangered and sensitive species such as the California least tern, interior least tern, piping plover, sage grouse, marine turtles, freshwater clams and mussels. Many of the programs are directed at species that are expanding their range as a result of land-use changes (e.g., coyotes, raccoons, brown-headed cowbirds, beavers) while others may be directly linked to spread as a result of climate change (great-tailed grackle). Some species were deliberately introduced to areas and cause problems (coyotes in the southeastern US, beavers in , many birds and mammals in Hawaii). Species in Hawaii are particularly detrimental to native species (mongoose, introduced birds that spread disease) and (several cervids, goats, and swine). NWRC researcher Stephanie Schwiff is doing economic impact studies that show that these efforts are beneficial. Attached is information relative to economics and control from the NWRC website. Included is a list of recent references to economics of control programs:

- 9 - United States

Research Project: Economic Research of Human-Wildlife Conflicts: Methods and Assessments The scope of wildlife damage management activities continues to expand. For example, increased populations of urban, resident Canada geese pose nuisance/contamination problems in many municipalities throughout the United States. New wildlife diseases (e.g., hantavirus, bovine TB, chronic wasting disease) pose risks to human health, livestock production and wildlife populations. Predators (i.e., invasive red fox and feral cat populations) can deter recovery efforts for certain endangered/threatened species (i.e., California least tern). Essentially, 4 parameters characterize the economics of wildlife damage management activities:  crop (resource) value,  crop (resource) damage,  cost of the wildlife-management method (i.e., both personnel and materials) and  effectiveness of the damage reduction.

This project seeks to quantify benefits and costs of new, and traditional, wildlife management activities. What are the "real" costs and returns of intervening with repellents, relocations, removals, rodenticides, etc. to limit the effects of certain wildlife upon agriculture, natural resources, or public health? Anderson, A., D.S. Carpenter, M.J. Begier, B.F. Blackwell, T.L. DeVault, S.A. Shwiff. 2015. Modeling the cost of bird strikes to US civil aircraft. Transportation Research Part D (38):49-58. doi: 10.1016/j.trd.2015.04.027 Anderson, A., K.Gebhardt, W.T. Cross, and S.A. Shwiff. 2013. Spillover benefits of wildlife management to support pheasant populations. Wildlife Society Bulletin 37(2): 278-280. doi 10.1002/wsb.280. Anderson, A., C.A. Lindell, K.M. Moxcey, W.F. Siemer, G.M. Linz, P.D. Curtis, J.E. Carroll, C.L. Burrows, J.R. Boulanger, K.M.M. Steensma, and S.A. Shwiff. 2013. Bird damage to select fruit crops: The cost of damage and the benefits of control in five states. Crop Protection 52: 103-109. doi: 10.1016/jcropro.2013.05.019. Anderson, A., S.A. Shwiff, R.B. Chipman, T. Atwood, T. Cozzens, F. Fillo, R. Hale, B. Hatch, J. Maki, O.E. Rhodes, E.E. Rees, C.E. Rupprecht, R. Tinline, K.C. VerCauteren, and D. Slate. Forecasting the spread of raccoon rabies using a purpose-specific group decision-making process. 2014. Human-Wildlife Interactions 8(1):130-138. Chipman, R.B., T.W. Cozzens, S.A. Shwiff, R. Biswas, J. Plumley, J. O'Quinn, T.P. Algeo, C.E. Rupprecht, and D. Slate. 2013. Costs of raccoon rabies incidents in cattle herds in Hampshire County, West Virginia, and Guernsey County, Ohio. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association 243(11): 1561-1567. Poessel, S. A., S. W. Breck, T. L. Teel, S. Shwiff, K. R. Crooks, and L. Angeloni. 2013. Patterns of human-coyote conflicts in the Denver Metropolitan Area. Journal of Wildlife Management 77:297-305. Shwiff, S., C. Aenishaenslin, A. Ludwig, P. Berthiaume, M. Bigras-Poulin, K. Kirkpatrick, L. Lambert, and D. Belanger. 2013. Bioeconomic modelling of raccoon rabies spread management impacts in Quebec, Canada. Transboundary and Emerging Diseases 60: 330-337. doi 10.1111/j.1865-1682.2012.01351.x. Shwiff, S.A., A. Anderson, R. Cullen, P.C.L. White, and S.S. Shwiff. 2013. Assignment of measurable costs and benefits to wildlife conservation projects. Wildlife Research 40: 134-141. doi 10.1071/WR12102. Shwiff, S., K. Hampson, and A. Anderson. 2013. Potential economic benefits of eliminating canine rabies. Antiviral Research 98:352-356. Shwiff, S.A, K.A. Kirkpatrick, T.L. DeVault, and S.S. Shwiff. 2015. Modeling the economic impacts of double- crested cormorant damage to a recreational fishery. Human-Wildlife Interactions 9(1):36-47.

USDA/U.S. Forest Service Research and Development (USFS R&D)

- 10 - United States

The Forest Service Research and Development (USFS-R&D) branch plays a crucial role in providing scientific insights and options to protect trees, forests, and ecosystems from the threat of invasive species. Currently, USFS-R&D leads partners from other Federal, State, and local agencies; universities; Tribes; NGOs and industry in development of basic science and applied tools for: predicting and preventing invasive species introductions; detecting and responding to already introduced species; managing and mitigating established infestations, and restoring and maintaining ecosystems degraded by invasive species. USFS-R&D also strives for a broad, science-based framework applicable to current and future invasive problems. Priority research areas of include:  Invasive species biology, ecology, interactions and impacts: including research on genetic, ecological, and evolutionary relationships among priority invasive species and impacted ecosystems, as well as their ecological, social, and economic impacts.  Forecasting and prioritizing invasive species, through development of methods to forecast potential invasive species, and protocols to prioritize between invasive species and potential management options.  Identifying and detecting invasive species, through improvements in invasive species detection and diagnostics technology, and investigations of invasive patterns and processes across geographical and elevational gradients.  Managing invasive species and altered systems, by developing more effective treatments and control/management methods for high priority species, and forecast interactions between multiple invasives and multiple disturbances under varying climatic scenarios. General USFS Invasive Species website: http://www.fs.fed.us/invasivespecies/research.shtml USFS R&D Invasive Species website: http://www.fs.fed.us/research/invasive-species/ USFS Western Threat Assessment Center http://www.fs.fed.us/wwetac/threats/invasives.html USFS Eastern Threat Assessment Center: http://www.forestthreats.org/research/projects

Cost/Benefit Analyses

A cost/benefit analysis of the ash whitefly biological control program in California The ash whitefly (Siphoninus phillytreae) was first identified in California during 1988 and caused widespread defoliation to its primary hosts, ash (Fraxinus species) and ornamental pear (Pyrus species) trees. The ash whitefly caused higher levels of damage to trees in regions with hotter summers and lower damage to trees in regions with cooler summers. In 1990 a parasitic wasp, Encarsia inaron (=partenopea), was released into urban communities in California to control the ash whitefly infestation. By 1992 the wasp had reduced ash whitefly populations to undetectable levels and preserved the aesthetic benefits of the affected trees. The loss in aesthetic benefits due to ash whitefly damage was estimated using a standard tree appraisal technique, the Trunk Formula Method. The benefits were estimated as the change in the average appraised value of a susceptible tree due to ash whitefly damage times the number of each affected tree species for each region. The total benefits of the biological control program range from $324 million at wholesale values to $412 million at retail. The direct costs of the program were just over $1.2 million. The net benefits are between $323 million and $411 million. The respective benefit to cost ratios are $270:1 and $344:1. Jetter, K., K. Klonsky and C.H. Pickett. 1997. A cost/benefit analysis of the ash whitefly biological control program in California. Journal of Arboriculture 23(2): 65-72.

- 11 - United States

E-commerce

Internet trade of aquatic invasive species In 2012, the Great Lakes Commission (GLC) initiated work on a project to address Internet sale of aquatic invasive species that could impact the region. The project has involved working with a range of governmental and non-governmental organizations in tandem with information technology experts to develop a web crawler to search the Internet for the local sale of invasive species that could impact the region. This webcrawler, entitled the Great Lakes Detector of Invasive Aquatics in Trade (GLDIATR), searches for invasive species of concern as identified through: federal, state and provincial regulations; regional watchlists; analyses of invasive species of concern within other watershed; ecological risk assessments by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service; and other expert input. The aim is to develop a tool that can be tailored for use in other geographies and their invasive species of concern. General project information: http://glc.org/projects/invasive/internet-trade-ais/ Webcrawler information: http://glc.org/projects/invasive/internet-trade-ais/gldiatr/

Invasive species and E-commerce Internet commerce (“e-commerce”) is a growing and vital part of the U.S. economy that is increasingly encompassing new areas of trade in goods, including living organisms. Scientific analyses and informal reviews reveal a wide range of species for sale, including many known invasive species regulated by state and federal laws. Unlike other pathways of introduction, e-commerce is not a physical means of moving organisms but instead represents a broad spectrum of activity encompassing multiple sectors and species traded, Internet sites and tools, actors in the supply chain and shipping routes. This white paper by the U.S. Invasive Species Advisory Committee introduces the topic of e-commerce and invasive species and identifies a number of regulatory difficulties facing both the federal and state governments. The paper concludes with a number of recommendations to specific federal agencies, such as the Departments of Agriculture, Interior and Homeland Security, on how to better mitigate the risks associated with the sale and exchange of potential invasive species over the Internet. Invasive Species Advisory Committee to the National Invasive Species Council (U.S.) 2012. Invasive Species and E-commerce. Whitepaper. Adopted May 24, 2012, Washington, D.C. [attached]

Management Measures

Harvest Incentives for the Management of Invasive Species An area of recent exploration for the management of invasive species has been the use of incentives to encourage their harvest or consumption as a form of control. Examples of these types of programs include bounty payments, contractor payments, commercial markets and recreation harvest. However, experience has also shown cases where such incentives have had unintended consequences including exacerbating the impacts and/or spread of invasive species rather than controlling them. For this reason, the design of programs using harvest incentives needs to be carefully analyzed to avoid the introduction of perverse incentives. Invasive Species Advisory Committee to the National Invasive Species Council (U.S.) 2014. Utilizing Harvest Incentives to Control Invertebrate Invasive Species. Whitepaper. Adopted May 15, 2014, Washington, D.C. [attached] Pasko, S., and J. Goldberg. 2014. Review of harvest incentives to control invasive species. Management of Biological Invasions 5(3): 263-277. [http://dx.doi.org/10.3391/mbi.2014.5.3.10]

- 12 - United States

- 13 -