Japanese Geotechnical Society Special Publication GIS and Geoinformation Zoning for Disaster Mitigation (GIZ2018)

A geospatial assessment of critical infrastructure impacts and adaptations in small rural towns following the 14 November 2016 (Kaikōura) earthquake,

D. J. McKibbin i), D. M. Blake ii), T. M. Wilson iii), L. Wotherspoon iv), and M. W. Hughes v)

i) MSc Student, Department of Geological Sciences, University of Canterbury, 20 Kirkwood Ave, 8041, New Zealand. ii) Postdoctoral Fellow, Department of Geological Sciences, University of Canterbury, 20 Kirkwood Ave, Christchurch 8041, New Zealand. iii) Assoc. Professor, Department of Geological Sciences, University of Canterbury, 20 Kirkwood Ave, Christchurch 8041, New Zealand. iv) Senior Lecturer, Civil and Environmental Engineering Department, University of , Auckland 1010, New Zealand. v) Lecturer, Department of Civil and Natural Resources Engineering, University of Canterbury, 20 Kirkwood Ave, Christchurch 8041, New Zealand

ABSTRACT

Geographically remote, small rural towns typically rely on multiple critical infrastructure networks with limited redundancies to support key services. Additionally, facilities that people take for granted in larger population centres, such as supermarkets and schools, are more widely distributed in low population density regions. We adopt the 14 November 2016 (Kaikōura) earthquake in New Zealand as a case study to explore critical infrastructure challenges and impacts, service disruptions, and community adaptations in four small North Canterbury and Marlborough towns – Waiau, , Seddon and Ward. However, behavioural, infrastructure and legislative adaptations can be inherent or quick to evolve in small towns with frequent service disruptions. Despite these factors, small towns are often underrepresented in impact assessments and appear to have been a low priority for investigation in the past.

For the purposes of this paper we focus on the small rural town of Waiau in North Canterbury. Existing records of impacts and adaptations were combined with seismic and co-seismic hazards and emergency management activities to produce a preliminary geospatial timeline of events following the Kaikōura earthquake. Overlaying critical infrastructure with known and simulated co-seismic hazards enables us to conceptualise areas of high hazard exposure; an important component of risk. Along with the results of our discussions with community and industry members, this information can be fed into future research to inform resilience-building efforts. In this paper we present the latest findings and suggest future applications for Geospatial Information Systems in reducing disaster risk in small towns.

Keywords: small towns, rural, infrastructure, hazards, disaster risk reduction, resilience, emergency management, Kaikōura earthquake

1 INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND (Hughes, et al., 2017). A large amount of long-term 1 ground deformation has also been observed, such as the The Mw 7.8 Kaikōura earthquake occurred at uplift of the shore along Kaikōura, with on-going 12.02am on 14 November 2016, with an epicentre 15 consequences. km deep, and 95 km north-east of Christchurch in the Within the context of natural disaster impacts, rural of New Zealand (Fig. 1) (GeoNet, 2016). towns encounter a number of resilience challenges Strong shaking rocked buildings in both the North and distinct from large urban centres. This can manifest as South Islands causing liquefaction and multiple a result of low population density, which reduces tax landslides in the latter (Hughes, et al., 2017). Surface income – and therefore impedes investment in rupture also split roads and other infrastructure infrastructure resilience and maintenance (Howard,

1 The common name of ‘Kaikōura Earthquake’ is controversial so has drawn away attention from smaller towns (Hatton, et al., as impacts were felt widely across North Canterbury and 2017). Marlborough, and many locals feel that naming the earthquake

https://doi.org/10.3208/jgssp.v06.GIZ04 19 2015). Additionally, the low population density of areas. This is not a legal classification; however it is rural regions widens the distribution of important sufficiently descriptive of the style of communities we facilities such as schools and supermarkets (Gerald, wish to investigate. 2016). In the context of lifeline utilities infrastructure, The value of Geospatial Information Systems (GIS) overcoming these challenges early on in response and lies in mapping out hazards and communities, and then recovery can help to reduce population displacement from this evaluating actual and potential exposure. and other societal effects. While much work has been Here, a geospatial assessment of critical done on large urban centres (Giovinazzi, et al., 2011; infrastructure impacts and related adaptations is O'Rourke, et al., 2012; Kongar, et al., 2017), small conducted using the 14 November 2016 (Kaikōura) towns and their communities have been comparatively earthquake in New Zealand as a case study. side-lined from research foci. New Zealand is Interdependencies between infrastructure types and considered the No.1 sheep meat and dairy exporter, entities are also considered in this assessment. While and therefore exports rely significantly on the several towns are being investigated in this project, for agricultural sector (MPI, 2018). For this reason, the the purpose of this paper we focus on Waiau in the resilience of the small towns which service agricultural Hurunui District of the North Canterbury region of industries should not be overlooked. South Island, New Zealand. Findings of our interviews thus far have outlined the damage to infrastructure in this township in particular.

2 METHODS a We established a general study area in the North Canterbury/ based on felt reports published by GeoNet (GeoNet, 2016). Then, thirteen rural South Island towns that fell within this study area were considered for further investigation. Towns were evaluated in a points-based suitability b matrix, with scoring achieved by meeting the c aforementioned population and rurality requirements, d e variety in dominant industry types and known hazard impacts. Adaptations already identified in literature f g were also desirable. Our final selection gave four towns – Culverden and Waiau in North Canterbury, and Seddon and Ward in Marlborough: Culverden (pop. 426) is in the Hurunui District of the North Canterbury region. Considered the ‘hub’ of farming in the district, it is the commercial centre for many agricultural activities (, n.d.). In spite of its close proximity to the case study earthquake epicentre, destruction was relatively low compared to many other towns in the Hurunui District. Prominent lifeline utility impacts included broken and blocked roads, and a power outage. Waiau (pop. 261) is located just north-east of Culverden within Hurunui District, North Canterbury. The township is involved in services supporting Fig. 1: Map of the South Island of New Zealand with relevant locations notated. a: Seddon, b: Ward, c: Kaikōura, d: traditional large-scale farming. Local infrastructure Waiau, e: epicentre of the 14th November 2016 event, f: was hit quite badly with extensive damage to housing, Culverden, g: Christchurch. public/social buildings, commercial buildings, roads, three waters, and electricity distribution. There is no universal definition of a small town, Seddon (pop. 507) is situated in the Marlborough rural or otherwise, so for the purposes of our District, Marlborough region. Major industries here investigation we have taken the upper population limit include farming, lime quarrying and the Lake of the StatsNZ definition of 999 people (StatsNZ, n.d.). Grassmere salt ponds. The council water supply was Population data for towns was retrieved from the 2013 damaged in Seddon, along with the SH1 connection to New Zealand Census. StatsNZ’s definition also Blenheim and minor routes to more remote farming requires the town to service surrounding rural industry, homesteads. which is distinct from providing labour for main urban Ward (pop. 903) is the second town we are

20 investigating in the Marlborough District, infrastructure entities rely on another, either to Marlborough. Pastoral farming and fisheries are the facilitate business-as-usual performance or restoration industries of greatest importance to the township. following disruptions. In each of these cases, the Ward infrastructure was severely damaged by the criticality of dependent infrastructure is shared earthquake – notably telecommunication towers, between them. A common form of interdependence, downed powerlines, sceptic tanks and water which also tends to result in the development of distribution. Shore platform uplift also rendered the pinchpoints for linear infrastructure, is the utility of local fishing boat launch unusable. bridges to carry service infrastructure across rivers and For the purpose of this paper Waiau is the primary unlevel ground (Palermo, et al., 2017). A second mode case study. This township was chosen due to the high of interdependence is that of road access allowing for intensity of impacts and adaptation information from the recovery of other infrastructure types such as water the interviews conducted to date. supply networks.

2.1 Disaster risk and resilience 2.5 Pinchpoints and interdependent infrastructure A frequent issue with communicating disaster We suggest a simple method of finding bridges that resilience research is conflicting and poorly defined act as carriers to other linear infrastructure using the terminology between projects and institutions Select By Location tool in ArcMap. Note that this (UNISDR, 2017; Koks, et al., 2015). For this reason, method only allows a single ‘source’ layer, in this case we made the explicit choice to follow the United whichever infrastructure is in contact with bridges – Nations International Strategy for Disaster Reduction meaning that the process must be repeated with each (UNISDR) equation for determining disaster risk and potential interdependent infrastructure type. Not all resilience. Their concept is as follows: interdependent infrastructure will necessarily intercept, however. This may be the result of poorly recorded = (1) data or real-world offset between associated 𝑯𝑯𝑯𝑯𝑯𝑯 infrastructure types. In cases where linear Where H is the manifested𝑫𝑫𝑫𝑫 Hazard/s, V is infrastructure runs parallel to bridges or roads, like 𝑹𝑹 community Vulnerability and E is Exposure of a suspended powerlines for example, a known lateral community or other concerning element to hazard/s. distance such as maximum bridge width can be added These three inputs amplify one another, however if any in the ‘Apply a search distance’ text box. This selects value is zero then the value for Dr, Disaster Risk, is target layer features that come within the specified also zero. Unlike Koks, et al. (2015), UNISDRs distance of the source layer, estimating which services equation adds the input R for Resilience, which acts as are attached to the bridge if polygons for bridges are a mitigating factor on H, V and E. not available. The tool can also be used to identify infrastructure types that are carried by bridges, simply 2.2 Geospatial Data by selecting bridges as the source layer and all other Data from council and online databases, interviews infrastructure types of interest as the target layers. and reports were used to digitise an infrastructure Changing the spatial selection method allows for more exposure inventory, which enable the production of freedom in infrastructure selection, as geospatial town-level and district-level infrastructure inventories. relationships between infrastructure may not strictly We have used the outputs of these processes to direct adhere to 2-dimensional intersects. our research into adaptative resilience and the acquisition of further hazard and exposure data, It should be noted that the Select By Location tool feeding back into GIS. As interviews and research is not perfect for identifying interdependencies and have brought new insights, infrastructure features have pinch points, in that any features which satisfy the been added to or modified in existing datasets. spatial selection method query will be selected. Fig. 2 Geospatial information on several known shows the selection of a bridge which intersects seismogenic hazards has been collected from datasets perpendicular to a water supply pipe, and therefore is attached to previous literature. These hazards include not a carrier of this infrastructure type. This issue may strong ground motion and landslides. be exasperated where the ‘Apply a search distance’ 2.3 Interviews option or other spatial selection method are applied, as Interviewing lifeline infrastructure operators and by design an intersect is not needed for feature district government leaders incorporated a further selection in these cases. To remedy this in our own dimension to this study, adding information and project, each bridge selected by the tool is checked perspectives previously uncirculated in academic manually to a) confirm a geospatial relationship with research. another form of infrastructure, and b) to view bridge identification that can be cross-referenced with reports 2.4 Interdependencies that confirm carrier status and infrastructure Interdependencies exist where one or more

21 performance. (MMI) (Bradley, et al., 2017). Also included in Fig. 5 are mapped landslides and landslide dams from an inventory developed by (Massey, et al., 2018). To visualise infrastructure interdependencies, we created time series maps of Level of Service (LoS) for

Bridge water supplies and roading in Waiau. Included in the (selected) roading LoS time series is bridges, as the two have been commonly grouped together in our interviews addressing road service. It should be noted that this road-bridge relationship is not always apparent in the maps as roads on private land are excluded from the dataset provided. Excerpts of our time series analysis Water supply pipe for water and roading levels of service are presented in Fig. 6, 7 and 8 with supporting text in Table 1. Fig. 6 Fig. 2: Selection of bridge perpendicular to water supply pipe, depicts the levels of service by the end of the fourth and therefore not an example of interdependent infrastructure. day following the main seismic event (T4). Initial observations of the scheme had been carried out by 3 RESULTS light all-terrain vehicles and on foot as River Road (marked in Fig. 6b) was largely impassable due to road For our infrastructure inventories (Fig. 3, 4), damage and downed power lines. Additionally, there different infrastructure types have been grouped into was damage to bridges that prevented access for heavy each map where possible to improve clarity and allow vehicles. It is only in the following days that the road for easier interpretation of infrastructure and bridge access had been partially restored to a level interdependencies. A number of simple corrections suitable for heavy excavation equipment and water such as realigning bridge and road centrelines have pipe repairs could take place. Note the lag in service also been made. restoration between River Road and the rural water Fig. 5 displays ground motion intensity as a supply network (Fig.s 6b and 8a). function of the Modified Mercalli Intensity Scale

Inland Road/Route 70 to Kaikōura

Waiau Bridge

SH70 Cordon Leader Road

River Road

Route 70 to Culverden Waiau River

Fig. 3: Infrastructure inventory for Waiau town and surrounding rural area. The Route 70/Inland Road cordon is marked by a star and arrow. Waiau Bridge is marked by an arrow in the map inset.

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Inland Road/Route 70 to Kaikōura

Hurunui District SH 1

Waiau River SH 7

Hurunui River

Fig. 4: Infrastructure inventory for Hurunui District.

Hurunui District

Waiau River

Hurunui River

Fig. 5: Hazard map for Hurunui District showing active faults, level of ground shaking and landslides from the Kaikōura earthquake.

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Table 1: Level of service information for the times shown in Fig. 6-8. Time (day) Water Supplies Roading

T4 Schemes advised to conserve water districtwide Waiau bridge usable in both directions with Water supply restored to Waiau township, water assistance of stop/go sign (light vehicles only, no towing) storage capacity improved at the tank farm Culverden-Waiau portion of Route 70 reopens Boil notices lifted in many townships around Hurunui Essential 4WD vehicles now able to access remainder district, still in place for Waiau of Route 70 with new segments of track converting the Waiau Rural only water scheme not yet restored to route into the Kaikōura Emergency Access Route working order (KEAR), still closed to public, army cordon in place Leader Road remains closed 66% of bridges in district assessed

T8 Focused effort on restoring Waiau rural scheme (river All bridges open, some with restrictions intake to reservoir, marked on map) Route 70/KEAR open to military and essential Pods of potable water distributed to rural residents vehicles only. Some locals are bypassing the cordon via Reports of gastro bug sickness in Waiau (likely temporary road on private property, interesting adaptation contaminated water, town supply chlorinated but boil to a disruption in service that potentially impacts notice still in place) negatively on other operations and own safety Waiau town water storage capacity fully restored Blanket 50 kmph speed limit across district

T15 Several rural supply scheme plans implemented: Road and bridge status map made available online Added a temporary intake in nearby stream to feed Leader Road open to contractor and emergency reservoir, new high pressure pipe is rushed through vehicles, Leader river valley considered unsafe due to production and installed in connection between river landslide dam approaching limit intake and reservoir, rural scheme water not safe for Conway River landslide dam burst, threatening the people to drink but circulated for use in watering stock movement of vehicles on Route 70 230000 L of stock water and potable water delivered All 258 bridges in district have been inspected per day to properties along Route 70/KEAR Route 70/KEAR closed intermittently due to weather, exchange of control from military back to NZTA intended in coming days.

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Rural supply reservoir Town supply Mason tank farm River

Waiau River

b

Route 70 to Waiau Kaikōura Bridge

River Road Leader Road

Route 70 to Culverden

Fig. 6: Waiau timeseries T4. a: water supply, b: roading.

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a

Mason River

River Road intake section

Waiau River

b

Route 70 to Waiau Kaikōura Bridge

River Road Leader Road

Route 70 to Culverden

Fig. 7: Waiau timeseries T8. a: water supply, b: roading. River Road intake section noted in text is also marked here.

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Mason River

Waiau River

b Route 70 to Kaikōura Waiau Bridge

River Road Leader Road

Route 70 to Culverden

Fig. 8: Waiau timeseries T15. a: water supply, b: roading. dependant on the recovery of the Waiau Town 4 DISCUSSION water supply. During water restoration, excavations were required and excavation The lag in service restoration noted in Fig. 6b machinery physically blocked some roads. This and 8a is not due to priority of service, as it is the is why Waiau town roads do not reach full service policy of Hurunui district government to consider levels until close to 15 days (Fig. 8b) after the roads and water to be of equal priority and thus main seismic event, as both water supply have their own recovery teams and resources. restoration and repairs to excavated sections of While largely due to the size of network and local road needed to be completed. The quality of our terrain, it is initially due to the fact that repairs bridge dataset could be improved with could not be made without appropriate heavy supplementation of complete LoS data over time. equipment, and hence good road access. Much of The sources of bridge LoS used in our analysis are the river-intake-to-reservoir pipe section, marked incomplete as low-criticality bridges tend to be on the map, needed to be replaced however the excluded from our interviews and regional condition of the pipes was not known until heavy situation reports. excavators had cleared earth above the pipes – One reoccurring anecdote across many of our further delaying the restoration of the Waiau Rural interviews is associated with the public perception Scheme and emphasising the dependency on road of cordon management, most notably that of the access. Conversely, township road service was

27 Waiau end of Inland Road/Route 70. Prior to NZ Interest From the 14 November 2016 Mw 7.8 Transport Agency taking control of the Inland Kaikōura, New Zealand Earthquake. Bulletin of the Road, locals had freedom of movement where the New Zealand Society for Earthquake Engineering, 50(2): 85-93. road was navigable. This appeared to promote a 2) GeoNet (2016): Earthquake Details: M 7.8 Kaikoura sense of dissatisfaction when the NZ Transport Mon, Nov 14 2016. Retrieved December 2017, from Agency and later the New Zealand military began GeoNet: managing the cordon, which now only allowed www.geonet.org.nz/earthquake/2016p858000 service-critical vehicles through, under the 3) Gerald, G. L. (2016). The Economic Survival of premise that the road was too badly damaged for America's Isolated Small Towns. Boca Raton: CRC Press. normal use. This conflicted with public 4) Giovinazzi, S., Wilson, T., Davis, C., Bristow, D., perception of the current road level of service. Gallagher, M., Schofield, A., . . . Tang, A. (2011). Dissatisfaction with the new cordon restrictions Lifelines Performance and Management following was amplified due to its location (close to Waiau the 22 Feburary 2011 Christchurch Earthquake, New township). It was reported that some Inland Road Zealand: Highlights of Resilience. Bulletin of the residents were obstructed in returning to their New Zealand Society for Earthquake Resilience, 44(4): 402-417. homes. This also caused problems for farmers 5) Hatton, T., Kipp, R., Brown, C., & Seville, E. (2017). who had stock to look after. A novel adaptation to Assessing research priorities and practices following this disruption in road infrastructure was for the 2016 Kaikoura Earthquake. Australasian Journal residents to circumvent the cordon via private of Disaster and Trauma Studies, 21(2): 83-89. property (the exact location has not been marked 6) Howard, Q. (2015). The death and life of small New to protect anonymity). This cordon presented a Zealand towns. Back to the Future 2015 (pp. 1-10). New Zealand Planning Institute. complex issue as it prioritises physical wellness 7) Hughes, M. W., Nayyerloo, M., Bellagamba, X., and focused road recovery above the livelihoods Morris, J., Brabhaharan, P., Rooney, S., . . . Hutchison, and psychosocial welfare attached to locals S. (2017): Impacts of the 14th November 2016 returning home. The economic and psychological Kaikōura Earthquake on three waters systems in consequences for residents isolated from their , Marlborough and Kaikōura, New homes by the cordon may be investigated in Zealand: Preliminary observations. Bulletin of the New Zealand Society for Earthquake Engineering, further research. 50(2): 306-317. 8) Hurunui District Council. (n.d.). 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28 New Zealand Society for Earthquake Engineering, 50(2): 253-270. 15) (StatsNZ). (n.d.). Defining Urban and Rural New Zealand (archived). Retrieved 3 2018, from StatsNZ: http://archive.stats.govt.nz/browse_for_stats/Maps_ and_geography/Geographic-areas/urban-rural- profile/defining-urban-rural-nz.aspx 16) The United Nations Office for Disaster Risk Reduction [UNISDR]. (Not dated). Chart of the Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction . Retrieved December 2017

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