Representations of Others in Early Christian and Byzantine Art1 Ljubomir }vfila11ovi6
The Greek culture. Roman political concepts and Christian In U1at major work ofU1e fiftl1 centUI)'. 1he mosaics cycle in faith were 1J1c main clements dctcnnining BY7..an1inc state de. SanlaMariaMaggioreinRome(c. 432-437 CE). we can seeU1e velopment. The Christian faith insisted on equality bcrwccn firs1 auemp1 a1characlerizingccnain figures, while al 1he same people of different origin. so representations of the Others in time the typological emphasis is placed, in U,e same scene. on a Early Christian and By,.antinc an arc almosl always based on jux1aposi1ion offigurcs or clements which have no chronologi differences in way of dressing or in some other specific sym cal reason 10 be 1oge1hcr.' The mosl slriking example is un bols signifying an c1hnic group. In this paper. the focus is on doubtedly the panel of the meeting of Abraham and represen1a1ions of Blacks although images ofJew s, Go1hs and Melchi1.cdck: 1hc rwo figures occupy an impor1an1 position in other "Others·· sel the his1orical conte:-."t. the mosaic. and Abraham. accompanied by armed warriors, In Early Chris1ian and By1A1n1inc art. Je"ish people were emerges from U,e right-hand corner of the panel.' Typologi dislinguished by tJ1eir specific garmcnl used in rirnal practice, cally, lhe main person of 1he scene is not Abraham but and are included in many different scenes from Old and New Melchizedek. as is clearly expressed by 1he composi1ion and its Tcs1amcn1s. When we approach lhc world of images. we are central a-ds. There is one significant detail. moreo,·er. which struck by botJ1 lhe variely and complexity of the rcprcscnra cmphasi1.cs 1hc impor1ancc of1his charac1er: for 1he firs1 time. a tions of Jews in Byzantine iconography. Wl1eU1er it was the biblical personage wears a cos1un1e diffcrcnl from the classical illus1ra1ion of Old Tes1amcn1 1cx1s. 1hc visual 1ranscrip1ions kind. which had previously seemed unalterJble.' of Gospel narratives or the descriplion of Jesus· cnvironmcn1 In 1hc Bible, two passages (Numbers. I 5: 37-~ 1: and the scenes and selling from his life, Ihere were numerous Deuteronomy. 22: 11) deal with the Jewish type of dress, the reasons for painting Jews. The palh by which B}7,1ntine arl sanctifocaiion of the Jew's external appearance. reminding him ists "saw" or found Jewisb prototypes we shall be able only 10 of his duly 10 observe lhe commandments: the first concerns guess. We can bul question whether the image of the Jew in the tallit.'.md the second the prohibition of mixed ma1erials. Byzalllinc art was the rcflcclion of the lhcological ideas and One shot~d also add the 1e,1s which describe. not a mere de politics of the period. or whcU1er, on the contrary. ii r<:vcalcd a tail ofcoslUme, but a sign and which commands every Jew 10 search for some perhaps dis1an1 historical truth. carried out in bind his forehead with tefillin (Exodus. 13: J. 3:16: a deliberately objective and neutral manner. Deuteronomy. 6:4-9. 11:18).' These were the dis1inc1ive ele-
Titis ~per W:1.$ dQne :i.s a p.,;rt oftht course EllrlyChrltff(ln and By: menlS of Je,vish costume from the biblical period until the Middle festivals. The Jews were thus distinguished by this visible sign.' Ages when the Western Church required Jews to wear partiCIJ Consequcmly, tejil/i11 will be most conunonly represented lar items of clothing. The latter constraint did 001 exist in the as a characteristic 5Ymbol of Jews in Bywntimn. Byzantine Eastern Church and its art depicted a Jew unknown to Western an revived this sign of identity-a symbol of pride and faith art-tl1e Jew defined by his observance oftl1e conunandments and not a sign of infamy. Paintings. manuscripts and icons concerning bis ganneots and his external appearance in daily represented tefil!i11 at various times although we know they life. were no longer worn in public and tlms no longer constituted lfwe recall the biblical texts in question and their signifi a detail of the Jew's external appearance. A reflection of an cance in Judaism, it "ill help us to understand the importance earlier period by means of iconographical copying. the visual of the depiction of some details ofcostume in By1.a111inc art: history of the tefilli11 in B)'7.antium can contribute not only to And tl1e Lord spoke llllto Moses, saying, tl1e reconstitution of the image of the Jew, but also lo a deter Speak unto t11e cltildrea of Israel, and bid mination of the Byiantinc relationship 10 its Jewish commu them that they make fringes in the borders nities. Furthermore, this symbol co111ribu1es 10 a clearer un of their gannents throughout tl1eir genera derstanding of tl1e mechanism of iconograpltical models and tions. and that they put upon the finger of prototypes in By1.an1inc art. the borders a ribbon of blue: And it shall be One of the oldest existing mi1tia1ures showing tejilli11 10 unto you as a fringe, that ye may look upon appears on the fulJ page of Ez.ra in the Codex Amiati1111s I il1 and remember all the commandments of (Florence, Bibi. Med. Lourenziana) from the beginning of the the Lord, and do t11em; and that ye seek not eighth century." II is important to remark tliat a tefilli11 was after your own heart and your own eyes, af. only given 10 single indi\tjduals. bigh priests. priests or those 1cr which ye use 10 go awhoring: That ye seen as such, de1em1ined by tl1eir fimction, and never given to may remember, and do all my conunand a group. Witl1 tl1e to/Iii, U1e Jew's garment, the opposite phe ments, and be holy unto your God. I am the nomenon took place. Unlike the tefilli11, the ta/lit is essen Lord your God (Numbers 15:37-41 ). tially characteristic of a group of Jews. In the sixth century. The gannelll of t11e Jew must possess, at its four corners, tl1e ta/lit merged witl1 the classical type of garment. " II had an addition, wbicb distinguishes it ,;sibly from the nom1al narrow. dark-<:<>lored horizontal stripes and gammadia. II was clothing. The ziziot,' the fringes, which distinguish U1e Jew's used as a cos11une for characters of all kinds, as well as for clotl1es from tl1ose of other peoples, are a reminder of tl1e im prophets and apostles. perious demands of the divine commandments. which the Jew In post-iconoclastic art. examples arc numerous. At the cannot escape. They arc a reminder, also, of the holiness, the church of the Dormition of the Virgin in Daphni monastery sanctification of tl1e body which these garments envelop-tl1e (c. 1100),"the mosaic depicfu,g the Entry into Jemsalem and sanctity of the Jew before God. This text is one of the main the same scene in the Palatine Chapel at Palcnno in Sicily clcmems in the daily liturgy, in the morning and evening (mid-twelfth century)" show groups of inl1abi1an1s of the city prayers. This passage both establishes the difference in cloth witl1 their heads covered with pieces of striped fabric. Here. ing between Jews and other peoples and proclaims the imma the connection with the ta/lit is much clc:1rcr, as the stripes nence of tl1e God oflsracl. The Talmud mentions tejil/i11 which one sees on the garments also appear on the pieces of ta/lit were worn tlnougboul tl1e day. 8 The tefilli11 were worn from covering tl1e head. " The Paris Gospel (Bibi. Nat. gr. 74, fol. morning 10 evening, but no1 at night, on the Sabbath or on 41, twclflh ccnn,ry) represents the same cvcnt: " in front of the priest during the daily prayers, cithcr alone or in the community. The lhc cighH.'ICtllU-')' on ns up1X>iSCd model written by Cassiodorus in lhc sixth boxes contain lhe htmdwritten 1cx"l1 on p:irclunent of the. fo llowing pas• century. Revel-Neher 58. sage!; Exodus 13: 1-10 and 10:l 1-16. and DeutM>nomy6:4-9. 12 In Du.ra Europos the individual p3nel showing Moses re«iving the law Fringes on the four corners oflhetalllt, according to Numbe:n- I S:38-4 1. provides :i.n c;>,1rcmely clear example ofth e Jcw·s g:i.nncnt, the 1allltwith Lhezt:IOI 3ltaebed. See: Weitzmann. Kessler 131 . Paleo-Christian 3rt. how• 8 Rcvcl-Nahcr 56. ever, only reflected this cos1ume in 3 gcntnl wny.1nc mosl slikingfealun: of iL<; representation wa..<1 nol these short fringes which !railed dose lo tl1c 9 Oali1. 4:22. Jerome belwee:n 342 and 420 CE. He settled in Btthlebem in ground. but the ganne:nl itself. the 1(11/it 10 which the friL1g,es \\ert :111:iehed 386 CE where he studied Hebrew and transblcd the Bible from the origi nnd which wns crossed by bJOad stripes ordark fabric. nal in10 .L.'lt'in. 0. Demus. E, Dia. Bywntm~ Mosaics m Orcece,, Ho11os Lt,c"s and 10 TI1c oldest existing example of tefellm represented in art is one on the fore " Dophm (Cambridge. Massnchus.etu: Jfar\'ard UP. 1931 ). head ofZac haria shown on the sixth~ntu.ry mosaic in the apse ofthe ba silica of Eufnsius at Poree. I would like to thank to Professor He,vy E. Borsook. Message, 111 M0Ja1c1, The Royal Programme, ofNorman ~faguire for this infonnation. For details see:An n Tony and IICllr')' ~faguirc. " S,cdy(/tJQ.JJ87)(Sulfolk: The Boydell Pr&. 1990) 17-44. ..,• rhe Wall MooaicsofthcC.athedral of£ufrasiu.c; in i>oroc: Second Prelimi nary Report." Hort111Art111mMedtewilmm 6 (2000): t 59-181. especially 11 is a co1umoL1 gesture for the praying Jew, sec: R~vel-Nehe:r 58. 165-67. " A. Grabar, M1111a111ns by=anlines dt! la 81bl1otMqut! Nallonale (Paris II Amlarm11s I. The m-,nuscript was copied at Yeannomh. al the beginning of " 1939) fig, 35-40. 22 I\EPRESENTATI0NS OF OTHERS IN Ei\l\LY O0\JSTI,\N ,u,'D BYZ,u,'TINE ART Ilic enclosing walls of1hc city, a group ofc hildren carries palm perial majesly, are emhroned before an eleganl sereen like a branches. A group of Jews proceeds from U1e city gale wearing stage. They arc surrowidcd by U1e imperial guard wearing the 1hc brightly colored 1,111ics and U1e mantles which no longer torque as a sign of tlieir Gennanic origin. The torque has a have anytl1ing in common with the ta/lit. However, 1hc bearded simple shape wilh a kind of medall ion al the end. n,c last faces are framed by blue, red and white cowls thus identifying example of tl1e guards from imperial iconography 10 be exam them as the Jews. ined here is from the mosaic representation of emperor Jus The Talmud required the Jews always to cover 1hcir heads tinian in San Vilalc in Ravenna (c. 547, Figure I)." On 1hc as a sign of respect for the Creator." This precept was not of right hand side of tlie emperor, IWo guards have elaborale biblical origin, and, thus, is not found in the painting in Dura torques. Obviously, these torques were gold l'i th a cameo on Europos. " From the sixlh century onwards, the Jewish obli lhc front One soldier has a shield "ilh a monogram ofC hris!, gation to cover the head made its appearance in the art of Chi-Rho, as an indication of religion. After Uie Justinian era, By,.1n1ium. This custom. too. belonged to an image of the one can state tha1 torques were depic1ed as the symbol of cer Jew derived from tl1e reality of his daily spiritual life and his lain mililary saints, for example, S. Sergius and S. Bacchus. observation of the Law. This iconographic feature persisted in indicating their Otherness." B>711111inc and Post-By;,,intinc an. A good example of a rcpresen1a1ion of bo1h S. Sergius Goths, who accepted Christianity and were employed as and S. Bacchus 1ogcU1er is an cneauslic icon which was pre a pan of the imperial guard, were distinguished by tlieir par served in the church of St. Catherine on Mom,t Sinai (early ticular symbol as well, a torque, kind of a neck ring or collar. scvcnlh ccnlury), probably produocd in Cons1antinople." h rep This symbol persisted in various examples ofart and ii invari resents busts of 1wo very young soldiers, each crowned by a ably signifi es lhc rcprcscnta1ions of Go1hs as "barbarian·' sol• nin,bus and dressed in a gold chiton " i th a carmine clavus diers or guards. Probably, Ilic 1orquc was of Scandinavian ori and a while chlamys held in place by a gold clasp (Figure gin and we have a most famous representation of ii on tl1e 2)." Each of the pale fi gures holds a gold manyr's cross and sculplurc of Ille so-called Dying Gaul from Helleni slic s1ares directly ahead l'i th wide, liquid eyes. They give the period. " On tl1c silver Misori11111 of !he emperor Theodosius l impression of order and 101al obedience, wiUt their hair and issued 10 celebrate Decennalia in 388 are depic1ed tl1e em clothes carefully arranged. A tiny busl of Chris! noals bc1wccn peror wilh 1wo sons, 'l.llcnl.ian 11, and Arcadius.'° Figures of them. Later. 1J1e soldiers were clearly labeled " i th inscrip the Sacred Family. wearing diadems, fibulae and orbs of im- tions, S. Sergius 10 1hc left, S. Bacchus 10 1hc right Bui 1hcir The oovcring oft he head is nOl 3 biblical prcs,crip1ioo but ,uay have St..'U1ed sacrifice. As he w:1.S 1>3rtaking of !be sacrificial meal there. the emperor " during the &byloni,m Elcile and it h.u been adopeed f m;I by OrientaJ Jews, looked around but did 001see Sergius Md Bacchus. who were discO\'Cf(:d Jt isan expressionorlhcr~ul foarofGod, asopf)()5\':d to theChrislian ouL,;idc the temple singing hymns againsl idolatry. Maximianus had the: habit of praying bareheaded. Sec: S. Krsus.,;., ..T he Jewish Rile of Head twosoldien brought iosidc and Ol'dered lhM1to sacrifice and p.i11:tke in tl,e Covering during the TahnudigAge" in ed. J. Gutmann. Bea111y 1n 1/oJ,. rituaJ meal. Reciting Pilalm 13S aga.inM senseless images.. Sergius and ncss(NewYol'k. 1970)433-66. 1'he skullcap. ··kippa" oflhe modem Jew BaCC"hus rcfu.c:cd. .'-\I once. tJ,cy were stripped ofthei r belts, cloaks and golden is a result ofthiseuslom. 1orq11e-s(mamak1a). thcir symbols ofpower. and dressed instead in"omen's garments, Heavy chains were clamped around lheir necks. and in lhit fash Weiu.mann. ller'bi.'11 142. ion, they were paraded trough the city to the pa.lace, where Maximianus " pressed them about their betray:d ofhim .tnd the gods ofRome. Again. the S. B. Ridgway, He.llenlJttc Sculpmn: I. The Styles ofca. 33/.200 BC offictn responded with a recitation of Christian doctrine. Furious. " (Wi8¢ 23 ATHANOR XX LJUBOMIR MILANOVI identity would have been immediately apparent from their crowns replaced their former attribute (the torque), it was an maniakion, here of gold, decorated with two rectangular gems indication that they were fully integrated in the pantheon of or medallions on either side of one central oblong cabochon Byzantine saints, rather than characterized by their Other- gem as insignia of their former position as imperial guards. ness. The icon is believed to date from early seventh century.25 Early Christian and Byzantine representations of Blacks One can also mention an example from the late seventh- in art are based on the Greco-Roman attitude and visual tradi- century representing the full-length figure of S. Sergius. This tion. Byzantine art did not often depict images of Blacks. Most icon of S. Sergius has a position of honor to the right of the commonly, they are found as personifications of the nations, apse on a mosaic panel in the church of S. Demetrius, another thus Otherness, in the scene of Pentecost, and are seen as the soldier-saint, at Thessalonica.26 S. Sergius is depicted as an icons of the rare Black saints. The Greco-Roman visual tradi- orant, wide-eyed, staring directly ahead. He wears an elabo- tion and written sources connected all dark-skinned people rately decorated chlamys with tablion and a chiton attached with Ethiopians whether they were describing Ethiopians in at the shoulder by a fibula.27 Around his neck is the character- the land of their origin or their expatriated congeners in Egypt, istic maniakion. Attached to the gold neckband are four small Greece or Italy.33 The distinguishing mark of an Ethiopian was medallions or gems, which encircle a large central medallion. the color of the skin. Though not unaware of other physical As in the Sinai icon, here, too, S. Sergius’ face appears young, characteristics of the Ethiopians, the Greeks and Romans clas- austere, though, to the modern eye, effeminate. What appear sified as Ethiopians all those people who had in common a today as feminine features were often used to evoke youthful- certain pigmentation, which they attributed to environment, ness in the portraiture of the period. especially the heat of the sun. After the iconoclastic period the iconography of these two There are many examples of images of Blacks in soldier saints is revived.28 They are always represented as a antiquity,34 recognizable through physiognomic characteristics pair, sometimes in military garment with a cross in their hands including dark skin and dark curly hair. Greek depictions of as a symbol of martyrdom and the torque as a symbol of be- the Blacks are preserved primarily on vases. Frequently they longing to the Others as we can see on the example in enamel are warriors emphasizing the Others in mythological scenes. from the Pala d’ Oro in Venice (early twelfth century).29 In Sometimes they represented Black people with white skin but the church of the Dormition of the Virgin in the Daphne mon- with other Black characteristics such as: flattened nose, thick astery near Athens (c. 1100), they are represented with crosses lips, broad chest, tightly curly hair. and swords in their hands.30 They continued to be represented The depiction of Pygmies in antiquity occurs often, espe- as young and beardless; around their necks, they wear torques cially in Roman art. There are surviving examples in Roman but this time they are stylized with imitations of gems. Later painting in genre scenes such as hunting with dark-skinned on, in the Paleologian period, the torque as an iconographic and dark-haired Pygmies, in the so-called Nilotic scenes of a symbol of these two saints was omitted. For example, in the Pompeiian frescos (Figure 3)35 where small-sized people with church of Archangel Michael of the Lesnovo monastery (c. big heads and tiny limbs are hunting huge crocodiles and a 1347-48, present-day Macedonia) there are images of S. hippopotamus. Romans appropriated Pygmy depictions from Sergius and S. Bacchus in the garments of noblemen.31 They the Greeks and usually rendered the figures with a big head, still have crosses in their hands but now have golden and be- small body and the exaggerated phallus as a symbol of be- jeweled crowns on their heads as the symbol of their martyr- longing to the Others, thus uncivilized people.36 dom—instead of the previous symbol—the torque.32 Once the The Greeks and Romans, in explaining physical differ- 25 Age of Spirituality 548. 31 S. Gabeli, Manastir Lesnovo (Beograd: Stubovi kulture, 1999) 119, fig. 50. 26 E. K. Fowden 32. 32 From the time of Julian onward several usurpers were proclaimed emper- 27 Orans or orant (Lat., lit. “ praying”), the name given to the early Christian ors by setting a maniakion on their head as a form of crown. This custom posture of prayer: the body upright and frontal, and the open hands lifted to seems to have disappeared after the sixth century. See: Ammianus shoulder height to either side. Used to present piety on many 3rd century Marcellinus, trans. C. J. Ralfe, vol. II (Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard pagan and Christian sarcophagi, the posture was adopted for innumerable UP, XX, 4) 16-18. catacomb figures, whether tomb owners or Old Testament characters (e.g., Daniel) depicted at the moment of their salvation from death. See: The 33 The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church, ed. F. L. Cross (New Oxford dictionary of Byzantium, vol. 1-3. editor in chief, A. P. Kazhdan York: Oxford UP, 1994) 474-475. (New York: Oxford UP, 1991) 1531. 34 F. L. Snowden, Jr. Blacks in Antiquity (Cambridge Massachusetts: The 28 L. Réau 290. Belknap Press of Harvard UP, 1970). 29 La Pala d’ Oro, Il Tresoro di San Marco, ed. H. R. Hahnolser (Firenze: 35 A. Maiuri, Roman painting, ed. A. Skira (Geneva, 1953) 111. Sansoni Editore, 1965) 57. 36 Pygmy with protuberant stomach on Kabeiric Skyphos. Boston, Museum 30 O. Demus, E. Diez, Byzantine Mosaics in Greece, Hosios Lucas and of Fine Arts, 99. 534 See: Snowden 37. Daphni (Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard UP, 1931) fig. 68-69. 24 REPRESENTATIONS OF OTHERS IN EARLY CHRISTIAN AND BYZANTINE ART ences, which they recognized as existing between themselves changing the character metaphorically expressed through and other people, accounted for the characteristics of the Ethio- changing the color was developed in Early Christian and Byz- pian by an environmental theory in the same way that they antine society by means of Blacks. Patristic literature frequently explained the characteristics of the Scythians, Thracians, or calls upon the emblematic Ethiopian to portray the power of any other people who were unlike them.37 The Greek distin- spiritual cleansing in removing the blackness of sin. For ex- guished between Greeks and non-Greeks, the latter being the ample, even to Jerome,42 the baptism of the Ethiopian eunuch43 Others, a practice which the Romans continued by illustrat- in Acts 8:26-40 is proof that although not in accordance with ing racial extremes different from themselves. However, they nature, the Ethiopian can be called to salvation through the did not attach any special stigma to color, regarding blond gift of grace, proving, at least theoretically, that Christ came hair or blue eyes a mere geographical accident. Furthermore, into the world to wash the blackamoor white. The Christians they did not develop special racial theories about the inferior- made somewhat similar use of the classical proverb ÁÆè\ïðá ity of dark-skinned peoples versus light-skinned ones. Racial óìZ÷åéí, to wash an Ethiopian white. The Ethiopians, the diversity was explained in a uniform manner that applied to blackest men on earth living at the ends of the world, became the Ethiopian as well as to any other people. Consequently, a symbol of the peoples out of whom the Church was destined any particular racial theory about dark-skinned peoples was to grow. They became integral parts of an imagery of spiritual completely absent.38 blackness and whiteness.44 This tradition persisted. In fact, the early Christians used The Moses in question was an Ethiopian who had been a the Ethiopian as a prime motif in the language of conversion slave of a sun-worshipper, but his master cast him away as and as a means of emphasizing through example their con- insubordinate. He then became a robber, perhaps a murderer. viction that Christianity was to include all mankind. That the He was famous for his great physical strength and endurance Ethiopian figure was so deployed was in many ways a conve- about which many stories were told, and this caused him to be nient symbol for certain patterns of Christian thought. Fol- made the leader of a band of robbers. He heard of the Asketes lowing Ephoros (fourth century BCE), Cosmas Indicopleustes of Nitria and was greatly impressed, so he went to visit them.45 divided the world in his Christian topography as follows: the On reaching the valley, he met St. Isidore, the priest of northern part of the world belongs to the Scythians, the south- Baramus, who took him to St. Macarius, and Moses remained ern to the Ethiopians, the east is inhabited by the Indians, and in the valley as a monk. Many of his sayings appear in the the West by the Celts.39 The Byzantine man called all the in- Apophthegmata under the heading of ‘Moses.’46 Though an habitants of Africa from the Mediterranean shores and as far earnest monk he suffered greatly from constant temptations as the equator ÁÆè\ùø. Following the classical tradition, they of fornication and these he tried to overcome by severe toil, believed that the word ÁÆè\ùø comes from the verb α\τω = spending his nights in carrying water to the more distant mo- êá\ù. Thus, ÁÆè\ùø means “ the person whose face has been nastic cells. At length his health gave way and he was for a burnt [by the sun]”.40 Along with the term ÁÆè\ùø appears time sick and cared by St. Isidore. At length he was restored the name ÌáØñé [= black]. The Byzantine authors used this to health and found himself at the same time delivered from term in general for those who belonged to the black-skinned temptations that had beset him. After conquering these, he people. was ordained priest and lived to the age of seventy-five.47 The Aesopian fable of the Ethiopian who was vigorously Although there are other depictions of black saints (e. g. scrubbed and washed to no avail, illustrating the permanence church of Virgin Mary of the Matei monastery, c.1355, etc.), of nature, appears in biblical literature in variations in the I will discuss here two unusual representations of the black prophet Jeremiah’s text (13:23) “can the Ethiopian change saints in the Serbian monastery Lesnovo (c.1347-48, the his skin or the leopard his spots?”41 Similar attitudes toward present-day Macedonia).48 They are depicted in full figure in 37 The Oxford dictionary of Byzantium, vol. 1, editor in chief, A. P. Kazhdan was an Ethiopian, and he was a eunuch. See The Interpreter’s dictionary (New York: Oxford UP, 1991) 733. of the Bible, vol. 2 (New York: Abingdon Press) 178. 38 Snowden 2-7. 44 Snowden 196. 39 V. Christides, “The Image of the Sudanese in Byzantine sources,” 45 Ascetism (σκησις, “exercise, training”), the practice of austerity and self- Byzantinoslavica XLIII (1982): 8-17. discipline; an ideal for all Christians, but especially associated with monks and hermits. Askesis was sometimes used as a synonym for monastic life; 40 V. Christides 8-17. asketerion for a monastery or hermitage; and asketes for a monk, nun, or solitary. See: The Oxford dictionary of Byzantium, vol. 1-3. editor in chief, 41 J. Winkler, “Lollianos and the Desperados,” The Journal of Hellenic Stud- A. P. Kazhdan (New York: Oxford UP, 1991) 203. ies C (1980): 160-166. 46 Apophthegmata Patrum Aegytiorum, see D. L. O’ Leory, The Saints of 42 C. Prager, “ ‘If I be Devil:’ English Renaissance response to the proverbial Egypt (Amsterdam: Philo Press, 1974) 206. and ecumenical Ethiopian,” Journal of Medieval and Renaissance Stud- ies 17 (Fall 1987): 260. 47 O’ Leory 206-207. 43 The narrative in Acts (8:27-70) seems to emphasize two things: the man 48 Gabeli 203. 25 AHIANOR XX UUBOMIRMILAi'JOVIC the narthex of this monastery's catholicon. St. Moses from were changed 10 become sinless (while). This rather rare rep Elhiopia. inscribed as, 0 Al'(IOC) MOHCY (C)O Al0HO'I', is resentation of Black saints in the Lesoovo monastery is used dcpiclcd on the north part of the southwest pillar wearing a for moralizing reasons. There is a similar example in 1hc gal monk's ganuent, blessing "i1h his right hand and in the 01her lery of the nanhex in ll,e ca1hedral of St. Sophia in Ohrid holding a scroll." On the same pillar near by is depicted St. (c. 1345-1348), where they are included among olber hemlil Barnar, 0 Al"(IOC) BAPBAPOC. whose name signified his saims." 11,e kletor or this gallery chapel is lhc same person origin (Figure 4).'0 He is dressed in a short tunic l\ilh short who built and decorated lhc monasteryofLesnovo, lhe Serbian sleeves and in his right hand holds a cross. Both his hands, despot Jovan Oliver, and ob,~ously for tha1 reason ll1e icono however, are tied with chains and bound \\ith a metal neck graphic programs and choice of sainls arc similar." lace around his neck, which became his iconographic anribute. According 10 the Byzantine iconographic tradition, Blacks Bolh saints had a dark flesh (incamadine) indicaling their are also shown, chieny in the Pentecost scenes. among the ethnic origin. They have whjte, curly hair and long whjte personifications of1 bc "nations'' lo whom the aposllcs preached beards as monk's allributesaod an indication of their advanced lhc Gospel as indicated by Ilic AClS 2:5-12."lconography of age. Moses, so called Murin (black), is an Ethiopian sai111 and Pentecost in Byzantine art was established by 1he sixlh according to the Byzantine sinaxar is celebra1ed on August cenlury."Thc carlics1 images of the Pcn1ccos1 show rays de lhc 2&•. The ganncnts and a11ribu1cs of the saints arc depicted scending on tJ,e lwelve apostles, who stand to either side of according lo the stories of their lives. Moses spent a long time the Vrrgin, her presence signaling 1hc significanceofll,c event Jiving in the Egyplian desen. He cvcn1ually became 1hc abbol in Church hislory. The Pcmccosl scene assumed a different of 1hc monaslcry and made mies for Ilic monaslic life. form after lconoclasm."Tbe mosl common represen1a1ion is St. Barbar led ll1e life of a lllief and a robber, 100, before with sy111hronon-a sigma shaped !able around which 1hc he look monas1ic vows. There cxis1 four versions of his life. apostles arc seated. s~,· rays descend on 1hcm in 1he form of Mos1 often, it is said 1ha1 St. Barbar was an Egyp1ia11 pirate longues, a metaphor of their future mission llrrough all na who decided to go to ll1e desert after a shipwreck. He con tions among whom 1hc aposlles would preach Ille Gospel. In fessed in a small church and asked the priest for chains. Later side 1hc arch-shaped opening in the ccnlcr of lhc semicircle on, St. Barbar went 10 lhc mountain 10 atone for his sins and arch at leasl two, but often more figures personify the longues as ll1e sign of !tis repentance he pul 011 lbe chains and wore and 1hc 11a1ions according 10 Acls 2:5 and 2:9-1 1. In some lhem for lhc res1 of his life. He died, accidcmally, oftJ,c wound compositions they are inscribed as ywooo.1 and (!)1>).0.1 means from an arrow. Common to both of these Black saints are ll1e "tongues" and "nations: ·" episodes of tJ1e previous bandi1 life-s1yle. Bo1h of them arc In some cases, 1hc "nations" arc rcprcscmed \\ilh only very similarly depicted bul each of 1hem had a characteristic two persons and usually one of ll1em is Black. An early ex iconographic symbol. Moses is a monk and a teacher and tJ1ere ample exis1s in the Gospel Lectionary now preserved in lhc fore he bolds a scroll. St. Barbar is an ascetic and a manyr Monlh Al hos. Codex 587 (c. 1059)." Thc placement of 1hc and for 1har rc.1son he holds a cross witJ, chains as his a1- aposilcs is 1he same, ll,e only diJI'erence is that 1he lwo per 1ribu1c. They arc included in tJ1e Lesnovo iconograpllic pro sonifications of the "nalions'· in the semicircle's arch arc de gram for special reasons and since the narlhcx was a center of picted as Blacks. They arc similarly dressed in 1hc some kind monas1ic worship. lhcy arc given 1ha1 place in Ilic call,olicon of lunic and wear 1urba11s on !heir heads."'One of them is of the monaSlery. They represenl exan,ples of repenlance and beardless and signifies a young person and 1hc 01hcr has a salvation e\'en after the life of sin. Dcspi1c the kind of life 1ha1 shon while beard, lhc indication of an older man. A similar lhcsc 1wo Black men lived, 1hrough baptism and prayer, lhcy example of this type is the scene of the Pen1ecos1 from the .. P. Devos." Saini Je.:,\n Cass1en el s.,int Moiu I' EthiopienAppendiee. 'La diss. (Al')ll Mawr, 1963) 181- 183. \·ol.tutCde l"ime. · Anale-t.ra Bolltmduma, rt,mt crt1iqut d'hagiogr'1phie. vol 103 (Bruxelles: Socie16dcs Bollandistcs, 1985}: 6 1-74. >• F..arl iesl represcnt;11ion with Virgin Mary is from Rabbul;i Gospel. sixth century. S«: (l Schiller, lkmwgraphie der chmtliche,i Kunst. DteK,rche. ,. H. OcM1aye. "Les Actcs de S, Brubaru&. .. Analecta &>llandrano. rt\'1tt &tnd 4. I (GOtersloh: GOtersloher \'erglogsbau.s Gerd Ma.I\!\, 1976) 14• crt.riq1'e d 'hag1ograph1e, vol. 29 ( Bruxelles: SocictC des Boll andistcs, 1910) 18. 276-288. A. Gral»r. "Le ffl,bne: ieoo<>gr:iphjque de-la Pcnlec61e)·· L ·a,•r de !afin de Aocording to C. Grozd.mo,~Ohndskoto s1d110 slrkarsNo odXIV\iek (Ohrid: l'ontiquae et du MtJy·en tJge. v. I (Paris: College de Fran<;e. 1968) : 6 15- " l~ ilut ia lslOriju umetn()Sli B~d. 1980) 76, most likel)'thc ch.!pcl in 627. the g11,llel')' is depicted sorneti.ine after the beginning ofp.,1inting in lhe c:1tboli, con ofthe l.esnoYo monastery. Thc)\'.:31'S are around 1345-1348. ,. Popovich 182. Ku11or (KTI"itwp). founder (kllt1CJ). palron or owner of a.11 eccles.i:lstic:il S. P. P..?lek3nidis, P. C. Christou, Ch. 'l'ltioumis, S. K. ~ad.as, Tire TreaSJmu institution (a c:hurch. monasl'-"): gurokomeion. etc) and iis properties, See: ofMowu Athos: /llummate.d Mamucripts. v. 1. (A1hens: I (1974). The Oxford O,cnonaryof8y-0.11tmm, vol. 1-3. edit or in chic.f, A P. Kv.hdan J975(vol. ll))fol. 213. (New York: Oxfo«I UP. 1991) 1160. ,. Turlxln: a ~ rticular style ofh eaddress uom by llletl ofthe Moh:immed:m " I,. J. 0 . 1>opc)\•ich,Person!ficattons m Paleaeologa11 Pamtmg (J 261 -1453). faith. ofobsc ure Oriental origin, A scarfo f fin~ linen. oonon or silk folded 26 REPRESEls,ATIOl Pala d'Orosenamel in Venice from the early twelfth ccn111ry." amples alone show that there was no realistic basis, etlmo In the middle of the sigma-shaped table arc two men as a per graphically speaking. for the choice of types and cosnnnes. sonification ofli te nations. One is depicted witl1 white skin and Tbe mosaic shows us 1101 only the religious purpose of these wearing an elaborate. probably imperial ganncnt "itl1 loros and images, 1>111 ils political coment in tl1e church oftl1e saint pro divitisio11. Another man has a dark skin and he is half-naked, an tector of tl1e powerful Republic of Ve1tice. Depicted as a po obvious reference to his Othemess. He wears only a sbon litical metaphor of a world power, signifying Venetian leader camisia around himself. the while background dccora1ed wilh ship in the Fonrtl1 Crusade against the Christian Byzantine black spots imitating a leopard skin."° The tradition of repre Empire, its ambition 10 commercially and politically domi senting wild. uncivilized people half-naked and wearing animal nate that pan of the world is manifest" skins called ka111/l(/rog derives from classical Greek In later, Paleologian painting tl1e Pentecost is usually de mythology.•• Obviously, tl1e Black figure is lite personification picted in a l1111ette, in a rectangular flat surface and very sel of tl1eAfrican continent. Sometimes in similar compositions of dom on a vaull .., Representation of ll1e .. nations" in lite scene the Pentecost. in the semicircular niche there will be a group of of the Pcmccost becomes the second choice of the Paleologian people instead of two figures. Such is the case oftheMelissande painters. From that period. the "na1ions" arc usually depicted Psaller (c. 1131-1144) where six figures are depicted." Among in the small groups, which consisted of a king and a Black. them a Black is included, dressed in the while shon twtic, bare The earliest example of tltis kind of representation of Blacks footed, with the characteristic physiognomy of Black peoples. in the scenes of the Pentecost is from tl1c church of Virgin His hair is curly and he wears a large caning. Periblcptos in Ohrid, (c. 1294-95, present-day Macedo1tia. Fig More common are representations of the Pentecost "itl1 me 6). The composition consists of apostles arranged around many differelll "peoples and nations" in order to con,•ey the a table. which is cu1Ycd around an actual window. On either idea of the world,vidc apostolic mission. The most elaborate side of the window are two pairs of figures. One pair repre example of this kind is the representation of the Pentecost in sellled kings, clad in elaborate royal costtune. including loros, the west dome of the chtuch of San Marco in Venice from tl1e possibly a predecessor of the personification of Cosmos in thirteenth century (Figure 5).•' The personifica1ions of the "na another iconographic version oftltis sccne. .. The other pair of tions" arc depicted between the windows. The reason for tltis figures is dark-<:omplected. suggesting Blacks. These two arc arrangement can be e,q,lained through the actual physical set dressed in some kind of d 1ito11, white with dark stripes, which ting: the sp.1ccs between the windows of the dome ·s drum of falls from one shoulder, and tl1ey are barefooted. in order 10 fered tl1c space for figmative decoration. There are sixteen contrast civilized auributes versus "barbarian•· ones. On their sp3ces. tl1e exacl number of"nations" enumerated in the Acts. heads, they wear a kind of turban, made of wltile fabric. It is TI1e personification of the "nations" in San Marco is cenainly possible tliat tl1ey hold a spear in their hands. 1n a scene in the among the most illleresti.ng represemations of Others in an. church of the Savior of Zita monastery in Serbia (c. I 309- There is 110 other extant of the Pen1ccos1 that has as many 13 16), we have representation of a Black also depicted witl1 fig11rcs of the "peoples and nations," namely tl1iny-two. Other turban on ltis head. and dressed in a nutic wrapped around preserved Byzantine iniages contain sbcteen fi&'lires as the larg• him." 011 !tis feet. he has a kind of sandal. He holds a spear est number. The doubled number in San Marco is 1101 me and a shield in his hands. In the chtuch of St. Demetrios in chanical duplication: between each two figures forming a pair Pee (c. 1345), the "nations·· are depicted behind the apostles. there are always some variations in costume, at least in color. Near the figure wcari11g royal ganncnts is a black person." and often also in other details as well. especially the headgear. He is half-naked wi tl1 a turban and witl1 large earrings. The pairs consist of a bearded man and beardless youth. The Blacks are also depicted in a group representing the "na Eh')'Ptians are rendered as Moors, with dark skin but without tions" in scenes other tl1an the Pcntccos1. For example in tl1e any other physiognomical characteristics of Blacks. These ex- composition ofDescendents ofNoah fotmd in tl1e (Vat.Gr. 746) around thehc-.1d. Sec: R. T. Wilcox. 11Ut Dtctrono.ryofcostume(Ne w Yori:.: ., 0 . Demus. TheMOU11c-s ofSan.\l,,rco m ICnlCt'. TheElewmrhandT'rt>elflh Ch:irle., Scribner's Sons. 1969) 350. M:imL~pt is probably from the im• Centimes, vol. l .(Ohic.ago:The UofChicagoP. l984) lS3-lS4. p.;rial worbhop in Constaininople signified with represen1.:uion of 1heOth• ers ,,ith turb.am risinspowcr of'lhc Turks Scldzuk in the Byr.untine neigh .. J. J. Nol'\\ich. A Hmoryofft-nice (New York: Alfred A. Knopf. 1982) borlJOO J.o. Palod'Oro31. M. Goridis. M.. '·La rq,rtSentation de$ 'n:i.tions' dam fa peiotnre post· " b)7..a ntine, ·· 8y=a11hon. )-..'XXJX (1969): 86-1 03. Wilcox 55 . Cam,sfa inaneienl Greece.. a short tunic. The root of the word • " in Byzantine C.'r.1. an und¢rgarmt:al to protect the robe from body wear. .. There are $C\'eral lypes of represenlation ofth e persOl'1i!i~ 1i on of Hades. Soc Popovich 139-1 S6. 61 K, D.ud,emasserts that Her:ik.les'"lio111sskin andelubare nOI the mark.ct of ei\'iliY.ation. bu1 oftheouiside ...· ·nie lion skin w;is symbol ofHetaklcs' $, R:i.dojC-iC.. Swro 1rptko 1llkar1tvo (.Btograd: Nolit , 1967) 85 -1 75. ambiguity, civili7,cd and sawgc 3ccordin,g 10 ~ Schull1., ··Hcraklcs and 1he doe:11focs of m)1hography," diss., \':mderbilt Uni\'ers.ity, 1997, 23. 6$ RadojtiC 85-17S. 6? Schiller 1-1 -1 8. 27 ATHANOR XX LJUBOMIR MILANOVI composition of Descendents of Noah found in the (Vat.Gr. Barbaria in which those beyond it lived. There was definite 746) Octateuch from the twelfth century among images of dif- contempt for the latter, which gradually decreased particu- ferent ethnic groups of people, Blacks are included (Figure larly after the introduction of Christianity. Roman legacy was 7).69 They are characterized by their curly hair, half-naked bod- transmitted to Byzantine art and as we have already seen from ies, bare feet and spears in their hands, obviously signifying the above-cited examples, they used different kinds of sym- the Others—savages. bols to emphasize the Others but that was only for the purpose For Christian artists in Early Christian and Byzantine of signifying their origin. It should be stressed that there was art, it made no difference whether one was as racially differ- no racial discrimination either in the Classical and Roman ent as the Scythian or the Ethiopian; of no importance was the worlds or in the Byzantine Empire. region of the world or the cultural group from which a man This paper has examined only a selection of the represen- came. Color was inconsequential, they regarded as Black all tations of Others in Byzantine art. Many more examples can men who had not been illumined by God’s light and consid- be found in the illustrated chronicles such as that of Skylitzes.70 ered all men, regardless of the color of the skin, as potential However, despite all the iconographic equanimity, Byzantines Christian converts, and thus equal. still regard their neighbors as an uncivilized people and this The images discussed here are not the only representa- attitude is best illustrated in the poem of Kassia directed with tions of Black figures in Early Christian and Byzantine art. venomous spite against Armenians: This study concentrates only on the depiction of naturally dark skinned peoples. Therefore, they are metaphoric images of “The most terrible race of the Armenians certain types of people and their geographic regions. How- Is deceitful and evil to extremes, ever, there are representations of demons and devils, usually Mad and capricious and slanderous depicted with dark pigment (incarnate), but they belong to an And full of deceit, being greatly so by nature. another category of figures. For example, many of the per- Once a wise man said of them: sonifications of Hades in the Descent into Limbo or the Last Armenians are evil even when they are obscure. Judgment, are depicted with dark flesh. Not only are demonic On being honored they become more evil; figures painted black but so, too, are the shades of the under- On acquiring wealth they [become] more evil on the whole! world, signifying the darkness of their nature. However, this But when they become extremely wealthy and honored, must remain a subject for exploration in a subsequent paper. They appear to all as evil doubly compounded.”71 The Byzantines inherited from the Greco-Roman world the conception of the division of mankind into two parts, the Romania, which included those within their Empire and the Vanderbilt University 69 Constantinople’s Seralski codex, eight books, album of the twenty volumes la Bibliothèque National de Madrid (Venice, 1979) passim. of the report of the Archaeological Institute in Constantinople (Munich: Art Institution K. Kuna, 1907). 71 S. Jr. Vryonis, Byzantine institutions, society and culture, vol. 1,“The Imperial Institution and Society” (New York: Aristed D. Caratzas, Pub- 70 A. Grabar, M. Mananssacas, L’illustration du manuscrit de Skylitzès de lisher, 1997) 122. 28 t\THANORXX LJUBO~UR l',,IILANO\'IC i:· • 3 Pygm,es lmntlng ( abon1J, •gu::J lllppopotamus. crocodiles N les 2nd fre.JC . re 4 s,. Moses and Ss. (left) F1gu ·. l Lhen:111.hcxofthc 8llrlxlr. Fte$CO u 1347• /.,e.sn Figure 5. Pentecost. Mosaic, begining of the 13th century, S. Marco Venice, west dome. Figure 4 from Otto Demus The Mosaics of San Marco in Venice, The Twelfth Centuries, vol.1 (Chicago:The University of Chicago Press, 1984). [right] Figure 6. Pentecost. Fresco, c. 1294-1295, Church of The Virgin Peribleptos, Ohrid, Macedonia. Courtesy of Professor Ljubica D. Popovich. [below] Figure 7. Descendents of Noah. Types of people. Octateuch, 12th century, Bib. Vat. Rome, Gr 746, folio. 60. Constantinople’s Seralski codex, eight books, album of the twenty volumes of the report of the Archaeological Institute in Constantinople (Munich: Art Institution K. Kuna, 1907). 31