BEDZED Sustainable Living

Where is Bedzed? BEDZED Sustainable living Beddington Zero Energy Development What makes Bedzed a sustainable community? (BedZED) was built in • Transport - Cars are discouraged; the project encourages public transport, cycling, and 2002 in Hackbridge, walking, and has limited parking space. Car pooling/sharing occurs- City Car Club. London, England. Residents are encouraged to use this environmentally friendly alternative to car ownership; an on-site selection of vehicles is available for use.

• Encourage eco-friendly transport—Electric and liquefied-petroleum-gas cars have priority What is Bedzed? over cars that burn petrol and diesel, and electricity is provided in parking spaces for charging It was the UK’s first large-scale mixed use electric cars. sustainable community, with 100 homes, office space for around 100 workers and community • Accessible transport - five minutes’ walk of Hackbridge station (LONDON) / facilities. It uses environmentally friendly Tramlink service from Croydon or Wimbledon to Mitcham Junction station, which is housing and is a low carbon neighbourhood. It within 15 minutes’ walk of BedZED. promotes a more sustainable lifestyle. • Zero energy—the project is designed to use only energy from renewable sources generated on site. There are 777 m² of solar panels. The energy provided for the community comes from woodchips from waste timber that would otherwise be sent to the landfill.

• Energy efficient—the houses face south to take advantage of solar gain, are triple glazed, and have high thermal insulation. No need for central heating.

• Water efficient—Most rain water falling on the site is collected and reused. Appliances are chosen to be water-efficient and use recycled water when possible.

• Low-impact materials—Building materials were selected from renewable or recycled sources within 35 miles of the site, to minimize the energy required for transportation.

• Waste recycling—Refuse-collection facilities are designed to support recycling. Sustainable living in Curitiba Brazil Curitiba is a capital city of the Parana state in Brazil. Nearly two Reducing Car Use million people live there. The city  The bus rapid transit system uses triple section bendy buses. It carries has had an urban master plan since two million passengers a day. The bus fare is the same wherever you go. the 1968. It is an excellent example No one lives more than 400 metres from a bus stop. of managing urban growth in a  The bus system is an ‘express’ system- pre pay stations and bus only sustainable way. The master plan lanes. includes social, economic and  The same cheap fair is paid for all journeys- good for poor residents. environmental programmes.  Over 200km of bike paths in the city. Curitiba is aiming to be a sustainable city  The bus and bike systems have caused car use to be 25% lower than in 1. The overall aims are to improve the environment, reduce other cities in Brazil. pollution and waste and improve the quality of life of the residents. 2. The city has a budget of $600 million to spend every year. 3. Curitiba is working towards sustainability in three ways: a) Reducing car use. Good recycling schemes b) Plenty of open spaces and conserved natural environments. • 70% of rubbish is recycled- 1200 trees saved per day c) Good recycling schemes. • Residents in poorer areas are given food and bus tickets as a reward for bringing their recycling to a collection centre. Plenty of open spaces and conserved natural environments  Green space has increased from 0.5m2 per person in 1970 to 52m2 per person in 1990.  There are over 1000 parks and natural areas- many of these are in areas prone to flooding so that the land is still useful.  Residents have planted 1.5 million trees.  Builders are given tax breaks in the city if their development includes green space. KIBERA, Nairobi, Kenya in East Africa What is Urbanisation? Sustainable Urban Living Traffic Management

This is an increase in the amount of people living in urban areas such Sustainable urban living means being able to live in cities in ways that do Urban areas are busy places with many people travelling by different as towns or cities. In 2007, the UN announced that for the first time, not pollute the environment and using resources in ways that ensure modes of transport. This has caused urban areas to experience different more than 50 % of the world’s population live in urban areas. future generations also can use then. traffic congestion that can lead to various problems.

Where is Urbanisation Water Conservation Energy Conservation Environmental problems happening? This is about reducing the amount Using less fossil fuels can reduce • Traffic increases air pollution Urbanisation is happening of water used. the rate of climate change. which releases greenhouse all over the word but in • Collecting rainwater for • Promoting renewable energy gases that is leading to climate LICs and NEEs rates are gardens and flushing toilets. sources. change. much faster than HICs. This • Installing water meters and • Making homes more energy is mostly because of the toilets that flush less water. efficient. Economic problems Social Problems rapid economic growth • Educating people on using less • Encouraging people to use • Congestion can make people • There is a greater risk of they are experiencing. water. energy. late for work and business accidents and congestion is a Causes of Urbanisation Creating Green Space Waste Recycling deliveries take longer. This can cause of frustration. Traffic can cause companies to loose also lead to health issues for The movement of people from rural to Creating green spaces in urban More recycling means fewer money. pedestrians. Rural - urban migration (1) urban areas. areas can improve places for resources are used. Less waste people who want to live there. reduces the amount that Congestion Solutions Push Pull • Provide natural cooler areas for eventually goes to landfill. • Widen roads to allow more people to relax in. • Collection of household waste. traffic to flow easily. • Natural disasters • More Jobs • Encourages people to exercise. • More local recycling facilities. • Build ring roads and bypasses • War and Conflict • Better education & • Reduces the risk of flooding • Greater awareness of the to keep through traffic out of • Mechanisation healthcare from surface runoff. benefits in recycling. • Drought • Increased quality of life. city centres. • Lack of employment • Following family members. • Introduce park and ride Unit 2 schemes to reduce car use. When the birth rate exceeds the death • Encourage car-sharing schemes Natural Increase (2) rate. in work places. Urban Issues & Challenges • Have public transport, cycle Increase in birth rate (BR) Lower death rate (DR) lanes & cycle hire schemes. Sustainable Urban Living Example: BedZED • Having congestion charges • High percentage of • Higher life expectancy due to discourages drivers from population are child-bearing better living conditions and Background & Location Sustainable Strategies entering the busy city centres. age which leads to high diet. fertility rate. Traffic Management Example: London • Improved medical facilities BedZED is near Croydon in SE • Rainwater is collected and • Lack of contraception or London. It is a development of 100 recycled helps lower infant mortality Congestion charging scheme education about family houses and aims to be carbon • Cycle routes rate. introduced to charge cars for planning. neutral • Electric car share scheme entering central London. Cross Rail • Houses face south to reduce built to encourage more use of Types of Cities heating costs public transport. Cycle lanes and • Uses recycled / reclaimed “Boris Bikes” to discourage car use. Megacity An urban area with over 10 million people living there. building materials High parking fees

More than two thirds Integrated Transport System Greenbelt Area of current megacities are located in either is is the linking of different forms of public and private transport within a This is a zone of land surrounding a city where new building is strictly NEEs (Brazil) and LICs city and the surrounding area. controlled to try to prevent cities growing too much and too fast. (Nigeria). The amount of megacities Brownfield Site Urban Regeneration are predicted to increase from 28 to Brownfield sites is an area of land or premises that has been previously The investment in the revival of old, urban areas by either improving what 41 by 2030. used, but has subsequently become vacant, derelict or contaminated. is there or clearing it away and rebuilding. Urban Change in a Major UK City: London Case Study Urban Change in a Major LIC City: Lagos Case Study Location and Background City’s Importance Location and Background City’s Importance

London is a city in the • The capital city. Lagos is a coastal city • Used to be the capital city. South East of England. • A centre for media and communications situated in the south • Still the centre of trade and commerce The population of the • Major global financial centre of Nigeria. It is the • 80% of Nigeria’s industry is around Lagos city is 8.7 million, • Major legal and medical facilities most populated city • It is the financial centre of West Africa making it the largest in • Well known universities and research in the country (15 • It has a major international airport the UK. The city is the centre million). The average • 1% of households in Lagos have reported capital of the UK. It was • Culture, entertainment and tourism centre earnings are £670 per the murder of a family member. built by the Romans • Fastest growing city in the UK year. It is growing at • Multi ethnic city 600 000 per year.

Migration to Sheffield City’s Opportunities Migration to Rio De Janeiro City’s Opportunities

During the industrial revolution, the Social: Sheffield has various cultural attractions The city began when Portuguese developed a Social: Standards of living are gradually population dramatically increased with people such as the bars in Shoreditch, the West End small fishing port in 1472. Under British rule, improving. Healthcare, and education are migrating from nearby rural communities. theatres, museums and restaurants as well as Lagos was made the capital of Nigeria until better in Lagos than in Nigeria as a whole. shopping independence in 1960. However, healthcare is not free. It has a thriving The city was bombed in WW2 but with the fashion and film culture. growth of service industries the city has seen Economic: The service sector is the largest However, more recently, millions of people rapid population growth including economic employer particularly retail and financial have migrated from rural areas that have Economic: More jobs are available in Lago than migration from Poland, India, Eastern Europe sectors. Many head offices are based in London suffered from drought, lack of services and anywhere else in Nigeria. Lagos has one of the and the West Indies in particular. unemployment and ethnic tension to Lagos. highest incomes per person in the country. The city has various types of employment including Environmental: London is one of the world’s People do this to search for a better quality of Also London has attracted thousands of life. oil, retail and manufacturing. Oil also creates greenest cities with Royal Parks (eg Hyde Park), jobs. students from the UK & abroad. Local parks and public spaces This expanding population has resulted in the Environmental: There is an integrated transport rapid urbanisation of Lagos. system and a new waterway network of ferries. City Challenges Lea Valley Regeneration Bus lanes are being build and a new airport is Social: House prices are v high – the average is Aims: Site of the 2012 Olympics. Many of old planned. £475 000 and there are house shortages. industries had gone and the area was derelict City Challenges Urban Renewal House price falls from the centre – areas such and overgrown. as Newham are v deprived. Social: There is a severe shortage of housing, • Makoko is an unofficial squatter settlement Main features: Brownfield sites and derelict schools and healthcare centres available. Large built on the lagoon. Densely populated with Economic: While financial sector jobs are buildings pulled down. Transport links scale social inequality, is creating tensions poor sanitation and limited access to highly paid, many jobs are low paid (eg retail improved. East Village – 2800 new homes with between the rich and poor. services. and cleaning) with the high cost of living this is 10 hectares of park and open space, a new • A floating school was built to offer a problem for many school for 1800 students and a new Stratford Economic: The rise of informal jobs with low education. However this was destroyed in a pay and no tax contributions. There is high Environmental: Urban sprawl has led to International Station. However some claim this storm. There are plans to re-build it. unemployment in squatter settlements increased pressure and decline of greenfield has not benefited existing residents who can • Rising sea level is a threat. no longer afford to live there. sites around the city. Environmental: Traffic congestion is high and • Eko Atlantic is a new development built on air pollution bad. Water availability is limited reclaimed land. It has services and utilities. with vendors selling water from carts. • However critics argue it benefits only the rich and the social tension will rise as a result. Urban issues and challenges – MUMBAI

The location of Mumbai in Maharashtra state The Economic importance of Mumbai Opportunities of urban growth in Mumbai

Commercial and financial capital of India. Socio-economic:

60% of India’s sea trade. - Employment opportunities in manufacturing (electronic items, jewellery and textiles). Nationally Mumbai contributes 33% of all income - Incomes in the city are higher and more reliable. tax and 60% of all custom duty from trade. - Access to education and health care is easier. The largest number of TNC headquarters in Asia - Community spirit. including GSK, Walt Disney and Volkswagen. - Urban poor provide a huge labour force carrying out essential jobs that keep the city running. Home to the Indian stock market, the busiest port and airports in India. Dharavi

Hub for design, fashion, jewellery and tourism. An urban slum near Mumbai where 1 million live in 1sq mile.

Home to Bollywood. Despite a lack of sanitation and over crowded housing nearly 16000 small factories employ over ¼ million people. The growth of Mumbai Transport hub with links to all industrial cities in India and world cities. A ‘recycling miracle’, even tiny squares of soap salvaged by Rapidly grown over the last 50 years. Highest %of internet access of any Indian city. thousands, imported from all over the world and 80% of Mumbai’s Population of 23 million. waste.

Growth driven by rural-urban Challenges of urban growth in Mumbai migration. Managing the growth of squatter settlements: 40% of the population live in poor quality housing or on the streets. Difficult Migration rate of 1 person per minute! to supply services to the squatter settlements. Slum Rehabilitation Authority is a planning authority relocating residence.

70% of migrants are from the state of Providing clean water and sanitation: 95% of one slum had lower access to clean water than recommended by the WHO. Maharashtra. Lack of sanitation increases the risk of diseases and illness.

Migrants average age was 20-21 and Access to services – healthcare and education: youthful population means constant rising demand for schools and 64% are male. maternity services.

Natural increase also contributes to Reducing unemployment and crime: demand for unskilled workers has declined leading to higher crime rates. urban growth. Environmental issues: human and industrial waste is difficult and expensive to manage. Lack of sanitation means Migration is for economic reasons. waterways are polluted. Air pollution and chemical contamination also an issue.

The number of people who die per 1000 per year. The number of babies born per 1000 people per year.

When the number of people in a country can no longer be supported The difference between the the resources. birth and the death rate.

The average age a person can expect to live to in a country. The percentage of the population that is dependent on the working population.

% of population under 15 + % of population over 65 The number of babies who die st ______x 100 before their 1 birthday per 1000 % of people of working age per year. A population pyramid shows a countries population structure. It looks at the number of males and females in each age group.

1. The higher the top bar on the pyramid the better the life expectancy.

2.. You can see if there are an equal number of men and women. Male 1 Female 2

4 3. Bulges and dips occur when lots of 4. The 0-4 age group tells you about the people move in or out of a country or are birth rate. killed in a war More healthcare/education/empowered women

Amazon population

Ethiopia India UK Germany

Birth rate High and High and Rapidly Low and Slowly fluctuating steady increasing fluctuating falling Death rate High and Rapidly Slowly Low and Low and fluctuating falling falling fluctuating fluctuating Population Zero Very high High Zero Negative growth rate Population Low and Rapidly Increasing High and Slowly size steady increasing steady falling A population structure of a country is how many people there are in each age group of the population, and how many there are in each sex. Stage 1

Birth rate is high because there is no contraception and people have lots of children as many die.

Death rate is high because poor healthcare.

Population growth rate is zero.

Population structure- life expectancy is low, and the population is mostly young.

Stage 2

Birth rate is high because there is no contraception. Also the economy is primary so children are needed for this.

Death rate falls due to improved health care.

Population growth rate is very high.

Population structure- life expectancy has increased, still more young people than older. Stage 3 Birth rate is rapidly falling due to the empowerment of women and better education. The use of contraception has increased. The economy has changed to manufacturing.

Death rate falls due to more medical advances.

Population growth rate is high.

Population structure- more people are living to be older.

Stage 4

Birth rate is low because people move to urban areas so their wealth improves and they want more possessions.

Death rate is low and fluctuating.

Population growth rate is zero.

Population structure- life expectancy is high, so even more people are living to be older. Stage 5

Birth rate is slowly falling because there is less money to raise children because people have dependent elderly relatives.

Death rate is low and fluctuating.

Population growth rate is negative.

Population structure- more older people than younger. Way to many people for the number of resources!

Happens to LEDCs/ NICs because they have high birth rates and a falling death rate (they are developing slowly)

Not enough jobs.

Services cant Food shortages cope. Economic Increased waste and pollution. Social Not enough houses. Increased Environmental poverty. Children have to work to support large Natural resources such families. as wood are used up. Why was Chinas population controlled? Reasons why China thought it wouldn’t become rich with a big China had to control its population as the country was increasing and increasing. In the population 1950s, China wanted to improve its wealth; the President thought the country had too many -Need more food which means they ’ people to increase its wealth. couldn t sell a lot to other countries -The government would have to -There were more people in China than the combined population of Europe, the Americas spend a lot of money on health care and Japan. and education. -The population was creeping quickly to 1 Billion people. - Wouldn’t be enough jobs for everyone so the government would have to pay benefits

Has it worked? The One child Policy The birth rate in China In 1979 the Chinese government introduced the One Child Policy. This has fallen since 1979, meant each couple could only have one child. and the rate of population growth is If couples had more than one child they would have to pay fines or they now 0.7%. would force the mother to have an abortion. You had to be married and over 25years to have children. China's one-child policy has been somewhat If couples had one child they would get free healthcare, education and relaxed in recent money. years. Couples can now apply to have a second Married couples in the countryside were allowed 2 children as the child if their first child is government saw that children were needed to help with farming. a girl, or if both parents are themselves only- As families were only allowed one child, most wanted a boy to keep on children. the family name, so if women found out they were having a girl they would adopt or abort the baby. This now has created a large population While China's population of males and not enough females. In 2000, it was reported that 90% of is now rising more foetuses aborted in China were female. Today it is thought that men slowly, it still has a outnumber women by more than 60 million. very large total population (1.3 billion in 2008). Gambia has a large youthful population and is an LEDC in Africa. There Problems having a young population has been a taboo on contraceptives and the birth rate is high, on average each woman in her life time will have 7 children. It is thought that the  High dependency ratio. population will double every 28 years.  Financial problems – not having enough money to Gambia is a very poor country, there is not enough money to build feed and support the growing family. Malnutrition is infrastructure and develop towns. Healthcare is very limited and the infant common. mortality rate is 73 per 1000.  Homes often don’t have electricity and are overcrowded.  Sanitation is very poor.  Desertification of the forests, people use the wood for fires housing and selling. The land left ends up as desert therefore making the temperature rise.

Health care To reduce the infant mortality rate funding from Canada is used to provide Education Solutions More and more children are free vaccination for children. Improved attending school. NGOs are maternity care helps the mothers to survive. working with the government to encourage girls to go to school in order to get a good Contraception GambiaHELP (NGO) education and go onto work. There are now awareness campaigns and radio adverts. An NGO called Futures is giving very . Work with communities to identify cheap contraception. Due to this programme and solve health problems. the population growth rate has dropped from . Improve primary education. 4.2% to 3%. . Empowering rural communities. . Support initiatives such as health, environment protection and sanitation. . Construct wells which include a hand pump and an animal trough, provide funds for repairs. Separate water wells constructed for washing and cooking facilities. Encourage larger families Good healthcare

Cause Management Encourage immigration= Life expectancy more working population

Good facilities such as hospitals Raise the retirement age

Pressure on healthcare

Pensions Economy grows more slowly. Effects

Increased taxes

People look after elderly relatives and have fewer children What are the causes? 1) People are living longer because of advances in medicine and better standards of living. Between 1980 and 2006 the life expectancy rose 2.6 years for women and 6.4 years for men. Economic issues 2) Lot of babies were born in the 1940s and 1960s- they are now retiring and creating o Taxes need to go up as there is a reduced a pensioner boom. working population who pay the taxes 3) Since the 1970s the number of babies being born has fallen. and an increased older population who use the taxes because of pensions and the services they need. o The economy of the country grows more slowly- less money spent on education More elderly people are living and business and more on retirement in poverty- the working homes. Problems population isn't large enough Social issues for the to pay for a decent pension. o Healthcare services are stretched. o People spend time working as unpaid UK careers. o People may have fewer children as they The health service is under pressure are looking after elderly relatives. The government is as older people need more medical o People will have to retire later, as they struggling to pay the state care. The average stay in hospital for wont be able to live on the state pension pension- the taxes paid by over 75 is 13 days whereas for the as it will be lower with more elderly for the small working population whole of the UK it is 8 days. the government to provide a pension for. are not enough to cover it.

Strategy Description Example

Raise the retirement age This means people will have to work for longer, so more people paying The UK will raise the tax and less claiming pensions. retirement age to 68 by 2046. Encourage immigration of young people This increases the number of people paying taxes, which helps to pay Around 80% of UK the state pension and services. immigrants in 2004 were 34 or under Encourage women to have children This makes having children more affordable and in time will increase The UK has working family the working population who pay taxes for pensions and services. tax credits Encourage people to take out private pensions If people have private pensions they wont be so dependent on the state The government gives tax pension. breaks. Refugees = forced to leave a country due to things like war, religious persecution or a natural disaster.

Economic migrant= move voluntarily from poorer to richer places looking for higher wages and Immigration Emigration a better quality of life.

Economic • A shortage of jobs. • Low wages

Social • Poor standard of living • Poor healthcare and education

Political • Being persecuted because of religion or political views • War Environmental • Natural hazards • A poor environment due to crime or pollution Migrant workers pay taxes that Skills shortage- Money is usually sent back. help to fund Locals and immigrants skilled people services. migrate. compete for jobs-tension and conflict. Source There’s a bigger (Where they have labour force. Host/Receiving come from) (where they go to) Labour shortage- Some money earned working age by immigrants is people migrate. sent home rather The increased demand than spent in the There is less for services can lead to Elderly people left who host country. pressure on overcrowding. services. cant work or contribute the economy.

Points based system- Allows choice of who comes into the country. People are given points based on education, age, work experience and whether they speak the language.

Limits and targets- Limits and targets are set by some countries to make sure they don’t let too many or too few . The limits are set by looking at how many jobs are available.

Controlling illegal immigration- Lots of countries arrest and force illegal immigrants to leave the country. People who house illegal immigrants can be sent to jail. Migrants moving from Poland Between 2004 and 2007 to the UK are classed as half a million poles arrived economic migrants.

The UK has pull factors such as -higher wages of £20,000 Push factors from Poland include - - low unemployment of 4%. high unemployment of 19%. If a country is part of -Higher standard of living -Low wages of £8000 the EU, you can move -Higher education opportunities -housing shortages with only 300 freely between every -Already a multicultural society houses available for every 1000 country - Part of the EU so can enter easily people and gain a working visa -Lack of higher education

-Low standard of living

Impacts to Poland (origin country) The UK government attempts to manage Impacts to the UK (host country) -(+) Money is sent back to Poland, this immigration. Polish workers have to register -(+) Polish migrants contributed £1.9 is called remittances, this strengthens under the worker registration scheme. For new EU billion in taxes . their economy (£1bil) countries like Bulgaria the government tightened -(+) provide skilled workers like - (-) Skilled workers leaving Poland, their control and now migrants have to get plumbers, will do unpleasant jobs this is called the Brain drain permission from the home office to work here and like cleaning. - (-) Underpopulation, an ageing it is only granted for certain jobs – where there is a - (+) Creates multicultural society population in Poland. (82% aged 18-34 shortage. Other counties manage migration - (-) Puts pressure on public services migrant from Poland) through a point based system based on education, (health, education) age, language ability etc e.g. Australia. The UK is - (+) Most migrants are temporarily - (-) creates tension in the community leave Poland, so come back with looking at this. We also have limits and targets set (e.g they take our jobs) better skills and money and we control illegal immigration though -(-) overcrowding deportation – here illegal migrants are arrested, jailed and forced to return home. Huge numbers of people migrate from Africa to the EU. For example by crossing the Mediterranean sea to Spain. 45,000 emigrants from Africa were refused entry to Spain in 2001.

Many of these migrants were refugees, who felt forced to move due to wars in central and western African countries. There are only push factors for African refugees of war- people flee their countries due to the threat of violence and death.

Impacts in African countries Impacts on Spain

 The working population is  Social tension between immigrants and reduced so there are fewer people Spaniards. contributing to the economy.  More unskilled workers in Spain which  Families become separated when has filled the gaps in the labour market. fleeing from wars.  Average wages for unskilled jobs has  The elderly population is left fallen because there are so many people behind as it is mainly the young that who want the jobs. flee.  The birth rate has increased as there are so many young immigrants. Location Squatter settlements – Rochina, Brazil Rocinha is the largest favela in Brazil, and is in SE Brazil in Rio Problems in Rochina Social Improvments de Janeiro. Rocinha is built on a  Day-care centres and after school steep hillside overlooking Rio de The rapid growth of Rio de Janeiro's population has led to a severe shortage of housing. Millions of people have been schemes to look after the children while Janeiro, and is 1 km from the their parents work. beach. Almost 70,000 (census forced to construct their own homes from scrap materials  Adult education classes to improve adult 2010)] people live in Rocinha. such as wood, corrugated iron and metals. These areas of temporary accommodation are known as favelas in Brazil. literacy. The conditions associated with favelas are very poor. Often  Services to help young people affected by families have to share one tap, there is no sewerage drug addiction, alcohol addiction and provision, disease is common and many people are domestic violence. unemployed.

Improvements to Rochina Economic Improvements Community involvement schemes  Residents can now apply to legally own  Residents choose which improvements they want in their properties- this gives them a their favela so they feel involved. postcode and allows them to get services  Neighbourhood associations are formed to such as rubbish collection. communicate with residents and make decisions.  Training schemes to help people learn new  The new services are staffed by residents= provides skills so they can find better jobs and Natural Increase is one reason income and teaches new skills. earn more. for its growth. The population has also grown as the result of Environmental improvements The Favela- Bairro project has been very urbanisation. The has been  Replacement of wooden buildings with successful! caused by rural to urban brick buildings and the removal of homes 1) The standard of living and health of residents migration. Millions of people have of dangerous steep slopes. has improved. migrated from Brazil's rural  Widening and paving of streets for easy 2) The property values in favelas that are part of areas to Rio de Janeiro. 65% of access especially emergency services. urban growth is a result of the programme have increased by 80-120%.  Provision of basic services such as water migration. This is caused by a 3) The number of local businesses within the and electricity. variety of push and pull factors. favelas has almost doubled. The challenge in the human environments: Urban issues and challenges (Paper 2: Section A) A growing percentage of the world’s population lives in urban areas Urban = Towns and cities Rural = countryside Urbanisation is the growth in the proportion of a country’s population living in urban areas. The rate of urbanisation differs between countries that are richer than those that are poorer. HIC have very slow rates of urbanisation: In richer parts of the world, urbanisation happened historically and most of the population now already live in urban areas. Many people in urban areas in HICs desire a better quality of life and are moving to rural area. Here they can commute to cities (because of better transport) or work from home (better communication). LIC are less economically developed e.g. Ethiopia. Not many of the population live in urban areas . However, people are starting to move away from jobs in farming (rural areas) to urban areas. They are experiencing rapid urban growth. NEE are those where economic development is increasing rapidly e.g. India and Brazil. They are experiencing rapid urban growth.

Factors affecting the rate of urbanisation 1. Rural-urban migration - is the movement of people from rural to urban area. The rate is affected by push-pull theory. Push factors – things that encourage people to leave (Push them out) Pull factors - things that encourage people to move to an area (Pull them to an area)

Pull Factors Push Factors More jobs in urban areas that are often better paid, Access to better health Less well paid jobs, Natural disasters, Mechanisation of agriculture – farms require care and education, join family members, People think they will have a better fewer workers so there are fewer , Desertification, Conflict / War, shortage of services quality of life and standard of living, (education, water and power).

2. Natural increase - birth rate is higher than death rate so population growth 3. Young people move to urban areas to find work. These people then have children, which increases the proportion of people living in urban areas 4. High rates of urbanisation leading to the growth of megacity (a city with more that 10 million people living there). Two third of megacities are in LIC+NEEs.

Urban Growth – Opportunities and Challenges - LIC and NEEs Often seen as overcrowded, polluted, with slums, inadequate services (water sanitation) but a centre of economic activity

Social Economic

• Better access to services e.g. health care and education • Increase economic development • Better access to resources such as clean water supply and electricity • As industry develops (industrialisation), more people move to urban areas to work in factories – there are more jobs and better wages than rural areas • Industries create and sell goods on the international market. Manufactured goods make

Opportunities greater profits than unprocessed goods so industrialised countries get wealthier. Social and economic Environmental

Many people who move to urban areas from rural areas end up living in squatter If cities grow rapidly waste disposal services, sewage systems and environmental regulation for settlements (slums) – settlements that are built illegally in and around the city, by factories can’t keep up with the growth

people who cant ford formal housing • Rubbish isn’t collected so it leaves toxic rubbish heaps, which damage the environment • Badly build and over crowded • Air pollution comes from burning fossil fuel from vehicles and factories • No access to basic services (running water, sanitation, electricity) • Sewage and toxic chemicals can get into rivers, causing health problems and harming wildlife • Unclean conditions and lack of access to medical services mean people often • Infrastructure like road systems may not be able to cope with the growing number of Challenges have poor health vehicles. Congestion causes an increase in green house gas emissions which cause global • No access to education problems. Locally, problems with health and acid rain also occur. • High levels of unemployment and crime The challenge in the human environments: Urban issues and challenges (Paper 2: Section A) Mumbai; its location, cause of growth, importance • Mumbai, located in the country of India, in the state of Maharashtra on the north west coast of India. Facing the Arabian Sea • Wealthiest city in India • The city was originally a number of separate islands, which were joined together by a land reclamation (gaining land from the sea) projects over 100 years ago

Growth Importance In India • Rapid growth in the last 50 years – • Commercial and Financial capital of India both area and population. • 60% of India’s sea trade • 1950’s concentrated around city • 3million people commute each day to the city. Growth centre in hi tech industry (call centres, online banking) • Now it has spread north and south • Contributes 40% of the total income of state with 23 million people Global Importance • The growth is driven by rural to • Most globalised city in SE Asia. It has the largest number urban migration (Migration Facts: of TNCs (inc GlaxoSmithKline, Volkswagen, Walt Disney) average 1 person a minute, 70% • Busiest port and airport in India - is a Transport hub from the state of Maharashtra, (connecting point for transport links) connects all TNC - Transnational industrialised cities in India. Air and ports transport and average age of migrant 20-21 years Mumbai is a Corporations connect to major cities of the world old, 64% male) megacity • Most migrants: Economic migrants • Largest foreign investment Dharavi - slum in • Natural increase also contributes • Home to Bollywood, the India Stock Market, hub for Mumbai smaller businesses inc. design, fashion,

Mumbai; Urban growth creates opportunities and challenges for cities in LICs and NEEs:

Social and economic Environmental • Better access to services e.g. health care and education and resources such as clean water supply and electricity in Mumbai than in For example in the slum of Dharavi surrounding rural areas. Some rural area have no electricity at all. while there are shacks and open sewers, • In poorer residential areas (like Dharavi) there is good community spirit and support there are thousands of factories that • Water treatment plants provide safe water piped directly to areas of the city. recycle material. Almost everything here • More employment opportunities in industry+manufacturing electronic good and clothes this stimulates economic growth, 40% of is recycled from every type of plastic, India’s trade happens from here. industrial waste to soap. 80% of

• Incomes in the city are higher and more reliable than in rural areas, with the average in Mumbai at $2845 per year, compared to the rest Mumbai's waste is recycled here. Opportunities of Maharashtra, which is $1660 per year. Something the west would love to • Urban poor provide a massive labour force who carry out essential jobs both in formal and informal sectors. achieve.

• Managing the growth of squatter settlements – 40% Mumbai live here – problems like lack of services, unplanned, overcrowded etc. Managing environmental issues – Litter Poor sanitation, lack of water, land rights, poor health and low quality jobs are a huge issue is not collected as many areas are illegal,

• Providing clean water - Many parts of Mumbai have limited basic services this causes illness and disease eg cholera is common – as this attracts mosquitos’ and malaria. standpipes come on at 5:30am for 2hrs, this water must be rationed through the day. Lack of sanitation means water is • Sanitation – 1 toilet per 500 people, and this waste goes straight into local rivers where clothes are washed and people drink from. polluted, this often used to drink • Providing services health and education – Both are in very limited supply in the slum and need to be paid for. This means that very few causing cholera. Unregulated industries Challenges children attend school and so have limited job prospects. and increasing number of cars, increase • Reducing unemployment and crime– The demand for skilled labour has meant that opportunities for unskilled worked are limited the amount of air pollution and water (more people less jobs available) and wages are low. This can cause crime rates to rise with pick pocketing and begging gangs operating. pollution. All which is unregulated The challenge in the human environments: Urban issues and challenges (Paper 2: Section A) An example of how urban planning is improving the quality of life for the urban poor Squatter Settlements - Slums, Favelas – Case Study – Dharavi, Mumbai, India What are squatter settlements? Areas in cities that are built illegally, built by people who cannot afford proper housing. These people are usually rural to urban migrants. They build them with materials they can find, on land that doesn’t belong to them, They often have informal sector economy – cash in hand , no taxes, jobs created by the people themselves. They are built badly and are over crowded&lack basic services like electricity. Life here is hard – no running water, no space, sewage, no police &some slums can be very dangerous and run by gangs. Often there is nowhere else for poor migrants to go. During monsoons season heavy rains make houses unstable. Due to no sewage and sanitation, water contamination is common and people get ill with diseases like cholera, diphtheria and hepatitis. In Dharavi, the settlement which is home to 1 million people per square mile. Good things - They do have a strong community spirit and barely any crime. Also almost everyone is employed in the informal sector.

The city authorities of Mumbai want to improve the quality of life of the people who live there. Current approaches across Mumbai are for whole DEMOLITION of the slums which are replaced by high rise tower blocks with 14 stories for people to live in. The land upon which Dharavi is built is next to Mumbai’s financial district. This makes it a prime target for redevelopment. These types of redevelopment are planned for Dharavi by the Slum Rehabilitation Authority (SRA). They have proposed a $2billion development project.

Advantages Disadvantages

• Infrastructure will be built, • Recycling district will be lost – this will mean waste losing jobs and a way 80% of management services will Mumbai waste is recycled be able to dispose of waste • Very small flats 21m2 – this means effectively, this will life could be worse because improve the quality of life conditions are more cramped and • Industrial areas are away families could be broken up from residential areas, this • Lose its community spirit – as there will improve quality of life is very little community space because people are safer • As this area is now away from • Homes will have an industrial areas, people will now address and people will be have to commute to work • Many poor people do not want to registered by the Is there another way to improve the lives of the urban poor? authorities, this means be recognised and pay taxes as taxes will be collected and Yes, one that allows improvement to the slum itself. they are too poor to do this this money can be used to • The Mumbai slum sanitation project – improving sanitation facilities in slums by • Ancient communities within the improve services building toilet blocks (currently 500 hundred share the same toilet and 1 in 20 use the slum are lost • Clean water is piped to street for a toilet) • Dharavi currently is safe and has every home and sewage • The Mumbai Slum electrification project – Many parts do not have electricity and rely crime and communal areas. Also at pipes take human waste on bottled gas for cooking and heating, this is expensive and dangerous (fumes, risk of risk are the local shops and away. This reduces the fire etc) Over 10,000 slum dwellers in Mumbai have been provided with new or markets and the community spirit number of diseases like upgraded electricity connections. which has taken generations to cholera • Incremental housing strategies– Developing informal slums into permanent develop will be lost. The locals residential areas by making gradual improvements. Families are given the right to the would prefer small improvements land on which their home is build and a grant given to make improvements. They work to the existing slum such as with an architect to design their homes. Local community stays together and has a say improvements in drainage.

The challenge in the human environments: Urban issues and challenges (Paper 2: Section A) Overview of the distribution of population and the major cities in the UK. • The United Kingdom is a country with a high level of urbanisation (historic industrialisation) and great number of large cities. It has no megacities. London, the capital, with by far the biggest population at over 8 million inhabitants. • The population is very unequally distributed over the four parts of the UK: England makes up about 84 per cent of the total population, Wales around 5 per cent, Scotland roughly 8.5 per cent, and Northern Ireland less than 3 per cent. This is because the south east has good transport links, is close to the city of London which is the financial heart of England. • Across the UK the highest population densities are found in major cities and as we move north through the UK population density falls, with the exception of the Edinburgh to Glasgow corridor. The upland areas in the UK have low population densities and the densest population can be found to the south east, in the area around London. It is in these areas were issues over housing shortages have been at their worst. • The cities of the UK owe their origins to many different reasons, For example, Sheffield is famous for its steel industry, Newcastle coal and then ship building.

Population Density a measurement of (distribution just means the Sparsely population Densely population the number of people in an area way in which something is – not many people – lots of people in an spread over an area) in an area area

A case study of a major city in the UK to illustrate: (Case Study London)the location and importance of the city in the UK and the wider world

London • Mumbai, located in the South East of England, located on the River Thames. It is the most densely populated area of the UK. It hosts the UK parliament. • An important in the cities success are the Thames is a tidal river so the city became a port

Growth Importance In UK • 2000 years ago after it was built by the Romans • UK’s capital, largest, wealthiest city it is still the capital city of the UK • Londoners earn 23% more than the UK average • C18th, new docks were build, so the number of • London generates 22% of the UK’s GDP ships entering London as a port. London’s • Transport Hub importance as a centre of trade and commerce Global Importance Facts grew and new manufacturing industries • Along with New York, London is one of the two • London’s population is developed. This attracted more people, and so Facts most important financial centres in the world 12.5% of the UK’s on the population increased. • Over 2 million Londoners do not • London is home to 15 of the head offices of the just 0.6% of the land • End of the C20th London’s role as a port speak English at home 250 largest companies in the world • London is one of the declines. However, it remains a transport hub • The 3 most common languages • London has 40 higher education institutions most visited cities in for UK transport; both road and rail networked are Bengali, Urdu and Polish including some of the World’s top universities the world focus on London. Additionally, it has two of the • 65% of London’s land is either • London is a national and international centre • 800,000 people UK busiest airports (Heathrow and Gatwick). gardens, public green space or for media, education, legal and medical commute to London for This maintained its importance as a tourist water facilities, culture entertainment and tourism work every day destination. The challenge in the human environments: Urban issues and challenges (Paper 2: Section A)

A case study of a major city in the UK to illustrate: (Case Study London) impacts of national and international migration on the growth and character of the city

• London’s population is higher now than its ever been. 1801 – 1million -> 2015 it reached 8.6million • During the Industrial Revolution in C19th the city grew and attracted migrants from many parts of the UK. It continued growing, until the second world war, when the city was badly bombed and the population fell. Since 1991, the population has continued to grow and it is predicted that by 2030 the population will reach 10million and be a megacity. 3 factors at play influencing the overall size and rate of growth of London’s population; 1. Internal (within the UK) migration has been negative; that is the numbers of people moving out of London has been greater than the number of UK residents moving in. This balance has got smaller over time. Internal migrants into London tend to be in the age groups 20 -30, whilst those who tend to leave are over 30 or have children. This means that generally people migrate into London for work; and leave when they start having families. 2. International net migration has always been positive, so there have always been more foreign born people moving into London than out of it. 3. Natural Change has been positive, so births have been above deaths and this has boosted the population size.

Migration in particular has changed the CHARACTER of London. It is genuinely one of the most multicultural places on the planet with many different races, cultures and languages in evidence throughout the city Less than half of London’s population are of white British origin, while 37% were born outside the UK. The largest number are from countries like Indian, Nigeria, Jamaica. Since 2007, more migrants have came from Eastern Europe due to the free movement of people in the EU A case study of a major city (London) in the UK to illustrate: How urban change has created opportunities

Social and Economic Environmental Cultural mix: refers to a country or place that has more than one culture living together in close proximity. London Urban greening: Urban greening means to is one of the most diverse places not just in Britain but on planet Earth; 2. In three boroughs - Newham, Brent and increase the amount and proportion of green Tower Hamlets - white people are now in the minority. It enriches London cultural life, from food, music, cultural spaces within a city. These green spaces are events e.g. Notting Hill Carnival, and BBC’s Asian Radio. he cultural mix in London also highlights what a broadly essential for people’s quality of life, tolerant and Liberal people the citizens of the London are. environment, reduce flooding, wildlife, Recreation and entertainment: London is a hub for recreation and entertainment; growing food.. London has made attempts to

Like: cultural attractions such as the British Museum, the National Gallery and the Natural History Museum., the offer lots of green spaces within its urban area

West End (musicals and shows) ,tourist attractions such as Buckingham Palace and the Houses of Parliament. Also by; Creating ROOFTOP green spaces, a huge sporting events like Wimbledon. It also has a huge number of bars, restaurants and entertainment. range of green spaces open to the public Employment: including Hampstead Heath in central London London is by far the largest contributor to the UK economy, London houses a major world financial centre and a which combine open space, wildlife habitat

Opportunities range of business specialisms which attract a highly skilled workforce. London residents (aged 16 to 64 and working) and recreational areas. The new Olympic Park are more likely to be employed in managerial, professional roles, which earn more money. (Queen Elizabeth Park), has many parks for Integrated transport systems: leisure activities and walking. Such areas Integrated transport means that all of the different forms of transport can link to one another (boat, bus, DLR, tube, create a more pleasant local environment. rail, cable car, cycle (Boris Bikes)). Its transport network includes both private and public services. Public transport accounts for 25% of all journeys. Also London is surrounded by the major motorway the M25, and have four airports within 1 hour from it, it also has the Eurostar connecting London to Europe by train. Commuters can travel on all the above using the Oyster card The challenge in the human environments: Urban issues and challenges (Paper 2: Section A) A case study of a major city (London) in the UK to illustrate: How urban change has created challenges Social and Economic Environmental Urban deprivation or Social Deprivation is the degree to which a person lacks Urban decline: is the deterioration of the inner city often caused by lack of investment things that are essential to a decent life like work, money, housing, and maintenance. It is often but not exclusively accompanied by a decline in population services and health. It is particularly hard for the poorest people to have a decent numbers, decreasing economic performance and unemployment. standard of living because the prices of many things are more expensive, especially rents which account for a huge proportion of peoples incomes. Areas Dereliction, There is a sizeable supply of brownfield land in London, which to date like Newham in London has some of the lowest life expectancies, highest remains untapped. 250 hectares of brownfield sites. The Olympic Park is a good example unemployment, lowest number of students attaining GCSE, and the lowest of how derelict land can be brought back into use. household incomes. Growth of commuter settlements and the impact of urban sprawl on the rural–urban Inequalities in housing, education, health and employment: London is an fringe: The edges of cities are known as the rural urban fringe. There has been increasing incredibly unequal city. Billionaires live in very close proximity to people who building in these areas because of housing pressure, despite Greenbelt legislation (laws) survive on less than a living wage (Grenfell Tower). Indeed, incomes in London are that are supposed to prevent building there. The growth outwards of our cities into these more unequal than ANY other region of the UK. Social deprivation is a major regions is known as URBAN SPRAWL and can have many impacts on these areas; like problem in London, with over 2million living in poverty. Housing: House prices increased traffic, health issues due to stress, extra cost to tax payer (pay for new roads and rents are higher in London than any other part of the country. More people in etc), loss of rural land. London rent than own their house and those that rent pay more than half their weekly pay in rent. At the same time as those who live in poor quality, small Building on brownfield and greenfield sites: Meeting the demand of housing is a

rented accommodation, there are people living in the most expensive houses in problem for the UK. It is a small island with a growing population, to make matters worse

the world. Education: Children across London do not get equal exam grades, but the population is not distributed evenly. There is a huge housing shortage in the South some of the school’s in London’s poorest boroughs are amongst the fastest East, which is causing high property prices and rental costs. We can build new houses on improving schools in the country. Generally, the schools in the poorest areas Greenfield and Brownfield sites. + Brownfield Sites – well connected to the CBD,

Challenges score the lowest number of GCSE points per pupil. Health: The people in wealthy connected to road and power networks, cleans up dirty unused land, - Brownfield Sites – areas tend to live longer than those in the poorer areas of London. The census Expensive to redevelop, noise and air pollution to people who live near by. London has 2011 showed that the % of people reporting themselves as in “Not good health” built up to 50,000 new homes on 20 brownfield sites, was also highest in the areas of lowest income. Employment Despite the huge wealth found in London unemployment remains a major issue. The Waste disposal and air pollution: London suffers from air pollution (some of the worse in unemployment rate was 10.0 per cent compared with 8.4 per cent for the UK. the EU)due it s size and the dense road network. London is working hard to try and protect people and clean up the air by; free to download app that informs people of air Cultural mix - One of the big issues for London is INTEGRATION (how well can quality - Cleaning up London's bus fleet by making them less polluting including buses that people mix) – Many people can’t speak English and have limited access to all of run on Hydrogen, Congestion Charge, Low Emission Zone , invest money in cycling the advantages of being in the UK. Another issue is ghettoes, how can we prevent networks and Boris Bikes. Waste: with a population as high as it is it produces huge economically poorer cultural groups living in the poorest parts of our cities. This amounts of waste. It uses a mixture of recycling, landfill (where the waste is dumped into can lead to gangs or crime. Language is another issue, and many public services the ground and energy recovery (the waste is burnt to produce electricity) to deal with such as schools and hospitals have to provide language translation services which this waste. The London waste management strategy is aiming to; To achieve zero is expensive. municipal waste direct to landfill by 2025, reduce household waste, recycle or compost at least 45 per cent more, generate as much energy from organic waster. However, people still ignore this and too much waste still ends up in landfill, only 34% of waste in London is recycled. 40% is incinerated which causes huge amounts of air pollution. Landfill sites could run out in 8 years, or more rural land will need to be used to dispose of this waste.

The challenge in the human environments: Urban issues and challenges (Paper 2: Section A) An example of an urban regeneration project to show:

The London Olympic Park – a case study of an Urban regeneration project

Social and Economic

• Lower Lea Valley in East London was the site for the 2012 Olympics. Part of this area is in the borough of Newham • Lea Valley was once the main industrial areas of London, it is also one of the most deprived (Use Data about Newham on previous page) • Lots of derelict land • Shortages in school spaces

Why was Why • This area was lagging behind the rest of London, and this area being in the spotlight during the Olympics, the idea was to leave a legacy of not just sport but an improvement in East London. “London 2012 Olympic Legacy” – improve economically (encourage investment), Sports (facilities), Social (inspiring and social

regeneration needed? change) and Regeneration (reuse the land, new homes, improve infrastructure and buildings Pros Cons

• The athletes’ village has been relaunched as a housing estate called the East Village,. • The ‘affordable rents’ for the 2,800 new homes will be unaffordable to Almost half of these 2,818 new homes (40%) will be affordable. Eventually it will house Newham’s poorest households = no improvement in living conditions 8,000 people. • MP for Tower Hamlets, said: “The impact of the infrastructure was great but • There was a shortage of spaces but a new school opened in the grounds of the park unemployment actually went up during the Olympics.” called Chobham Academy. • During the construction of the Olympics, very few jobs were created for local • The aquatics centre now uses its 50m pools as facilities for the community and people. There are still high levels of unemployment in the borough and it was schools, as well as elite athletes. a missed opportunity to train people up for work. • Unemployment OVERALL fell across London during the Olympic period • Many people in the boroughs surrounding the Olympic Park remain in poverty

Was it successful: Socially it Was successful: Socially • 450 Housing Association flats were torn down in this project, breaking up the local community • Stratford got a Tube station to help connect the area to the rest of London - Stratford is • The Olympic stadium is estimated to have cost £701 million pounds, almost now second most connected part of London = good for trade and tourism. more than estimated • The infrastructure has been improved. As well as two Underground lines, a high-speed • The total bill for the Olympics was £8.77 billion of tax payer’s money. That “javelin” train to King’s Cross, the Docklands Light Railway. This encourages investment was £5billion over budget. Could this money helped solve deprivation?

in the future • Existing businesses had to move, including H. Forman and Sons, a salmon-

• The Olympics brought more than £9bn of investment to east London, much of which smoking factory with 50 employees

went into transport • Rents and property prices have gone up as a result of the Games Economically Economically

Was it it Was successful: • 18,000 new jobs created, with 8,000 at Westfield shopping centre • ALL of the Olympic venues have been sold. The final building to be sold off was the £300m media centre, house a data company storing information

• Many of the grounds in the Olympic Park have been kept as parkland and are open to • Much wildlife had to be relocated from the River Lea; 4,000 smooth newts,

the public, also new green spaces, wildlife habitats inc ponds, woodlands, and artificial 100 toads. otter holes. New tress/plants were planted. The stadiums were made of at least 25% • Many of the materials for the stadiums and the Olympic Park came from recycled materials overseas (fossil fuel burnt) • The River Lea (runs through Olympic Park ) improved water quality . • The games produced 3.3 million tons of CO2 • The urban wasteland of the Lower Lea Valley was cleaned up, with soil being cleaned,

Environmentally brownfield sites that had been neglected, unused, and contaminated. Was it it Was successful: Features of sustainable urban living: Urban sustainability is a massive issue both in the UK and globally. Urban areas need to be more sustainable. Sustainable living means doing things in a way that lets the people living now have the things nee d without reducing the ability of people in the future. This means, not damaging the environment for the future, reducing the amount the use of fossil fuel. Sustainable cities - an urban area where residents have a way of life that will last a long time. The environment is not damaged and the economic and social fabric, due to local engagement are able to stand the test of time. It includes: Economy, Environment and People Ways a city can become more sustainable (better for the future) Water Conservation – Only as much Waste Conservation - More recycling means Energy conservation – Burning fossil fuels to generate Conserving natural environments/ water should be taken from the few resources are used, e.g. metal cans can be power isn't sustainable because they’ll run out. Burning Creating green spaces – Urban areas environment as can be naturally melted done and used to make more cans. them also increases the rate of climate change because it can be noisy, dirty, and busy they are replaced. Water conservation schemes Less waste is produced, which reduced the produces greenhouse gases. Energy conservation unsustainable because people find reduce the amount of water used. It is amount that goes to landfill. Landfill is schemes reduce the use of fossil fuels them unpleasant and stressful. important because our demand is unsustainable as it wastes resources that o Promoting renewable energy sources (wind, solar, Creating green spaces in urban areas increasing in the UK. For Example: could be recycled and eventually there’ll be tidal etc.) over traditional coal or gas fired power helps people remain in the urban area. o collecting rainwater for the use in nowhere left to bury the waste. Decomposing station This is because gardens or flushing toilets (grey landfill also releases greenhouse gases. o Government incentives to make homes more o An area for habitats with the city water) Schemes include: energy efficient e.g. allowing homeowners who o They encourage people to exercise o Installing toilets that use less water o Collection of household recycling boxes generate electricity from renewable sources (solar more and to use alternative to flush (dual flushing) / bins = less at landfill panels) to sell excess to the national grid. transport e.g. bikes. This makes o Installing water meters so that o Recycling facilities for larger items like o Making sure new homes that are built meet the people healthier and less stressed people have to pay for the water fridges minimum energy efficiency requirements o Provide people with a break from they use o Websites e.g. Freecycle where item are o Encouraging people to use less energy at home e.g. the noise o Encouraging people to use less offered for free so they can be used by by turning off lights when they’re not needed Problems water e.g. by turning taps off whist others instead of being thrown away Problems o Limited space, only 5% of London is brushing their teeth Problems: o Renewable energies can be expensive, this is used for urban greening. With the Problems: o Less than half, 43% of the UK waste is increasing electricity costs on the consumer, and growing housing crisis it is difficult o A growth in more wasteful water recycled as people ignore rules and slowing down how quickly we change. to set land aside. use – cleaning cars, filling hot tubs inefficient 2 week collections o Wind and solar farms can be inefficient, with one o In 2017 ‘London Garden Bridge’ o Water companies are not o Incineration rates have increased to report showing that solar panels produce nothing was scrapped due to cost. This managing the pipes and 130 litres prevent landfill being used, this for 30 weeks of the year. shows that the environment is low per household is wasted each day produces huge amounts of air pollution. o Wind turbines are an eye sore and noisy, this is on the governments concerns. preventing many being built.

How urban transport strategies are used to reduce traffic congestion. The problems:

Traffic Congestion is a big problem for Urban areas. More people are now commuting to work usually by car, also more businesses are using lorries or Congestion charges – These can have a negative impact vans for deliveries. This means there is more traffic congestion. The problems this causes social, environment and economic problems like: discourages on businesses as less shoppers. people from visiting and shopping in the city. Traffic causes more traffic jams, air pollution, congestions cause stress, more accidents, slow emergency services, contribute to climate change Public transport – Many people aim to avoid public transport as it can be unreliable and does not take you Using Public Transport Reduces Traffic Congestion: This is a strategy to reduce the numbers of cars on the road. London has done this by Docklands to the exact location – bus use hit its lowest levels in Railway, Underground (takes 3million off the road a year), Self service bicycles are available to hire, Electronic Oyster Cards, and use of contactless allow 2016. people to move between all these links without buying a ticket. Many other cities have a park and ride scheme. The congestion charge has improved

journey times by 30%. Ring roads – The M25 is the largest ring road in the UK Traffic Flow can also be managed: Traffic congestion can also be reduced by managing the flow of traffic through the city. For example: Ring roads and and goes around London, it actually attracted more pedestrianised shopping streets keep traffic away from the city centre making it safer and less polluted and reduces congestion. Bus Priority Lanes - people to drive as they thought they would avoid promote public transport and also stop buses being held up in traffic. Congestion Charging (London) discourage drivers from entering the city centre at congestion, it is now one of the most congested roads in peak times. Car sharing, Promoting flexible working hours, the country.

The challenge in the human environments: Urban issues and challenges (Paper 2: Section A) A growing percentage of the world’s population lives in urban areas Urban = Towns and cities Rural = countryside Urbanisation is the growth in the proportion of a country’s population living in urban areas. The rate of urbanisation differs between countries that are richer than those that are poorer. HIC have very slow rates of urbanisation: In richer parts of the world, urbanisation happened historically and most of the population now already live in urban areas. Many people in urban areas in HICs desire a better quality of life and are moving to rural area. Here they can commute to cities (because of better transport) or work from home (better communication). LIC are less economically developed e.g. Ethiopia. Not many of the population live in urban areas . However, people are starting to move away from jobs in farming (rural areas) to urban areas. They are experiencing rapid urban growth. NEE are those where economic development is increasing rapidly e.g. India and Brazil. They are experiencing rapid urban growth.

Urban Growth – Opportunities and Challenges - LIC and NEEs Often seen as overcrowded, polluted, with slums, inadequate services (water sanitation) but a centre of economic activity

Social Economic

Opportunities greater profits than unprocessed goods so industrialised countries get wealthier. Social and economic Environmental

Mumbai; Urban growth creates opportunities and challenges for cities in LICs and NEEs:

Advantages Disadvantages

A case study of a major city in the UK to illustrate: (Case Study London)the location and importance of the city in the UK and the wider world

A case study of a major city in the UK to illustrate: (Case Study London) impacts of national and international migration on the growth and character of the city

Like: cultural attractions such as the British Museum, the National Gallery and the Natural History Museum., the offer lots of green spaces within its urban area

rented accommodation, there are people living in the most expensive houses in problem for the UK. It is a small island with a growing population, to make matters worse

The challenge in the human environments: Urban issues and challenges (Paper 2: Section A) An example of an urban regeneration project to show:

The London Olympic Park – a case study of an Urban regeneration project

Social and Economic

regeneration needed? change) and Regeneration (reuse the land, new homes, improve infrastructure and buildings Pros Cons

in the future • Existing businesses had to move, including H. Forman and Sons, a salmon-

• The Olympics brought more than £9bn of investment to east London, much of which smoking factory with 50 employees

went into transport • Rents and property prices have gone up as a result of the Games Economically Economically

• Many of the grounds in the Olympic Park have been kept as parkland and are open to • Much wildlife had to be relocated from the River Lea; 4,000 smooth newts,

How urban transport strategies are used to reduce traffic congestion. The problems:

http://www.cooleography.co.uk GCSE e-book Chapter 4: Urban Issues and Challenges

4.1 Global patterns of urban change 4.2 Factors affecting the rate of urbanisation and the emergence of mega-cities. 4.3 MUMBAI CASE STUDY: a major city in an LIC or NEE showing: 4.3.1 The location and importance of the city, both nationally and internationally 4.3.2 Causes of growth: natural increase and migration 4.3.3 Opportunities: Social AND economic 4.3.4 Challenges: Social, economic AND environmental 4.3.5 An example of how urban planning is improving the quality of life for the urban poor. 4.4 Overview of the distribution of population and the major cities in the UK. 4.5 LONDON case study of a major city in the UK showing: 4.5.1 The location and importance of the city in the UK and the wider world 4.5.2 Impacts of national and international migration 4.5.3 Opportunities: Social, economic and environmental 4.5.4 Challenges: Social, economic and environmental 4.5.5 An urban regeneration project – the London Olympic site 4.6 Features of sustainable urban living 4.7 Urban transport strategies: The Tyne and Wear Metro

1 ©Robert Gamesby http://www.coolgeography.co.uk

http://www.cooleography.co.uk GCSE e-book 4.1 The global pattern of urban change. Urban trends in different parts of the world.

Urbanisation is defined as the "increasing proportion of people living in built environments such as towns and cities".

The word proportion in this definition is very important, because it indicates that we must judge urbanisation by looking at both the numbers of people living in both rural AND urban areas. For the first time ever in the history of mankind it is now estimated that more people now live in towns and cities than in rural areas.

Seattle, Washington. Copyright - Patrick McNally - http://www.flickr.com/people/65652256@N02 World Urbanisation rates in 2011 according to the UN.

Source - http://esa.un.org/unup/Maps/maps_urban_2011.htm

PATTERNS

1. HICs were the first to urbanise, and generally have the largest proportion of their population living in towns and cities. 2. LICs currently have lower amounts of urbanisation, but are urbanising rapidly. Megacities, cities with over 10 million people, are almost exclusively in poorer nations. 3. Cities of World importance for commerce and trade are dominantly in HICs, regardless of size. World cities include Tokyo, London and New York.

2 ©Robert Gamesby http://www.coolgeography.co.uk

http://www.cooleography.co.uk GCSE e-book 4. Many old colonies (e.g. in South America) have high percentages of urbanisation as the colonising countries such as France and the UK favoured city growth to help administration 5. Asia has the highest number of Megacities

The graph shows the differences in urbanisation for various regions. Despite Asia’s lower percentage of urbanisation it has a far greater number of people living in towns and cities than any other world region.

3 ©Robert Gamesby http://www.coolgeography.co.uk

http://www.cooleography.co.uk GCSE e-book

ACTIVITIES 4.1

Study the map below on rates of Urbanisation growth

Use the map and key to complete the table below:

Continental area South America North America Western Europe Sub Saharan South East Asia Africa

Average Rate of growth

Explain the patterns on the map. Ensure that you include one area of low growth and one area of high/extreme growth. SCORE 1

2 3 4

5 6

7 8 9 10

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http://www.cooleography.co.uk GCSE e-book 4.2 Factors affecting the rate of urbanisation and the emergence of mega-cities.

Urbanisation levels are affected by 2 things – Migration and Natural increase

FACTOR 1 - MIGRATION

Migration is the movement of population from one area to another. Some migrations are forced, voluntary, permanent and temporary, International and regional. The type of migration that we are principally interested in is Rural to urban migration, which is the movement of people from countryside to city areas.

This type of migration happened in HICs from the 18th Century onwards on a large scale, and has gradually slowed down. In fact in many HICs the movement of people has reversed, and people are moving from urban areas back into the countryside as they search for the quiet life (this is known as counter-urbanisation).

However, many LICs are experiencing massive rural to urban migration, mainly of young males, into the major cities. The major reasons for this movement can be classified into push and pull factors.

A Push factor is something that can force or encourage people to move away from an area. Push factors can include famine (as in Ethiopia in the 1980s), drought, flooding (as in Bangladesh, were people are becoming climate change refugees and having to move to Dhaka), a lack of employment opportunities, population growth and over population, and civil war (as in Darfur at the moment).

A Pull factor is one in which encourages people to move to an area. Pull factors include the chance of a better job, better access to education and services, and a higher standard of living.

These factors have contributed to millions of people in LICs moving to cities, creating mass URBANISATION.

FACTOR 2 – NATURAL INCREASE

Natural Increase also has a major effect on rates of urbanisation. During the initial urbanisation phase natural increase in poorer parts of the world can increase as Death Rates fall in cities as people have;

 Better access to medical care  Improved water supplies  Improved sanitary conditions  Improved wealth so improved food supply

Whilst Birth rates take longer to fall and indeed more babies survive as infant mortality falls in cities. Also, young people move to towns and cities, which also boost the birth rate. These combined factors can fuel the rate of urbanisation.

MEGACITIES

These 2 factors have pushed world urbanisation above 50% and have led to the emergence of hundreds of Megacities. Megacities are those cities that have a population above 10 million. These cities have sprung up around the globe but it is clear that in recent history most of them can be found in ASIA, whereas the biggest cities used to be in Europe and North America. These cities have their own unique set of environmental, social and economic challenges, due to their sheer size and scale, and the RAPIDITY of the GROWTH. Mumbai is an example of a megacity

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4.3 Mumbai – a case study of a major city in a LIC or NEE

4.3.1 The location and importance of the city, both nationally and internationally

Mumbai can be found in Maharashtra state in the West of India. It is not the most populous of Indian cities but it is one of the most important economically and culturally. Mumbai is a MEGACITY, with a population of over 12 million people!

Its Geographic location (see map) is very significant, as it is on a major shipping route through the Mediterranean Sea via the Suez Canal, along with other shipping routes. It also has a major airport and is connected to other Indian cities via railway and road links.

Its location attracted fishermen initially, then British Colonisers and was the ideal place for a port, as Mumbai is built on an island with a river estuary to the East, protecting the ships from waves in the Indian Ocean when in dock.

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http://www.cooleography.co.uk GCSE e-book Mumbai is a city of contrasts, being one of the richest cities in Asia but also home to some of the world’s poorest people. It accounts for 6% of India's GDP, 40 % of foreign trade, and 25% of industrial production. In total, the city creates US$10 billion in corporate taxes and its per-capita income is higher than the national average.

It is also the entertainment, fashion and commercial centre of India. It is also one of the world's top 10 centres of commerce in terms of global financial flow. It also has the headquarters of a number of Indian financial institutions such as the Bombay Stock Exchange and the Reserve Bank of India, and numerous Indian companies such as the Tata Group. Most of these offices are located in downtown South Mumbai which is the nerve centre of the Indian economy.

Many foreign companies also have their branches in the South Bombay area. Mumbai is the world's 29th largest city by GDP.

ACTIVITIES 4.3.1

1. Using page 8 define the following terms:  Migration –  Push Factor -

 Pull Factor -

 Natuiral Increase –

2. How do migration and natural increase affect the population size of cities?

3. Use the information on pages 9 and 10 to rank the factors about how Mumbai has grown into an order of importance. Give reasons for your ranking Rank out of

Location in West of India Shipping routes

Location as a port Entertainment and fashion

industries Foreign companies

Location of Indian Banks

SCORE 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

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http://www.cooleography.co.uk GCSE e-book 4.3.2 Causes of growth: natural increase and migration Mumbai is IN Maharashtra state, but there are differences between the 2 as is evident in the table below.

Table 4.4.2 – Contrasts between Mumbai and Maharashtra state

Maharashtra Mumbai State GDP per head (US $) 1,660 2,845 Life expectancy 68.4 52.6 (men) and 58.1 (women) Infant Mortality 28 26 Literacy rate 82.9% 90.81% Birth rate 17.6 20.1 Death rate 6.7 6.0

POPULATION GROWTH

The population of the city has increased incredibly, as can be seen on the graph below. The issue that Mumbai has is that despite its incredible wealth by Indian standards, it still has a huge number of people living in shanty towns or slums, together with all of the associated environmental and social problems these areas have.

CAUSES OF GROWTH

1. Migration - 38% of Population change in Mumbai, India migrants to Mumbai come from 14,000,000 Maharashtra state 12,478,447 12,000,000 11,914,398 together with many TOTAL POPULATION others from other 10,000,000 9,925,891 poor regions. 8,000,000 8,243,405 Maharashtra state SLUM DWELLERS 6,000,000 5,970,575 is more rural than Population Mumbai and half of 4,000,000 the population works in farming. 2,000,000

0 Farming has 1971 1981 1991 2001 2011 undergone massive Date changes in India in recent decades. Increased use of machinery has forced people out of work, and changes to farming have forced people with small farms to sell up to larger land owners. Small scale farmers are also vulnerable to bad harvests and poor weather as they are totally dependent on their crops. In bad years, they can end up forced to sell up and have to migrate. In Mumbai there are job opportunities in service industries and the manufacturing industries which pay higher wages. There are also more schools, health care facilities and entertainments in Mumbai than other parts of Maharashtra state. 2. Natural increase – although less significant than migration in Mumbai’s case (see graph below), the population of Mumbai is also increasing naturally, with significantly more births than deaths (due to high birth rates) every year.

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ACTIVITIES 4.3.2

Look at table 4.4.2 on page 11 –

1. What factors would attract migrants to Mumbai and why?

2. Which factors might stop or deter people from moving?

3. Study the graph below on causes of urban growth in Mumbai

Recent changes in Population in Mumbai

5 4 3 2 1

0 Population(millions) Population Increase Natural Increase (millions) Net Migration (millions) (millions) 1991 - 2001 4.94 1.86 3.08 2001 - 2011 3.48 1.51 1.97

4. Describe the patterns on the graph

SCORE 1 2 3 4

5. Which factor is most important in the growth of Mumbai? 5 6 6. What has happened to the growth of Mumbai over time? 7 8 9 10

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4.3.3 The Social and Economic Opportunities of living in Mumbai

People have moved to Mumbai because large cities like Mumbai offer more opportunities to people than rural areas can. Cities benefit from ECONOMIES of SCALE – it easier and cheaper to provide the services people desire when there are lots of people.

Social Opportunities These are opportunities that help people in some way or other, Mumbai offers many opportunities to people via access to various public and private services; Health care – we often take health care for granted in the UK, with our free at the point of use NHS, but access to quality healthcare matters to many people. In cities like Mumbai people have easier access to a wider range of medical services including doctors, hospitals and nurses. Even the poor have access to basic medical services that they either would not have in the rural areas or would have to travel very long distances for. Education – this is another free at the point of use service in the UK, but education is truly life changing and often taken for granted. Not in poor countries, migrants often move to cities to have access to schools for their children, so that their children have a much better chance in life than themselves. Water supply – This is variable in Mumbai, and in Dharavi slum the water pipes are only in use 2 hours a day and there are queues for this water. However, this is clean drinking water, which often not available in poorer rural areas or involves a time consuming labour intensive walk for (mainly) women to the local well. Having access to clean water that does not transmit parasites or cause cholera is another opportunity provided by living in an urban megacity like Mumbai. Energy – some remote parts of India still have no electricity, whilst living in a large city like Mumbai allows people to live with all of the benefits of energy and electricity. This is another opportunity or pull factor, think of all of the opportunities that having regular energy supply offers to people.

Economic opportunities

The major pull factor of a city like Mumbai, like cities in LICs and NEEs across the globe, is the opportunity for employment. Most people around the globe want the chance to work, earn a living and provide a decent life for themselves and their families. Mumbai offers a huge range of job opportunities from the hugely attractive and often unobtainable like working for a major financial institution like a bank or in the Bollywood film industry, to the most basic such as rag pickers (people who sift through rubbish to find items of any worth).

Mumbai has many job opportunities because it alone accounts for 6% of India's GDP and 40% of its foreign trade. It is also a manufacturing hub which creates a lot of jobs, 25% of India’s industrial production is in Mumbai. The port area also creates a lot of valuable jobs.

It also has the headquarters of a number of Indian financial institutions such as the Bombay Stock Exchange and the Reserve Bank of India, and numerous Indian companies such as the Tata Group. Most of these offices are located in downtown South Mumbai which is the nerve center of the Indian economy.

The formal and informal economy Many of the jobs in Mumbai are in the formal economy. These jobs are registered jobs where the workers’ pay taxes to the government and the companies have a legal obligation to protect their workers, offer holidays and pay regular wages.

However, many of the jobs in Mumbai are also found in the informal economy. Here there is no minimum wage, the workers are unlikely to pay taxes, have no holiday rights and often work in dangerous or hazardous conditions. Jobs include rag picking, breaking up and recycling old electronic products, recycling waste, making pottery, selling items on the street etc. The key to many these jobs is that they cost little to set up, use simple tools and are labour intensive (involve 10 ©Robert Gamesby http://www.coolgeography.co.uk

http://www.cooleography.co.uk GCSE e-book lots of human work).

Despite the difficulties of the informal industry, these industries offer poor often uneducated people a foothold in the city. They can earn money and start to improve their quality of life from that point. Dharavi slum has the following positives for people

1. Informal shopping areas exist where it is possible to buy anything you might need. 2. There are also mosques catering for people's religious needs. 3. There is a pottery area of Dharavi slum which has a community centre. 4. Rooms within houses have multiple functions, including living, working and sleeping. Many daily chores are done in social spheres because people live close to one another. This helps to generate a sense of community. 5. The buildings in the pottery part of the slum are all of different heights and colours, adding interest and diversity. This is despite the enormous environmental problems with air and land pollution. 6. 85% of people have a job in the slum and work LOCALLY, and some have even managed to become millionaires.

ACTIVITIES 4.3.3

Produce a mind map that summarises all of the reasons why people would want to live in Mumbai;

Why do people want to live in Mumbai?

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4.3.4 Challenges in Mumbai:

SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC CHALLENGES

Mumbai is a city that faces many challenges and those challenges are large because of its immense size and rapid growth. Physical Geography also plays a role, as Mumbai has been limited in where it can grow because it originally grew at the southern end of an island surrounded by the Arabian Sea and 2 rivers.

The major problem in Mumbai is the growth of squatter settlements known in India as SLUMS. These slums come with many issues for people including the lack of planned access to clean water and sanitation systems, poor health, lack of education, unemployment and the prospect of crime.

One of the world’s most infamous slums is Dharavi slum, which is the largest squatter settlement located in Mumbai (formally Bombay) in India. There are a million people crammed into one square mile in Dharavi. At the edge of Dharavi the newest arrivals come to make their homes on waste land next to water pipes in slum areas. They set up home illegally amongst waste on land that is not suitable for habitation. In the wet monsoon season these people have huge problems living on this low lying marginal land.

Challenging Conditions in the slums In the slum people have to live with many problems;

1. Lack of sanitation is the MAJOR ISSUE - people have to go to the toilet in the street and there are open sewers because 500 people share one public latrine. Children play amongst sewage waste and doctors deal with 4,000 cases a day of diphtheria and typhoid. 2. Lack of access to clean water – there are few water pipes in the slum and those that exist only have the supply switched on for 2 hours a day by the city authorities. This means people have to queue for water and have LIMITED SUPPLY. In addition, next to the open sewers are water pipes, which can crack and take in sewage. Dharavi slum is based around this water pipe built on an old rubbish tip. 3. Lack of legal rights - The people have not planned this settlement and have no legal rights to the land. In addition, the slum houses have little in the way of security. Mumbai as a whole has a problem with crime, such as pick pockets and organised begging. 4. POOR HEALTH – life expectancies in the squatter settlements are low because of these conditions, poor quality water, mosquitoes which thrive in nearby mangrove swamps and dangerous jobs (There are toxic wastes in the slum including hugely dangerous heavy metals) all serve to impact on people’s health. 5. UNEMPLOYMENT and POOR QUALITY WORK - Many people have poor jobs, such as those who work to sift the rubbish in the tips where children and women sift through the rubbish for valuable waste. They have to work under the hot sun in appalling conditions. They earn around a £1 a day for their work.

Many architects and planners claim this slum could hold the solution for many of the problems of the world’s largest cities.

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ENVIRONMENTAL CHALLENGES:

Mumbai has challenges to deal with protecting the natural environment and providing people with a clean environment to live in.

1. Water pollution is a major problem in Mumbai. A major study revealed that 77% of households suffer from poor water quality in the city. This poor water quality is leading to water borne diseases occurring in people and levels of things like total dissolved solids (TDS) and nitrates are higher than safe limits. Toxic chemicals such as arsenic and lead and disease-causing bacteria are also contributing to the alarming increase in the water contamination. Deadly waterborne diseases like cholera, jaundice, typhoid, diarrhoea are affecting people as a result.

2. Air pollution – Mumbai has some very dirty air including dangerous levels of Nitrous Oxides and small dust particles called particulate matter. These are both hazardous to human health and can cause things like asthma. The causes of this pollution are industry, ever increasing numbers of cars and construction dust.

3. Waste – Mumbai produces 7,500 metric tonnes of waste every day, a huge amount. There is no comprehensive city based system of collection and this waste poses a hazard to human health. The slum of Dharavi has a recycling zone. It is claimed that Dharavi’s recycling zone could be the way forward to a sustainable future. Everything is recycled from cosmetics and plastics to computer keyboards. 23% of plastic waste gets recycled in the UK, in Dharavi it is 80%. Despite this Mumbai still has major problems getting rid of its waste.

4. Traffic congestion – there are more than 22 million vehicles registered in Mumbai and these contribute to both noise and air pollution, as well as lots of lost hours as people sit in traffic jams. This is despite Mumbai’s renowned train system.

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ACTIVITIES 4.3.4

Complete the Case Study Crib Sheet below to cover all of the challenges facing Mumbai;

Case study name – Introduction & Location – Write a short sentence about what Key facts to remember (include at least 4 – dates, names the case study is about and WHERE it is of places, figures etc.)

Sketch map

Key Geography Terminology associated with case study

What the case study is about in 5 sentences

5. SCORE A Question I could be asked: 1 Common Command words to help – Describe, Compare, Contrast, Explain, Suggest why 2 3

4 5 6 7 Is Mumbai a city of hope or despair? 8 9 10

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http://www.cooleography.co.uk GCSE e-book 4.4.5 An example of how urban planning is improving the quality of life for the urban poor.

The city authorities of Mumbai want to improve the quality of life of the people who live there. This includes the slum or squatter settlement dwellers. Current approaches across Mumbai are for whole sale DEMOLITION of the slums which are replaced by high rise tower blocks for people to live in. The positives and negatives of these are shown below;

These types of redevelopment are planned for Dharavi by the Slum Rehabilitation Authority (SRA). They have proposed a $2billion development project. This threatens the recycling district and part of Dharavi. The land upon which Dharavi is built is next to Mumbai’s financial district. This makes it a prime target for redevelopment. The people who are relocated will be put into smaller housing in apartment blocks. An ancient fishing village is also threatened. These areas have strong safe neighbourhoods that have low crime and communal areas. Also at risk are the local shops and markets and the community spirit which has taken generations to develop. The locals would prefer small improvements to the existing slum such as improvements in drainage. The value of land is so high that redevelopment is now a real threat. The alternative accommodation is very small, only 21m2

The slum dwellers face 14 story apartments as accommodation as proposed by the cities Slum Rehabilitation Authority. This will separate communities and make people work away from where they live. Only people who have lived in the slum since 1995 will be relocated. Current redevelopment projects are densely populated and house lots of people. They are not good for the community.

Local Based Improvements

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http://www.cooleography.co.uk GCSE e-book There is an alternative to large scale redevelopment and that is to allow LOCAL people design the improvements to the slum.

The Society for the Promotion of Area Resource Centres, better known as SPARC, is an NGO that supports the efforts of local people to get better housing for their many members. Ideas generated from local people supported by this charity include adding an extra floor to buildings so that all family members can be accommodated in the same building. These flats also had 14-foot high ceilings and a single tall window so are well ventilated, bright, and less dependent on electric fans for cooling. Their loft spaces add extra room without seeming crowded, and include small spaces for bathing. Toilets are placed at the end of each of the building’s four floors, and kept clean by the two or three families who use each one. These ideas only work when water is running in Dharavi.

As the National Slum Dwellers Federation has repeatedly proven, housing the poor works best, costs less and is better for the environment, when the poor themselves have a say in what is being built.

Slum rehabilitation buildings

Dharavi Slum, which could be replaced by something similar together with financial institutions

ACTIVITIES 4.3.5

Read pages 18 and 19Which do you prefer, the high rise tower blocks proposed by the Slum rehabilitation Authority or

Local based improvements suggested by SPARC? Justify your answer.

SCORE 1

2 3

4 5 6 7 8 9 10

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http://www.cooleography.co.uk GCSE e-book 4.4 The distribution of population and the major cities in the UK.

The United Kingdom is a country with a high level of urbanisation and great number of large cities. It has no megacities with a population over 10 million but it does have London, the capital, with by far the biggest population at over 8 million inhabitants.

The population and cities of the UK are NOT EVENLY DISTRIBUTED (distribution just means the way in which something is spread over an area). The population density (a measurement of the number of people in an area calculated by dividing the number of people by the area) is also uneven. Northern Scotland and the upland areas of England and Wales tend to be sparsely populated so contain few people. The cities of the UK shown on the map, and the South East of the country are places which are densely populated contain many people

Across the UK the highest population densities are found in major cities and as we move North through the UK population density falls, with the exception of the Edinburgh to Glasgow corridor. The upland areas in the UK have low population density and the densest population can be found to the South East, in the area around London. It is in these areas were issues over housing shortages have been at their worst.

The cities of the UK owe their origins to many different reasons, For example, Sheffield is famous for its steel industry, Newcastle coal and then ship building.

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LONDON: A case study of a major city in the UK

4.4.1 The location and importance of the city in the UK and the wider world

London can stake a claim to be the world’s greatest city, it is certainly one of the most globalised, connected and influential places on planet earth even if it isn’t the largest city by area or population size.

London can be found in the South East of England, located on the River Thames which has been influential in its growth, and in the centre of the densest population of the UK. It also hosts the parliament of the UK

Within Europe, London is part of Europe’s economic core, the area producing the majority of the GDP or wealth of Europe, in what is called Europe’s “hot banana” alongside Paris, Geneva, and Milan. London also has a Global reach, through its major airports Heathrow and Gatwick, and its economic pull via the City of London and the stock exchange.

London’s population has started to grow again after shrinking post World War II, and currently stands at over 8 million.

London remains an influential city both within the UK and the wider world, look at the fact file on the next page.

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London Fact file:

Location and population Travel Hub Tourism  London’s population is 12.5%  Journeys by private car  London is one of the most of the UK’s on just 0.6% of the have fallen in London since visited cities in the world land 2000  London has the highest  It is 36.5 miles west to east  Public transport journeys tourist spend in the world and 30 miles North to south have increased by 40% with $21.1billion in 2011  Peak population in 1939 since 2000  There are more visits there  It is predicted to go beyond  Half a million bike journeys from the USA, but 2/3 of all that level soon and is currently are made every day in the visits are from Europeans 8.3 million capital  The highest average total-  88,000 babies were born in  London has several major spend came from people London in 2013 airports including Heathrow, from the UAE at £1,625 per  The wider London area has a Gatwick, City and London visitor… population of over 9 million Stansted  But Norwegians spend people  Heathrow carried more per night a £157  It is the world’s 14th largest 69.4million passengers in  And Indian visitors spend Capital city 2011, more than all the the longest time there at 17  Tokyo is the largest with 37 other airports put together. nights million people! It connects to cities all over the world Finance Education Business  Londoners earn 23% more  London has 40 higher  The number of businesses than the UK average education institutions per 1000 population is  Londoners spend 24% more including some of the higher in London at 75 than than the average! World’s top universities elsewhere in the UK at 54  The average London house  410,000 students attend  In London 11.2% of price went above £500,000 in these institutions companies had a turnover 2013 compared to a national  London represents one- of at least a million pounds average of £249,000 third of higher education compared to 9% for the rest  London has the 6th largest city institutions nationally of the UK economy after Tokyo, New  And one fifth of the UK’s  London is home to 15 of the York, Los Angeles, Chicago student population head offices of the 250 and Paris  Over ½ of Londoners have largest companies in the  London accounts for over a a degree world fifth of the Gross Value added of the UK  London generates 22% of the UK’s GDP Jobs Cultural diversity Green space  800,000 people commute to  Over 2 million Londoners do  65% of London’s land is London for work every day not speak English at home either gardens, public green  There were 5 million jobs in  The 3 most common space or water London at the start of 2012 languages spoken at home  223 of London’s Parks and  The city’s population swells by other than English are green spaces hold Green 1.3 million every day because Bengali, Urdu and Polish Fag awards of people going to London to  One third of Londoners  London has 8 Royal Parks work and tourism This makes were born abroad…the top London’s daytime population 3 countries are India, 9.3 million Poland and Bangladesh  36% of Londoners are from Black, Asian or minority ethnic group

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ACTIVITIES 4.4.1 SCORE 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Describe what has happened to the population using the graph above.

Using the fact file select 5 facts that prove the London is influential within the UK and 5 facts that show it is influential world wide

London is influential within the UK because… London is influential worldwide because…

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http://www.cooleography.co.uk GCSE e-book 4.4.2 Impacts of national and international migration on the growth and character of the city

London’s population is in a period of growth. It grew from just over 1 million in the 1801 census, to a peak of over 8.6 million in 1941. Following this period the population of London went into decline, slipping to just over 6 million in 1991. Since then government initiatives and a booming economy have allowed the population to grow to 8.3 million in the 2011 census, and it is predicted to continue to grow. This can all be seen on the graph on page 17

CAUSES OF GROWTH The graph below shows that there are 3 factors at play influencing the overall size and rate of growth of London’s population; 1. Internal (within the UK) migration has been negative; that is the numbers of people moving out of London has been greater than the number of UK residents moving in. This balance has got smaller over time. 2. International net migration has always been positive during the time period shown, so there have always been more foreign born people moving into London than out of it 3. Natural Change has been positive, so births have been above deaths and this has boosted the population size.

When the balance is taken between these 3 factors it can be seen that London’s population has had a POSITIVE BALANCE year on year, with London gaining over 100,000 people a year between 2008 and 2013. A gain greater than the population of the city of Newcastle upon Tyne!

Internal migrants into London tend to be in the age groups 20 -30, whilst those who tend to leave are over 30 or children. This means that generally people migrate into London for work; and leave when they start having families.

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4.4.3 The Opportunities London Offers

London is an amazing city and it offers a huge range of OPPORTUNITIES to the people who live there or migrate there.

Social and Economic Opportunities:

OPPORTUNITY 1 - Cultural mix

The cultural mix or multiculturalism basically refers to a country or place that has more than one culture living together in close proximity. Multiculturalism is an issue in many HICs and can be viewed in both a positive light and as something that can pose problems that need careful management.

The increasing interconnections of our world and the ever moving populations of our planet via migration mean that most cities like London around the globe especially in HICs have huge numbers of people of all different races, religions and cultures

The UK has huge numbers of cultures and races, as well as white British people there are huge numbers of migrants from India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Canada, USA, Kenya, Zimbabwe and other ex-British colonies. In addition, there are also lots of people from Europe and countries outside of the ex-colonies and the European Union. In addition, many of the "newer" cultures to the UK are not actually that new at all! Jamaicans and other peoples from the Western Caribbean have lived in the UK for many generations, and many Asian peoples who migrated here now have 3rd and 4th generation families living in the UK.

LONDON:

The Census of 2011 revealed that;

1. London is one of the most diverse places not just in Britain but on planet Earth; 2. In three boroughs - Newham, Brent and Tower Hamlets - white people are now in the minority. 3. Inner London has the highest non-white population in the country, with 37 per cent of residents from an ethnic minority. In outer London, the figure falls slightly to 27 per cent. 4. London is more diverse than any other part of the country; with the only other area to record a figure in excess of 20 per cent is the West Midlands.

ADVANTAGES

This migration and multiculturalism has been advantageous for London. It enriches huge areas of London cultural life, from the amazing array of food that is available on nearly every high street in London to the music variety we have (the BBC's Asian Radio channel is a great example of this). Other advantages include the great exposure people get to other religions, languages and cultural parties. The London also benefits from huge cultural events celebrating this multiculturalism, such as the Notting Hill Carnival. The cultural mix in London also highlights what a broadly tolerant and Liberal people the citizens of the London are - a fine compliment.

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A cultural mix is not without its difficulties. One of the big issues for London and other parts of the UK is INTEGRATION. How can we ensure that all new peoples moving to London and other parts of the UK can converse properly in English, mix with other groups and have access to all of the advantages of being a UK subject. Another issue is ghettoes, how can we prevent economically poorer cultural groups living in the poorest parts of our cities. Language is another issue, and many public services such as schools and hospitals have to provide language translation services.

OPPORTUNITY 2 - Recreation and entertainment

London is blessed when it comes to recreation and entertainment;

 It has a huge number of cultural attractions such as the British Museum, the National Gallery and the Natural History Museum.  It has the West End where a huge number of shows can be seen and tourist attractions such as Buckingham Palace and the Houses of Parliament.  On top of that London has a huge number of concert and cinema venues and lots of sporting events such as the Oxford-Cambridge Boat race, the Wimbledon Tennis Open, many big name football teams and even hosted the Olympics.  Add to that the usual mix of bars, restaurants and street entertainment common of most large cities then London has a great select of recreation and entertainment.

OPPORTUNITY 3 - Employment.

The graph shows that the economy of London is different to that of the rest of the UK. It is dominated by financial and insurance activities, mainly located in the City of London. Overall;

 London is by far the largest contributor to the economy among the English regions and countries of the UK.  In 2010 London’s gross value added (GVA) was over £274 billion. It represented 22 per cent of the UK total, the largest regional share.  London was responsible for 46 per cent of the total UK GVA from the financial and insurance activities sector.  London houses a major world financial centre and a range of business specialisms which attract a highly skilled workforce.  London residents (aged 16 to 64 and working) are more likely to be employed in managerial, professional or associate professional and technical occupations, compared with the UK (54 and 43 per cent respectively in 2011).  However the unemployment rate was one of the highest. London’s employment rate was 67.5 per cent in the period October to December 2011, below the average of 70.3 per cent for the UK. The unemployment rate was 10.0 per cent compared with 8.4 per cent for the UK.

23 ©Robert Gamesby http://www.coolgeography.co.uk

http://www.cooleography.co.uk GCSE e-book OPPORTUNITY 4 - Integrated transport systems

London has a really developed INTEGRATED transport system. Integrated transport means that all of the different forms of transport can link to one another. Its transport network includes both private and public services. Public transport accounts for 25% of London's journeys. London also serves a public transport network hub for the whole of the UK –many UK motorways converge on London’s orbital ring road the M25, Heathrow, Gatwick and Stansted serve as major hub International air ports, busses congregate here and trains link the UK together at stations like Kings Cross and connect to Europe via Eurostar from St Pancras. Transport for London controls the majority of transport in London including the London Underground, the iconic red London Buses, the Docklands Light Railway, and the London Over ground. London Commuters can travel on most forms of transport using the Oyster card. This card is a credit-card- sized electronic ticket that can be used cheaply and topped up in stations or on line. It can be used on most forms of transport in London. London also has an integrated cycle network, it is estimated that over one million Londoners own bicycles but as of 2008 only around 2 per cent of all journeys in London are made by bike. OPPORTUNITY 5 - Environmental: urban greening

Urban greening means to increase the amount and proportion of green spaces within a city. These green spaces are essential for people’s quality of life. London has made attempts to offer lots of green spaces within its urban area by; SOURCE: http://www.nhm.ac.uk/natureplus/blogs/whats- new/2012/03/12/how-green-is-your-alley 1. Creating ROOFTOP green spaces - the Greater London Authority have produced a green roof map of around 700 green roofs in central London alone, covering an area of over 175,000m2. That’s 17.5 hectares or around 25 football pitches! These roofs are used as living spaces and spaces to grow plants. 2. Using canals, rivers and river jetties as significant water bird breeding roosts 3. Making major new building projects take into consideration urban green spaces, including the Olympic Village 4. Offering a huge range of green spaces open to the public including Hampstead Heath just 4 miles from Trafalgar Square, Burnham Beeches and Stoke Common which combine open space, wildlife habitat and recreational areas, and Queen’s Park in North London

24 ©Robert Gamesby http://www.coolgeography.co.uk

http://www.cooleography.co.uk GCSE e-book

http://londontopia.net/londonism/lond on-maps-intriguing-map-london- shows-just-much-green-space- amount-will-surprise/

ACTIVITIES 4.4.3

Look at the map above and use it to complete the table below;

Total amount of green areas in London Total amount of BUILT environments in London

SCORE

How does the amount of green space compare to the amount of built environments? Is this surprising? 2

6 7 8 Why do people live in London? Include as many opportunities in your answer as possible 9 10

©Robert Gamesby http://www.coolgeography.co.uk 25

http://www.cooleography.co.uk GCSE e-book 4.5.4 The Challenges London Faces

Whilst London is a fantastic city and a great place to live and work for many reasons, it is not without its challenges. There are huge variations in wealth and access to jobs across London, and the high cost of living of London poses problems for many of the people who live there.

Social and Economic Challenges:

Challenge 1: Inequalities in Health, Housing, Education and Employment

London is an incredibly unequal city. Billionaires live in very close proximity to people who survive on less than a living wage. Indeed, incomes in London are more unequal than ANY other region of the UK, according to http://www.londonspovertyprofile.org ;

 16% of Londoners are in the poorest tenth nationally, whilst 17% are in the richest tenth of people in the country  The richest 10% of people in London have 60% of all assets whilst the poorest 80% of the population share just 20% of all asset wealth in London  The top tenth of employees in London earn around four and a half times as much as the bottom tenth.

These huge differences in wealth result in big differences in people’s access to and success with in housing, education, health and employment

Trends and patterns Housing House prices and rents are higher in London than any other part of the country. More people in London rent than own their house and those that rent pay more than half their weekly pay in rent.

At the same time as those who live in poor quality, small rented accommodation, there are people living in some of the most expensive properties on the planet.

Education Children across London do not get equal exam grades, but some of the school’s in London’s poorest boroughs are amongst the fastest improving schools in the country. Generally, the schools in the poorest areas score the lowest number of GCSE points per pupil. Health The people in wealthy areas tend to live longer than those in the poorer areas of London. The census 2011 showed that the % of people reporting themselves as in “Not good health was also highest in the areas of lowest income. Employment Despite the huge wealth found in London unemployment remains a major issue. London’s employment rate was just 67.5 per cent in the period October to December 2011, below the average of 70.3 per cent for the UK. The unemployment rate was 10.0 per cent compared with 8.4 per cent for the UK.

26 ©Robert Gamesby http://www.coolgeography.co.uk

http://www.cooleography.co.uk GCSE e-book Children in Poverty 2009 Life expectancy across London in 2007

% of people in ward receiving out of work benefits in These maps show how unequal London is for various November 2012 indicators. The wealthier areas of London with higher

household incomes have been overlaid on top of the maps above. Clearly there are more children in poverty in the lower income areas, and life expectancies are 5 years WORSE in the poorer areas than the richer areas. The lowest income areas also have more people in receipt of out of work benefits. All of these show the INEQUALITIES that exist in London between the rich and the poor

http://www.londonspovertyprofile.org.uk/indicators/topics/receiving-non- work-benefits/working-age-out-of-work-benefits-by-ward/

Challenge 2 - Urban decline and deprivation

Urban decline is the deterioration of the inner city often caused by lack of investment and maintenance. It is often but not exclusively accompanied by a decline in population numbers, decreasing economic performance and unemployment.

Urban deprivation is a standard of living below that of the majority in a particular society that involves hardships and lack of access to resources. Places suffering from urban deprivation have visible differences in housing and economic opportunities been the rich living alongside poor people.

Despite the large wealth found in parts of London many areas suffer from both Urban Decline and the people suffer from deprivation. It is particularly hard for the poorest people to have a decent standard of living because the prices of many things are more expensive, especially rents which account for a huge proportion of peoples incomes. The map above shows unemployment (out of work benefits) across London, and it is clear that unemployment levels are not

27 ©Robert Gamesby http://www.coolgeography.co.uk

http://www.cooleography.co.uk GCSE e-book evenly distributed or spread out. Areas like Newsham, Barking and Dagenham and Tower Hamlets have the highest unemployment rates in the capital.

This can result in a cycle of urban decline;

Challenge 3 - Dereliction

There is a sizeable supply of brownfield land in London, which to date remains untapped. Figures published by the Government recently highlighted that there were some 250 hectares of brownfield sites, equivalent to an area just short of the size of Hyde Park that are not in line for development of any sort. The Olympic Park to the right for the 2012 Olympics is a good example of how derelict land can be brought back into use.

http://elearningexamples.com/before-after- londons-olympic-park/

28 ©Robert Gamesby http://www.coolgeography.co.uk

http://www.cooleography.co.uk GCSE e-book

ACTIVITIES 4.4.4 SCORE 1 Produce a mind map with images and colour on the challenges that London faces 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

The challenges London faces

29 ©Robert Gamesby http://www.coolgeography.co.uk

http://www.cooleography.co.uk GCSE e-book Environmental Challenges Facing London:

Challenge 4 - The impact of urban sprawl on the rural–urban fringe

The edges of cities are known as the rural urban fringe. There has been increasing building in these areas because of housing pressure, despite Greenbelt legislation (laws) that are supposed to prevent building there. The growth outwards of our cities into these regions is known as URBAN SPRAWL and can have many impacts on these areas;

 Extra cost to the tax payer – the public help to pay for infrastructure such as roads and water works to allow building developments to go ahead.  Increased Traffic – extra people in these areas means that cars are used more often, which means that there is more traffic on the roads, and there is also more air pollution and more accidents  Health Issues – people in these areas often have to commute to work which means that they often travel by car. This can have negative impacts on people’s health such as high blood pressure.  Environmental Issues -sprawling cities consume land, and this displaces animals from their habitat  Impact on Social Lives – people in sprawling communities can often live further from their neighbours, this can cause isolation.

Challenge 5 - Building on brownfield and Greenfield sites

Housing is a big issue in the UK because it is a reasonably small country in terms of surface area which has a large and growing population (the ONS thinks we could hit 70 million people in 2033). To make the problem worse, population is not evenly distributed across the UK with lower densities the further north you go and the highest densities in London and the South East. The result of this has been housing shortages in the SE and high property prices and rental costs. The number of households has increased 30% since 1971 due to more people living on their own, rising life expectancy and high net levels of immigration.

To solve this we need to build more homes, but WHERE to build them?

Greenbelt - tract of open land consisting of farmland, woodland and open recreational areas surrounding urban areas. They are protected by law from new building, unless the government deems it necessary to build there. Greenfield site – a term used to describe any area of land that has not been developed previously. Brownfield site – an old industrial or inner city site that is cleared for a new building development.

Building in the green belt on undeveloped green field sites is a very controversial and contentious issue. Population growth in the UK, the trend towards smaller family units and the demand for people to live at the edge of the city has put incredible pressure on the countryside surrounding all of our major cities. In addition, the fact that land is cheaper and often more accessible at the edge of the city has meant that Light industry (e.g. Atmel at Silverlink), High Tech Industry (e.g. Sage at Newcastle Great Park) and retail (e.g. the Metro Centre) like to locate there.

The positives of brownfield and Greenfield sites are shown below;

Advantages of building in Greenfield sites Advantages of building on Brownfield sites 1) There is no need to clean up the site from previous 1) It is more sustainable as existing developed land is land uses therefore can work out cheaper. being used 2) Existing road networks are not in place so don't 2) They stop city expansion as they are already within restrict planning the city - this stops the loss of countryside and 3) They are often on the edges of cities where land is reduces journey times as the city is more compact cheaper 3) Road networks already exist, as do electricity and 4) Planners and architects have a blank canvas to work gas networks, although these may need updating with 4) It is easier to gain planning permission as councils 5) More space is available for gardens are keen to reuse the brownfield sites. 6) The edge of city countryside environment can appeal 5) The sites are closer to the CBD for shopping and to buyers and businesses. job opportunities 7) Sites on the edge of the city are often close to major motorways providing great access

http://www.cooleography.co.uk GCSE e-book

London

Up to 50,000 new London homes are to be built on 20 brownfield sites, in a £400m scheme announced in 2014 by the Government. This includes an 85 hectare former industrial site in Enfield Meridian Water in Enfield, north London, where 5,000 homes, a new school and community facilities are to be built.

Artists impression of Enfield Meridian Water The Brownfield site of Enfield Meridian Water

Challenge 6 - Waste disposal and atmospheric https://www.london.gov.uk/priorities/environment/breat pollution he-better-together/air-pollution-the-facts

London suffers from air pollution, mainly due to the sheer size of the city, a dense road network and high buildings. This means that central London tends to be one of the most polluted places in the UK.

London has failed many of the standards set by the EU and pollution can build up in London when anticyclones bring settled weather. London has problems with the following pollutants;

 Ozone pollution in spring and summer, this gas is a poison to the human body  Particulate matter – these are tiny particles of solids or liquids suspended in the air. They come from carbon emissions from engines, small bits of metal and rubber from engine wear and braking as well as dust from road surfaces. They can come from natural sources and from building and industry. The tiny particles, referred to as PM10, can settle in the airway and deep in the lungs and cause health problems, premature death and the worsening of heart and lung disease.  Nitrogen Dioxide from burning fossil fuels in cars and central heating boilers is another problem gas. It is harmful to human health giving respiratory problems such as shortness of breath and coughing. It can also lead to lung infections such as bronchitis.

http://www.cooleography.co.uk GCSE e-book Management;

London is working hard to try and protect people and clean up the air by;

 Offering a free to download app that informs people of air quality  Cleaning up London's bus fleet by making them less polluting  Introducing a congestion charge in central London to reduce traffic volumes  Set new and tighter standards for the London Low Emission Zone  Invest record amounts of money in cycling and working with Sustrans

Waste disposal

London also produces huge amounts of waste. It uses a mixture of recycling, landfill (where the waste is dumped into the ground and energy recovery (the waste is burnt to produce electricity) to deal with this waste. The London waste management strategy is aiming to; 1. To achieve zero municipal waste direct to landfill by 2025. 2. To reduce the amount of household waste produced from 970kg per household in 2009/10 to 790kg per household by 2031. This is equivalent to a 20 per cent reduction per household. 3. To increase London’s capacity to reuse or repair municipal waste 4. To recycle or compost at least 45 per cent of municipal waste by 2015 5. To cut London’s greenhouse gas emissions through the management of London’s municipal waste 6. To generate as much energy as practicable from London’s organic and non-recycled waste in a way that is no more polluting in carbon terms than the energy source it is replacing. This is estimated to be possible for about 40 per cent of London’s municipal waste after recycling or composting targets are achieved by 2031

http://www.cooleography.co.uk GCSE e-book 4.6 The London Olympic Park – a case study of an Urban regeneration project

The London Olympics of 2012 was a fantastic sporting spectacle and put the The London 2012 Olympic spotlight of the World on our capital city. Part of the aims of the Olympics was to Legacy was a plan to make sure completely transform an area of East London that is lagging behind the rest, East that the 2012 Olympic and London. The idea was to leave a lasting legacy or impact not just for sport but for Paralympic Games had LONG the urban area in the East of London. TERM BENEFITS. This legacy was to cover 4 main areas; 1. Economic – supporting new jobs and skills, encouraging trade, inward investment and tourism 2. Sports – continuing elite success, development of more sports facilities and encouraging participation in schools sports and wider 3. Social and volunteering – inspiring others to volunteer and encouraging social change 4. Regeneration – reuse of venues, new homes, and improved transportation.

The key for this unit is Legacy point 4 – urban regeneration. Urban Regeneration is the whole sale improvement of the buildings and infrastructure of an area.

The areas hosting the Olympics like Stratford and nearby Tower Hamlets were in dire need of regeneration as they had;  a lot of abandoned old industrial sites,  low achievement at school in terms of GCSE points score  industrial wastelands,  higher than average unemployment than the rest of London and  higher deprivation and poverty for the people that lived there  Lower household incomes then the London average as shown on the map opposite

http://www.cooleography.co.uk GCSE e-book Evaluation of how the Olympics project improved social, economic and environmental conditions.

Pros Cons The athletes’ village has been relaunched as a housing Anne Power at the London School of Economics said estate called the East Village, the rooms have had “The ‘affordable rents’ for the 2,800 new homes will be kitchens added and walls knocked through. Almost half of unaffordable to Newham’s poorest households.” these 2,818 new homes (40%) will be affordable. Eventually the whole Olympic Parkland will become five Rushanara Ali, MP in the Olympic borough of Tower new neighbourhoods housing 8,000 people. Hamlets, said: “The impact of the infrastructure investment has been really fantastic... But – and there’s The Olympics has helped schools in the area – there was a big but – in my borough unemployment actually went a shortage of spaces but a new school opened in the up during the Olympics.”

grounds of the park. Chobham Academy will cover all levels of education. During the construction of the Olympics, very few jobs were created for local people. There are still high levels Socially The aquatics centre now uses its 50m pools as facilities of unemployment in the borough and it was a missed for the community and schools, as well as elite athletes. opportunity to train people up for work. Tower Hamlets got very little out of the Olympics. (Rushanara Ali, MP) Unemployment OVERALL fell across London during the Olympic period Many people in the boroughs surrounding the Olympic Park remain in poverty

Properties for poorer people had to be demolished to make way for the site, 450 Housing Association flats were torn down for example. Stratford got a Tube station to help connect the area to The Olympic stadium is estimated to have cost £701 the rest of London - Stratford is now second only to King’s million pounds, almost 3 times the original estimate Cross as the most connected part of London. (source). This angered many local people.

The infrastructure has been improved. As well as two The total bill for the Olympics was £8.77 billion of tax Underground lines, a high-speed “javelin” train to King’s payer’s money. That was £5billion over budget. Cross and the Docklands Light Railway, it may soon be a stop-off for the Eurostar to Paris. Existing businesses had to move, including H. Forman and Sons, a salmon-smoking factory with 50 employees The Olympics brought more than £9bn of investment to east London, much of which went into transport. Lloyds Rents and property prices have gone up as a result of the Games

Economic TSB estimated that the Olympics will generate £10 billion in extra income for the UK economy

ALL of the Olympic venues have been sold. The final building to be sold off was the £300m media centre, which will now primarily house Infinity – a data company who want to store information for large corporations.

http://www.cooleography.co.uk GCSE e-book Many of the grounds in the Olympic Park have been kept Much wildlife had to be relocated; 4,000 smooth newts, as parkland and are open to the public for use as a 100 toads and 300 common lizards as well as fish picnicking and play area. New green spaces and wildlife including pikes and eels were moved by the Olympic habitats were created, including ponds, woodlands, and Delivery Authority. artificial otter holes. Many of the materials for the stadiums and the Olympic The stadiums were made of at least 25% recycled Park came from overseas materials

The games produced 3.3 million tons of CO2 The River Lea that runs through the Olympic Park was improved as has the quality of its water. Green areas were placed along the banks of the river.

The urban wasteland of the Lower Lea Valley was

cleaned up, with soil being cleaned on site. Environmentally

The Olympic Site was built largely on 560 acres of brownfield land, property that had been neglected, unused, and contaminated.

Researchers helped choose sustainable & biodiverse vegetation suited to an urban environment, including 4,000 trees, 74,000 plants and 60,000 bulbs and 300,000 wetland plants

SCORE ACTIVITIES 4.5 1

The London Olympics was a success in regenerating East London. Discuss. (9 marks) 2 3 4 5 6

7 8 9

http://www.cooleography.co.uk GCSE e-book 4.7 Features of sustainable urban living:

Urban sustainability is a massive issue both in the UK and globally. It is basically to do with ensuring that cities and towns have a minimal environmental footprint (they don't pollute too much and don't consume too many natural resources) on their surrounding area, allowing local people a say so that society and communities are sustainable and making cities pleasant places to live through the provision of adequate open spaces and recreation facilities.

Indeed, a sustainable city can be defined as; "Improving the quality of life in a city, including ecological, cultural, political, institutional, social and economic components without leaving a burden on the future generations. A burden which is the result of a reduced natural capital and an excessive local debt." Urban21 conference in Berlin 2000

You could consider the idea of urban sustainability as defined by the three "E's";

Economy - Economic activity should serve the common good, be self-renewing, and build local assets and self- reliance.

Ecology - Human are part of nature, nature has limits, and communities are responsible for protecting and building natural assets.

Equity - The opportunity for full participation in all activities, benefits, and decision-making of a society.

Energy conservation

This is the reduction in the use of energy by;

1. Preventing use – stopping using energy for certain activities, for example, switching TVs off when not in use, not leaving on standby 2. Greater efficiency – using technologies that use less energy for the same function 3. Developing renewable sources of energy – using wind and solar power for example, rather than fossil fuels

Newcastle City Council gives advice to both businesses and individual home owners on how to save energy. They have a “warm up north” scheme which tries to improve the energy efficiency of homes across the North East. Schemes include insulation, UPVC windows or doors, a new heating system or boiler and loft or cavity wall insulation. The scheme has also been installing solar panels on homes across the city.

Water conservation

Water conservation involves is the preservation, control and development of water resources, both surface and groundwater, and prevention of pollution Water conservation should reduce water loss, waste and use.

It is important to conserve water because:

 780 million people in the world lack access to clean water  Only 1% of the world’s water supply is available for human consumption  The demand for water is increasing  Each Briton uses about 150 litres of tap water a day

Schemes underway in Newcastle upon Tyne to conserve water including;

1. The Hospitals in Newcastle have a water conservation policy. This includes a commitment to use efficient technology to limit water use. Water saving devices such as push taps have been installed in all new builds and refurbished buildings, and water is measured per member of staff.

http://www.cooleography.co.uk GCSE e-book 2. Northumbrian Water has launched a campaign called ‘Every Drop Counts’ in 2015 aimed at reducing water use through education. They also offer free products for the garden will also be provided, including a free water butt, trigger hose guns and water saving gel for compost. The company also work hard to prevent leaks which consume huge amounts of water. 3. Newcastle University has also developed a water strategy, the target is to reduce water use to 13 cubic metres per staff and students by installing push taps, dual flush toilets and aerated showers head in their buildings to reduce water use

Reducing and safely disposing of waste

Human beings create an incredible amount of waste, and the problem seems to be even worse within our cities. If you think about your own home, you can consider the amount of waste that needs to be dealt with. On a weekly basis you or the council needs to deal with:

 Your refuse and general waste from your bins, plastics, metals, food wastes;  Waste water from cleaning, dishwashers, washing machines;  Waste Water from your toilet;  Emissions from your energy needs.

Imagine now that this needs to be repeated for thousands of people in your town, or tens of thousands/ hundreds of thousands/millions of people in your city! This doesn't include any of the wastes from the industrial processes that take place in cities either. In HICs our cities are not growing so fast or their growth has slowed, and we have had many decades to establish organised systems to get rid of our waste. In LICs the problem is much more difficult to deal with, especially given the rapid growth of these cities and the informal nature of some of the development, where many people construct their own homes in squatter or shanty developments. One such LIC city is Cairo. All of this ties in with the issue of sustainability, can we continue to produce so much waste and not expect consequences?

Waste Facts

 44% of waste in the UK was recycled in 2014  Newsham in London was worst for fly tipping and recycling rates  WRAP estimates that around 600 million tonnes of products and materials enter the UK economy each year… only 115 million tonnes of this gets recycled.  Nearly 25% of waste electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE) that’s taken to household waste recycling centres could be re-used, worth around £200m gross a year.  We throw away more than 7 million tonnes of food and drink every year from our homes - most of which could have been safely consumed.

 The amount of trash generated by the UK could fill Britain’s largest lake, Lake Windermere, in just eight months.  Reduce use of packaging (do apples need to be in plastic bags?) and use less plastic bags (bag for life carrier bags)

2 main options for getting rid of waste are landfill (burying the waste) and incineration (burning the waste). Landfill is used more but we are running out of sites and it can pollute the land and water sources near them. Incineration only accounts for 9% of household waste disposal but is unpopular as it can cause problems like air pollution.

How Newcastle has done this

 Every household in Newcastle has recycling bins, allowing local residents to recycle cardboard, plastics, metals and glass.  Households in Newcastle can also pay for a brown bin, into which garden waste can be put, collected and then composted 37 ©Robert Gamesby http://www.coolgeography.co.uk

http://www.cooleography.co.uk GCSE e-book  Local tips in Newcastle also force people to separate their waste whenever possible, further increasing recycling rates.  However, huge amounts of waste generated in Newcastle still end up in either landfill sites or incinerated.

Providing adequate open spaces

 Greenbelts or areas where local authorities choose to restrict building around cities offers open space for recreation purposes  Many areas in cities have designated areas of open space in the form of parks, playing fields and individual gardens.

How Newcastle has done this

 Newcastle has a huge range of open spaces available for public use, including Jesmond Dene which was donated to the people of the city by Lord Armstrong and the Town Moor.

http://www.cooleography.co.uk GCSE e-book 4.8 An example of how urban transport strategies are being used to reduce traffic congestion in one urban area.

A case study of sustainable urban living. Newcastle-upon-Tyne

Sustainability means living a life which meets your own needs without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. Newcastle-Upon Tyne is a large city in the North of England which has an unsustainable past. This city of 279 thousand people was a centre for heavy industry, ship building, coal mining and armaments works – all activities which can pose environmental problems. However, Modern Newcastle is restyling itself as a science city and a city whose economy is based upon information services and quaternary industries. A core foundation of this is environmental sustainability, and Newcastle offers a good case study of sustainable urban living. It was ranked as the UKs most sustainable city in 2009 (source).

Transport

Newcastle has a comprehensive public transport network, including a huge bus network and the well-known and used Tyne and Wear Metro. These are both more sustainable alternatives to the car. This network also offers park and ride facilities, such as at Four Lane Ends metro station!

In addition to this, Newcastle has a cycle network, some parts of which are off road, including through Jesmond Dene and the Wagon Way behind St Mary’s school. In addition there are cycle routes running alongside the river including along the Quayside. The council also has a range of electric cars and vehicles, including those used in Jesmond Dene and Heaton Park, and the Quaylink bus service that connects Newcastle and Gateshead Quays.

You could also consider the transport connections in London on page 27

http://www.cooleography.co.uk GCSE e-book GLOSSARY

Brownfield site - Land that has been used, abandoned and now awaits some new use. Commonly found across urban areas, particularly in the inner city.

Dereliction - Abandoned buildings and wasteland.

Economic opportunities - Chances for people to improve their standard of living through employment.

Formal economy - This refers to the type of employment where people work to receive a regular wage and are assured certain rights e.g. paid holidays, sickness leave. Wages are taxed.

Greenfield site - A plot of land, often in a rural or on the edge of an urban area that has not yet been subject to any building development.

Inequalities - Differences between poverty and wealth, as well as in peoples' wellbeing and access to things like jobs, housing and education. Inequalities may occur in housing provision, access to services, access to open land, safety and security.

Informal economy - This type of employment comprises work done without the official knowledge of the government and therefore without paying taxes. It is common in many LICs.

Integrated transport systems - When different transport methods connect together, making journeys smoother and therefore public transport more appealing. Better integration should result in more demand for public transport and should see people switching from private car use to public modes of transport, which should be more sustainable. It may also lead to a fall in congestion due to less road users.

Low income country (LIC) and high income country (HIC) - This subdivision of countries is based on the World Bank income classifications (GNI per capita), which in 2013 were Low Income $1,045 or below, and High Income $12,746 or above.

Mega-cities - An urban area with a total population in excess of ten million people.

Migration - When people move from one area to another. In many LICS people move from rural to urban areas (rural- urban migration).

Natural increase – when birth rates are above death rates and the population increases

Newly emerging economies (NEEs) - Countries that have begun to experience high rates of economic development, usually with rapid industrialisation. They differ from LICs in that they no longer rely primarily on agriculture, have made gains in infrastructure and industrial growth, and are experiencing increasing incomes and high levels of investment. E.g. Brazil, Russia, China and South Africa (the so-called BRICS countries).

Pollution - The presence of chemicals, noise, dirt or other substances which have harmful or poisonous effects on an environment.

Rural urban fringe - A zone of transition between the built-up area and the countryside, where there is often competition for land use. It is a zone of mixed land uses, from out of town shopping centres and golf courses to farmland and motorways.

Sanitation - Measures designed to protect public health, including the provision of clean water and the disposal of sewage and waste.

Social deprivation - The degree to which an individual or an area is deprived of services, decent housing, adequate income and local employment.

http://www.cooleography.co.uk GCSE e-book Social opportunities - Chances for people to improve their quality of life, for instance access to education and health care.

Squatter settlement - An area of poor-quality housing, lacking in amenities such as water supply, sewerage and electricity, which often develops spontaneously and illegally in a city in an LIC.

Traffic congestion - Occurs when there is too great a volume of traffic for roads to cope with, so traffic jams form and traffic slows to a crawl.

Urban greening - The process of increasing and preserving open space such as public parks and gardens in urban areas.

Urbanisation - The process by which an increasing percentage of a country's population comes to live in towns and cities. Rapid urbanisation is a feature of many LICs and NEEs.

Urban regeneration - The revival of old parts of the built‐up area by either installing modern facilities in old buildings (known as renewal) or opting for redevelopment (ie demolishing existing buildings and starting afresh).

Urban sprawl - The unplanned growth of urban areas into the surrounding countryside.

Urban sustainability - A sustainable city is one in which there is minimal damage to the environment, the economic base is sound with resources allocated fairly and jobs secure, and there is a strong sense of community, with local people involved in decisions made. Sustainable urban living includes several aims including the use of renewable resources, energy efficiency, use of public transport, accessible resources and services.

Waste recycling - The process of extracting and reusing useful substances found in waste.

Mega cities have more than 10 million people in them. Mililonaire city = 1 million

The growth of people living in towns and cities. Caused by rural- urban migration in LEDCs

How land is used and modified by humans.

An area of green land which has not been previously built on.

An area of land which has been previously build on and developed

An settlement which has been erected illegally.

The development of a countries secondary sector (industry).

Where a city does not irreversibly damage the environment or use resources faster than they can be replaced. Urbanisation is the growth in the number of people living in a country living in urban areas.

Urbanisation differs between rich and poor countries.

1. Most of the population in richer countries already live in urban areas. 18th C – industrial revolution 2. Not many of the population in poor countries live in urban areas. 3. Most urbanisation is happening in poorer countries at a fast pace.

• These countries are industrialising fast. • These countries have already • The people in the rural areas believe developed and when they industrialised there are more opportunities for them in a lot of people moved to the city for the urban areas. – rural – urban factory work migration • People were leaving run down cities – • There are more jobs in the cities because (counter urbanisation but now they are industry is attracted to the city where coming back as the CBD is redeveloped there is a large workforce and good – re - urbanisation infrastructure (roads etc.) Urbanisation is caused by rural to urban migration in LEDCs.

Push factors Pull factors Few jobs and low wages-farming. More jobs and better wages- industry Lack of services. is attracted to LEDC cities. Poor harvests- risk of starvation and Better services-clean water, no income. healthcare. Urban impacts Rural impacts Overcrowding- shortage of housing and jobs.  An increasingly elderly population, they may struggle  Increased traffic, pollution and waste. with every day living tasks. Squatter settlements- disease, badly built,  Even fewer services as they close with less demand and flooding risk, and no basic facilities. funding from taxes. Urban management Building more houses and attracting Rural management industry. Investing in local services- provide jobs. Easing traffic and pollution by improving Giving loans and grants to businesses to move there. infrastructure. Improving local transport so its easier for people to Shanty towns- Self help scheme and site get around. and service schemes. The inner city

1. Low class housing and The suburbs old industry. 2. Smaller houses that are 1. Medium class housing terraced. (semi-detached) 3. Poorer people who cant 2. Less crowded and more afford to commute and pleasant with less traffic those who can only and pollution. afford small houses. 3. Richer people who can 4. Ethnic groups live here afford to commute. so they are near 4. People with families important services- due to space and leisure churches activities. 5. This area is now often being re-developed in The rural MEDC cities. urban fringe CBD 1. Business parks and high quality detached 1. Business- shops and offices. housing. 2. Very busy and accessible. 2. Lots of space and accessible for 3. Land is expensive. commuters. 4. Centre point for 3. The land is cheaper. entertainment. E.g. restuarants, 4. Richer people who like rural life live here. bars, theatres

Cheaper housing Problems in cities in MEDC’s

• Housing • Inner city decline • Multi cultural mix • Traffic • CBD decline

UK population has increased by 7% since 1971. New towns • Brand new towns have been built to house People are the overspill populations from existing leaving home towns and cities where there was a earlier, shortage of housing. marrying later, More people live getting alone- some 7 million Relocation incentives divorced and of the UK’s population. • People living in large council living longer. houses are encouraged to move out of urban areas if they don’t need a large house or to live in the city. • A scheme that’s run by London council encourages older people who live in big houses in the city to move to the seaside or the countryside.

Advantages of Advantages of Urban renewal schemes building on brownfield building on • These encourage investment in new housing, sites greenfield site services and employment in derelict inner city areas. • A successful example is the dockland See next slide development in London. Advantages of building on brownfield Advantages of building on sites greenfield sites Easier to get planning permission as New sites do not need clearing so councils want to see brownfield sites cheaper to prepare. used. Sites in cities are not left derelict & No restrictions of existing road empty network Utilities such water and electricity are Pleasant countryside environment already provided. may appeal to potential home owners. Roads already exist. Some shops and business parks on outskirts provide local facilities Near to facilities in town centres, e.g. Land cheaper on outskirts so plots shops, entertainment and places of can be larger. work. Cuts commuting. More space for gardens. In the 1980s in an effort to reverse the process of inner city decline the UK government set up Urban Development Corporations (known as UDCs). The aim of these UDCs was to regenerate inner city areas with large amounts of derelict and unused land by taking over planning responsibility from local councils. These UDCs had the power to acquire and reclaim land, convert old buildings and improve infrastructure through the investment of government money. These UDCs also attracted private sector investment through offering companies reduced taxes and other benefits and in doing so they promoted industrial, residential and community developments.

The London Docklands Development Corporation During the 19th century, London's port was one of the busiest in the world, but by the end of the 1950s it was in signficant decline with many of the docks derelict and abandoned. In response to the resulting social, economic and environmental problems the London Docklands Development Corporation (LDDC) was set up in 1981. Why did the London Docks go into decline? 1. An increase in ship size meant they found it difficult to come down the river as far as the Isle of Dogs where the river wasn't as deep. (the position of the docks moved further downstream to Tilbury); 2. Containerisation meant few dockers were needed with large cranes used to lift containers from ships; 3. The decline of portside industries and manufacturing What were the problems in 1981 in the Isle of Dogs? * population had declined * employment was in decline (loss of jobs from decline of docklands * access to the rest of London was poor with narrow roads which were heavily congested, and a lack of public transport (a single bus route and no rail or underground service) * 95%+ of housing was rented and including high density terraced houses and large estates dominated by high rise blocks * Shopping faciliities were limited * Lack of open space and recreation facilities

Changes to the area between 1981 - 1998 Environmental Regeneration - network of pedestrian and cycle routes and waterside walkways - creation of pedestrian bridges - creation of new open spaces (150ha) - Water based Ecology Park and London's first bird sanctuary at East India Dock Basin - one of 17 conservation areas set up - planting of 200,000 trees; Economic Regeneration - unemployment had fallen from 14% to 7.4 - 2,700 businesses trading - major new roads including link to the M11 - Building of the City Airport in the former Royal Docks (500,000+ passengers a year) - attraction of financial and high-tech firms, - TV studios and newspapers such as The Guardian now have offices in the prestigious Canary Wharf business complex. Social Changes - £10 million spent on improvement council and housing association homes - a total of 22,000 new homes built (mainly private ownership with approx 19% for rent) - conversion and gentrification of old warehouses to new homes - New shopping centre built - also included transformation of old dockland buildings into shopping outlets (e.g. Tobacco Dock) - Large new shopping centre at Canary Wharf with over 30 shops - many restaurants, pubs and cafes built Docklands Sailing and Watersports Centre - £100 million spent on health, education, job training etc.

How successful was the London Docklands Redevelopment?

Successes: - more trade for local shop keepers - cheaper rents here for large companies yet still the benefit of only being 10 minutes from central London - a wide range of economic, environmental and social benefits (see above) - including 22,000 news housing units and 1000s of new jobs. - greatly improved accessibility in and out of docklands - addressed the once failing land, housing and commercial property markets in the area.

Criticisms: - there were criticisms that despite the improvements many of these didn't benefit the original 'eastenders' - click on the photo opposite to see some of the 'anti-LDDC' graffitti - many locals were unable to afford the high costs of the new expensive houses / flats (still a lack of low-cost housing in the area) - despite an increase in jobs with new businesses coming in, most required skills that the old dockers did not have; - reduction in community spirit that the old Docklands had -.

Sustainable communities The The inner city in These allow people to live in an area where there is government put MEDCs is often housing of an appropriate standard to offer reasonable in ugly high run down as a quality of life, with access to jobs, education and health rise flats in the result of being the care. The initiative began in 2003, and one area affected late 1960s early former industrial by it is an area in east Manchester renamed New 1970s as a quick area. Islington Millennium Village. The initiative made the fix to the area more ‘green’. housing problem.

UDCs (urban Governments have development had a variety of corporations) strategies to These were large scale improve the living projects that involved in the inner cities major changes using since 1945. private and public investment. Their City challenge purpose was to It had a holistic approach to regeneration, regenerate the area to where local authorities, private companies improve the environment and the local community worked together. and attract business. An example was the Hulme, Manchester City Challenge where the aim was to replace old terraces, in order to enhance the environment, community facilities and shopping provision. Lozells NW B’ham

• Now that inner city are being regenerated it is attracting people back that work in the CBD as it saves time and money by reducing commuting distances. • Lozells is part of an Urban Living scheme – government funded tries to improve lives of citizens • Some building in S Lozells have been demolished e.g. high rise flats and replaced with new housing, Some have been refurbished raising the image of the area encouraging families back B’ham • New Deals for communities NDC – 1999 by labour to help struggling inner city areas. It id 39 areas. IT involves local communities.

• E.g Aston , inner city B’ham – NDC called Aston Pride • Covered :- Health and regeneration – £400,000 on community health centre Employment and business – local young people given work experience programmes and a dedicated guidance team. Education and life long learning – broadband centres set up to give community internet access. Regeneration This involves giving an area a new image, so it attract development and employment causing a +ve multiplier

Eastside B’ham – revitalisation – rebranded as learning and technology quarter because of the colleges and universities. It will have city park and improved canal area, also new housing. Hopefully this will attract businesses. So Government policies are:- • Urban Development corporations -to regenerate inner city areas with large amounts of derelict and unused land by taking over planning responsibility from local councils. • acquire and reclaim land, convert old buildings and improve infrastructure through the investment of government money • also attracted private sector investment through offering companies reduced taxes and other benefits and in doing so they promoted industrial, residential and community developments.

• New Deals for communities NDC – 1999 by labour to help struggling inner city areas. It id 39 areas. IT involves local communities.

• E.g Aston , inner city B’ham – NDC called Aston Pride • Lozells is part of an Urban Living scheme – government funded tries to improve lives of citizens •

Support from others People feel safe and secure Employment factors when they can associate with Making sure everyone can Immigrant groups tend to people from the same access information about the do low paid jobs or have a background. There is a sense different services. For example high rate of of belonging and protection. printing leaflets in a variety of unemployment. They have languages. limited money and so can only afford cheaper housing. A familiar culture In a strange country there is comfort from Providing people who have interpreters at the same ideas places like hospitals Safety in and beliefs and and police stations. numbers speak the same Improving communication between all People have a language. parts of the community. For example stronger involving the leaders of different voice if they ethnic communities in decisions. are heard as a Specialist facilities group, rather There will specialist Making sure there are suitable services for the different than facilities such as special shops with the cultures. For example in some cultures its unacceptable to individually. ethnic food. be seen by a doctor of the opposite sex, so alternative should be provided. • Ethnic segregation – where groups live in separate areas of the city away from other groups. • Can print sign in different languages, employ interpreters • Involve community leaders in the discussion and decision affecting the area. • Aston Pride part of Community Outreach Family Support – aimed to help people make use of services e.g. healthcare. Unsightly Many households Buildings As we demand Noise from heavy have more than discolored greater mobility and vehicles one car, while accessibility with 45% have one car. Traffic flexibility. Air pollution jams

Road accidents More people have more money and like the door-to- door service that comes with a Impact on health car. (asthma)

Pedestrianisation of central areas. This removes traffic from the main shopping Improving public transport. streets.

Congestion Increasing car parking charges charging. in city centres.

Park and ride schemes aim Bus priority lanes- these speed up bus services so to reduce the number of people are more likely to use them. cars in the city centre. Traffic in cities

• B’ham has park and ride scheme • Bus lanes • Encourage car sharing • Trams – Birmingham Metro • London – congestion charge – have to pay 11.50 daily charge for driving a vehicle within the charging zone between 07:00 and 18:00, Monday to Friday Competition from out of town shopping centres and business parks, The city appeared busy which have cheaper rent and are easier and crowded. The air to drive to. quality was poor.

The CBDs in some cities are run down. During the 1950s and 1960s the city struggled to attract business.  Pedestrianising areas to make them safer and nicer for shoppers.

 Improving access with better public transport links and better car parking.

 Converting derelict warehouses and docks into smart new shops, restaurants and museums.

 Improving public areas, e.g. parks and squares, to make them more attractive.

 Initial government investment encourages businesses to return, attracting more customers, which attracts more businesses and so on.

B’ham

• Was a manufacturing area e.g. for engineering, jewellery • By 1980’s most of the traditional industries had gone due to competition with oversea factories. Affecting the economy and the CBD • What was done Brought Bull Ring back to life – redeveloped and re opened in 2003, the building now make the city look attractive. Brindley place was transformed from old warehouses by the canal to pedestrian zone with apartments, offices, hotels, restaurants and cafes. NIA and Sea life centre. Shopping quarter – pedestrianised making it attractive to tourists. Physical environment has been improved, attracting people, businesses and tourists. This mean £ is invested keeping th CBD alive New street station redeveloped also – Grand Central (£550) m). Self help schemes The settlements Built illegally on . These involve the government and local people don’t have basic the outskirts of working together to improve the quality of life. services such as the city! . The government supplies building materials and water. the local people construct their own homes. . This creates better housing and the money saved on labour can be used for services.

Site and service schemes . People pay a small amount of money for a site. Squatter . They can borrow money for building materials. settlements . The rent money is used to provide basic services. . An example is the Dandora scheme in Nairobi, Kenya

Most of the Squatter inhabitants have Local authority schemes settlements are a . These are funded by the local government and are moved from the problem. countryside about improving the temporary accommodation. . For example- Rio has spent $120 million on the Favela Bairro project which aimed to improve life The settlements for the residents. are badly built and overcrowded Kibera, Nairobi capital city in Kenya, E Africa • Housing • 100,000 people • Houses built closely together, made from mud/ wood and roofs from corrugated iron. • Often only one room, earth floor. • Electricity for a light, few have running water or sewerage. • Water is from a tap shared by 40 families, private suppliers charge double the amount • Tracks are dusty in dry season and flooded, muddy in wet season making them unusable. • Ditch full of sewerage runs between houses • Rubbish litters the area

Kibera

• Education and health • High BR and IMR • Up to ten children per family, many can not read or write as schools are too far away and are expensive top attend. • Illness – malaria from swamps, dysentery, cholera, typhoid from contaminated water. • Diet deficiency diseases too. • No hospital/ qualified doctors in these areas, and health is expensive. • High incidence of HIV/AIDS and many of the children are orphans

• Shops Stalls line the main roads selling fruit and veg from relatives living in countryside • Employment Most are in informal sector – they earn money themselves e.g. recycling waste, selling produce. • Transport Walking / bicycles some may be able to afford the crowded buses. • Community spirit, homes are kept clean Good but crime does exist and police are reluctant to enter Self help schemes

• Intermediate technology development group – ITDG – provide affordable local raw materials to use in self help schemes. – improvements done in stages by the locals, improving local skills and community spirit. Local Authority provide materials and group provide the labour. The money saved by the LA can then be used to improve amenities e.g. electricity/ clean water, tarmac roads, community centres etc • Improvement are slow and individual and problems can remain

• Low cost roofing tiles from clay developed by British charity –Practical Action • Lime and natural fibres added to soil to form blocks to build with instead of more expensive concrete / bricks. • Ventilation and lighting improved –improved cooking stoves reduce the smoke improving health • UN provided affordable electricity to some parts at 300 shillings per shack • WB helped fund water supplies 3 shillings for 20 litres • Medical facilities are provided by charities

UN – habitat and Government

• 15 year project started 2003 to rehouse 770 families in new flats, with toilets, showers, electricity and running water. Site and service

• Land identified – infrastructure laid in advance. Electricity, water and sanitation provided to individual plots. • The people than build their own home using what they can afford and improve it over time. Day-care centres and after school schemes to look after the children while their parents work. Adult education classes to improve adult literacy. Services to help young people affected by drug addiction, alcohol addiction and domestic violence.

Residents can now apply to legally own their properties- this gives them a postcode and allows them to get services such as rubbish collection. Training schemes to help people learn new skills so they can find better jobs and earn more.

The Favela- Bairro project has Replacement of wooden buildings with brick buildings and the been very successful! removal of homes of dangerous steep slopes.

Widening and paving of streets for easy access especially 1) The standard of living and emergency services. health of residents has Provision of basic services such as water and electricity. improved. 2) The property values in Residents choose which improvements they want favelas that are part of the in their favela so they feel involved. programme have increased Neighbourhood associations are formed to by 80-120%. communicate with residents and make decisions. 3) The number of local The new services are staffed by residents= businesses within the provides income and teaches new skills. favelas has almost doubled. Management- Setting Air pollution can lead Harmful chemicals can build up in air quality standards for to acid rain, which the food chain and poison humans industries and damages buildings and that eat them. monitoring levels of vegetation. pollution. Water pollution kills fish leading to the disruption Water Some pollutants of food chains. Air destroy the pollutio pollution ozone layer n which protects us from the sun. Management- building sewage treatment works It can cause Environm and passing laws health problems ental Contamination of which force water supplies with like headaches. problems factories to sewage can spread in LEDCs remove diseases like pollutants. typhoid

Infrastructure- LEDCs Money- poorer countries cant afford don’t have the to dispose of waste safely. They have infrastructure to take the more urgent problems to spend money Waste waste away. For example on such as healthcare. the poor roads mean disposal lorries cant take the Scale- the problem is huge. A city waste away. will generate thousands of tonnes of waste everyday. Issues in LEDC’s

• Ganges – water pollution

• Case studies – LEDC squatter settlement and sustainable city • Birmingham useful for all problems in MEDC but ca use Nuneaton if stuck Reducing the amount of city waste by Minimising the use of recycling. greenfield sites by using brownfield sites instead. Recycling water to conserve supplies.

Proving green spaces. Sustainable urban Reducing reliance on strategies. fossil fuels and re-thing transport options. Sustainability means meeting the needs of the people today whilst Conserving cultural, not putting the needs of future historic, and Involving local generations at risk. environmental sites communities and and buildings. proving a range of employment. Sustainability means meeting the needs of the people today whilst not putting the needs of future generations at risk.

Involves conserving historic and natural environment. Brownfield sites are areas of derelict land, that Historic- industrial turned into used to have buildings on them. apartments, housing can be Using them for new buildings recycles the land.  redeveloped, and canals can be Using them avoids greenfield sites from being used which protects the environment and regenerated. stops the city growing in size. Natural- using more renewable energy, collecting and recycling water and fuel efficient transport

These can act like the green lungs for a city. Reduce the amount of waste that cities produce These can recycle the carbon that the city in the first place. produces. Re-use and recycle as much as possible to reduce These support a variety of wildlife. the amount of waste being put into landfills. They also provide healthy recreation This helps to reduce the cities carbon footprint. facilities. They provide an opportunity for conservation. BEDZED Sustainable living Where is Bedzed? What makes Bedzed a sustainable community? Beddington • Transport - Cars are discouraged; the project encourages public transport, Zero Energy cycling, and walking, and has limited parking space. Car pooling/sharing Development occurs- City Car Club. Residents are encouraged to use this environmentally friendly alternative to car ownership; an on-site selection of vehicles is available for (BedZED) was use. built in 2002 in Hackbridge, • Encourage eco-friendly transport—Electric and liquefied-petroleum-gas cars have priority over cars that burn petrol and diesel, and electricity is provided in parking London, England. spaces for charging electric cars. What is Bedzed? It was the UK’s first large-scale • Accessible transport - five minutes’ walk of Hackbridge station (LONDON) / Tramlink service from Croydon or Wimbledon to Mitcham Junction station, mixed use sustainable community, which is within 15 minutes’ walk of BedZED. with 100 homes, office space for around 100 workers and community • Zero energy—the project is designed to use only energy from renewable facilities. It uses environmentally sources generated on site. There are 777 m² of solar panels. The energy provided for the community comes from woodchips from waste timber that friendly housing and is a low carbon would otherwise be sent to the landfill. neighbourhood. It promotes a more sustainable lifestyle. • Energy efficient—the houses face south to take advantage of solar gain, are triple glazed, and have high thermal insulation. No need for central heating.

• Water efficient—Most rain water falling on the site is collected and reused. Appliances are chosen to be water-efficient and use recycled water when possible.

• Low-impact materials—Building materials were selected from renewable or recycled sources within 35 miles of the site, to minimize the energy required for transportation.

• Waste recycling—Refuse-collection facilities are designed to support recycling. Curitiba is aiming to be a sustainable city  There is a good bus system used by more than 1.4 million passengers per day. 1. The overall aims are to improve the environment,  The bus system is an ‘express’ system- pre pay stations reduce pollution and waste and improve the quality and bus only lanes. of life of the residents.  The same cheap fair is paid for all journeys- good for 2. The city has a budget of $600 million to spend every poor residents. year.  Over 200km of bike paths in the city. 3. Curitiba is working towards sustainability in three  The bus and bike systems have caused car use to be 25% ways: lower than in other cities in Brazil. a) Reducing car use. b) Plenty of open spaces and conserved natural environments. c) Good recycling schemes. 10 70% of rubbish is recycled- 1200 trees saved per day Residents in poorer areas are given food and bus tickets as a reward for bringing their recycling to a  Green space has increased from 0.5m2 per person in collection centre. 1970 to 52m2 per person in 1990.  There are over 1000 parks and natural areas- many of these are in areas prone to flooding so that the land is still useful.  Residents have planted 1.5 million trees.  Builders are given tax breaks in the city if their development includes green space.