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Cambridge University Press 978-0-521-85001-8 - Earth: Evolution of a Habitable World: Second Edition Jonathan I. Lunine Index More information

INDEX

absolute chronologies 47 Alpha Centauri 14 solar system events 66–68 alpha decay (α decay) 29 absolute dating techniques alpha particles (α particles) 18 lack of samples for 61 alternative energy sources 292 radioisotopic dating of rocks 79 Altman, S. 154–155 absolute zero 29–30 aluminum absorption spectra 30–31 abundance in terrestrial rocks 190 acceleration 25 abundance in the solid planets 114–115 accretion stage, heat produced 120 production in stars 39 Ackerman,T.P.166 amberat evidence of climate change 65 actinide elements 19 amino acids 133 adenine 133–134 chirality (handedness) of molecules 151–152 adenosine triphosphate (ATP) 136, 157 codons 134 aerosols in the atmosphere 281 in meteorites 151–152 Africa synthesis in the laboratory 151–152 first migration by genus Homo 247–248 ammonia, contribution to greenhouse effect 167 fossil record of human origins 246–247, 249 anaerobic metabolism 140 second migration by genus Homo 248–249 Anasazi civilization 267 African Humid Period 267 ancient Egyptians 3 age dating ancient Greeks 3–4, 14–15 carbon-14 (14C) dating 48–50 andesites 91 cross-checks and error analysis 52 chemical relationships 192 fission track dating 52 formation of 192–194 half-life concept 47–49 andesitic volcanism, locations of 193–194 overview 47 angular momentum, conservation of 102 parent–daughter isotopic systems 48–52 anions, arrangement in minerals 190–191 types of chronologies 47 annular eclipses 11 use of radioactive decay 47–49 Antarctica use of the cratering record 68 ice core records 259–261 see also absolute chronologies; absolute dating; relative life in ice-covered lakes 183 chronologies; relative dating ozone hole over 284 age of the Earth 47 anthropocene 283 age dating overview 47 apatite 52 attempts to determine 73–74 aphelion 14 catastrophism versus uniformitarianism 73 apoapse 14 cyclic nature of geologic processes 73–74 Apollo missions 26, 52, 117, 123 increasing estimates of 73–74 arc volcanism 193–194 sedimentary (stratigraphic) record 74 archaea 145 sedimentary rock formation 73 Archean eon 80, 79 understanding the rock record 73–74 atmospheric carbon dioxide levels 166–167, 170 ages in the geologic timescale 79, 80–81 atmospheric oxygen levels 166–167, 205–207 agriculture carbon-silicate weathering cycle 169–170 history of 288–289 characteristics of rocks from 195–196 link with geological processes 76 chert data 166 pressures to produce more 288–289 climate 161 air pollution health risks 294–295 conditions during 131 albedo (reflectivity) 234 effects of atmospheric carbon dioxide 164–167 alchemists 18 evidence for liquid water 161 alkali metals 19 formation of continents 189 alkenones 57 formation of protocontinents 195–196

© in this web service Cambridge University Press www.cambridge.org Cambridge University Press 978-0-521-85001-8 - Earth: Evolution of a Habitable World: Second Edition Jonathan I. Lunine Index More information

302 INDEX

Archean eon (cont.) chemical relationships 192 greenhouse effect 162 formation of granites from 192–194 implications of the faint young Sun 164–166 P-wave velocity 192 origins of prokaryotic life 158–159 typical elemental abundances 189–190 situation at the end of 173 bases in nucleic acids 133–134 temperature on Earth 164–166 batholiths 195 transition from the Hadean eon 127–128 Becquerel, Henri 74 transition to the Proterozoic 189, 196–197 Benner, Steven 140 Ardipithecus 246 Bermuda, snail fossil records 218–220 Aristarchus of Samos 3, 14–15 beryllium Aristotle 3 p–p chain fusion process 36 arsenic, as substitute for phosphorus in biomolecules 139 production in stars 39, 41 artificial life, as silicon-based life 139 beta decay (β decay) 29, 40 asteroid belt 4, 6 Big Bang 16, 17, 99 asteroids 6 production of helium 38 moons of 5 production of hydrogen 38 asthenosphere 87–89 production of lithium 38 astrology 3 bilayer membranes, formation of 152–153 astrometry 107 biofuels 292 astronomical units (AU) 4, 14–15 biological effects of the K/T impact 225 astronomy, early views of the cosmos 3–4 biomass carbon reservoir 168 asymptotic giant branch (AGB) stars 40 biosphere on Earth, finite life of 185–186 Atlantic Ocean, opening of 233 black holes 35, 40 atmosphere (Earth) black bodies 30–31 and the greenhouse effect 162–164 boron cloud formation 163–164 p–p chain fusion process 36 convection currents 163 production 41 declining carbon dioxide abundance 170 Brahe, Tycho 13 effects of chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) 284 British Petroleum Deepwater Horizon disaster (2010) 291 history of 170 Broecker, W. S. 267–268 mechanism of carbon dioxide removal 167–168 Burgess Shale 220–221 origin of 125–126 ozone layer depletion 284 Cairns-Smith, A. 138 photochemistry 203 calcite structure 190 reservoir of carbon 168 calcium carbonate, creation by shell-forming organisms 167–168 weather generation 163–164 Callisto (moon of Jupiter) 5, 141 atmosphere–ocean global circulation models (AOGCMs) 276 Cambrian period atmospheres on planets and moons 5 Burgess Shale 220, 221 atomic nucleus diversification of life 223 discovery of 18–20 Cambrian revolution 227 see also Ediacaran–Cambrian revolution quarks 27 Cameron, A. G. W. 102 understanding of workings 35 Campbell, I. E. 199–200 atomic number 18 Cann, R. 249 periodic table 18–20 carbohydrates 133 atomic radius 190 carbon atomic weight 19–21 abundance in the cosmos 138 atoms 18 bonding properties 138–139 discovery of nature of 18–20 fusion in stars 39 Australopithecines 246–247 inorganic reservoir 168 Australopithecus afarensis 246, 247 isotopes in seafloor sediments 55 autocatalysis 152–154 requirement of life 138–139 automotive emissions, health risks 295 reservoirs on the Earth 168 stable isotopes 55 Bacon, Sir Francis 83 carbon-14 (14C) dating 48–50 bacteria 145, 211 carbon cycle and the origin of eukaryotes 211–212 burial of carbon from organisms 204 appearance on Earth 131 carbon reservoirs on the Earth 168 cyclic photosynthesis 136 effects of fossil fuel burning 291–292 fermentation 136 influence of life 169 banded iron formations 205–206, 209–210 recycling of buried sediments 204 Barron, E. 237 role of plate tectonics 167–168 basalt formation, partial melting of the mantle 191–192 carbon dioxide basaltic crust formation 192 abundance in the Archean eon 164–167 basalts as a greenhouse gas 164

INDEX 303

declining atmospheric abundance 170 elemental abundances 189–190 effect on global temperatures 271–273 see also carbonaceous chondrites evidence from paleosols 166–167 chromosomes, in early eukaryotes 211 greenhouse effect in the Archean 164–167 Chyba, Chris 167 in the atmosphere of Venus 170 citric acid cycle 136 mechanism of removal from the atmosphere 167–168 civilizations, decline related to climate 267 projections for increase 272 cladograms 220 uptake by living organisms 167–168 clathrate hydrates in seafloor sediments carbon dioxide cycling, carbon-silicate weathering cycle 167–168 climate carbon dioxide greenhouse, limits on Mars 181–182 and Earth’s movement 11 carbon–nitrogen–oxygen (CNO) fusion cycle 37, 39 effects of continental movements 233 carbon-silicate weathering cycle 167–168 in the Cretaceous 235–237 during the Archean eon 169–170 in the Tertiary 237–239 history of Earth’s atmosphere 170 influence of Earth’s tilt and orbit 239–241 negative feedbacks 168–169 influences on 11 carbonaceous chondrites 51–52, 105–106 link with plate tectonics 94–95 contribution to Earth’s water 125 oceanic–atmospheric connection 267–268 elemental abundances 189–190 oscillations in the Pleistocene 239–241 see also chondritic meteorites role of the oceans 281–283 Cassini–Huygens mission 115, 142, 147 versus weather 280–281 catalysis 152 climate change RNA as biological catalyst 154–155 African Humid Period 267 catastrophic models of continental movement 83 amberat evidence 20 catastrophism versus uniformitarianism 73 and decline of civilizations 267 cations, arrangement in minerals 190–191 end of the last ice age 268 Cech, T. 154–155 ice core records 259–261 cells 135–136 influence of solar activity 267 early eukaryotes 211 Little Ice Age (sixteenth to nineteenth century Europe) 267 essential requirements 156–158 Medieval Warm Period 267 nucleus 135–136 packrat midden evidence 262–264 organelles 135–136 plant pollen evidence 261–262 structure of eukaryotic cells 135–136 present climate 268 structure of prokaryotic cells 135 present global warming in perspective 259 Celsius scale 29–30 tree ring evidence 264–266 Cenozoic era 80, 79 variability in the Late Holocene 266–267 Cepheid-variable stars 15 Younger Dryas 267–268 chalcogens 20 see also global warming; human-induced global warming chalcophile (“ore-loving”) elements 121 climate indicators chaos, definition 241 alkenones 57 Charon (moon of Pluto) 106, 125 carbon isotopes 55 cheetah, genetic similarity 218 cherts 59 chemical bonding hydrogen isotopes 56–57 and electron number 20 nitrogen isotopic ratios 57 properties of elements 18–20 oxygen isotopes 55–56 chemisynthesis 136–138 sulfur isotopic ratios 57 Chernobyl nuclear accident (1986) 292 use of stable isotopes 55–57 cherts climate models 273–276 as climate indicators 59 atmosphere–ocean global circulation models (AOGCMs) 276 data from the Archean eon 166 basic physics of the greenhouse effect 273–274 Chicxulub crater, proposed K/T impact site complicating factors 274–275 225–227 Cretaceous climate 237 chirality (handedness) general circulation models (GCMs) 275–276 and function of biological molecules 151–152 predicted effects of global warming 276–280 and the origins of life 155–156 role of the oceans 281 chlorine, effects on the ozone layer 284 shutdown of the ocean circulation 283 chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) climate system effects on the ozone layer 284 negative feedbacks in 235 greenhouse gases 164 positive feedbacks in 234 in the atmosphere 271 clones 220 chlorophyll 136 clouds chloroplasts 135–136, 211 condensation and evaporation 274 origin of 211–212 formation of 163–164 chondritic meteorites 122 CNO (carbon–nitrogen–oxygen) fusion cycle 37, 39 constituents of 114 coal as a fuel 289–291

304 INDEX

coccoliths Cretaceous climate 235–237 uptake of atmospheric carbon 55 computer modeling 237 uptake of oxygen isotopes 56 constraints on climate 235–236 codons 134 evidence for climate pattern 235–236 comets 6, 106 galactic effects 237 impacts 70 greenhouse heating 236–237 Jupiter family short-period comets 106 ocean current effects 236–237 materials brought to Earth by 125–126 orbital variation effects 237 Shoemaker–Levy 9 225 plate tectonic effects 236 computer modeling see climate models solar output effects 237 condensation and latent heat 163–164 water vapor and cloud cover 236–237 conservation of energy 29–30 Cretaceous fossils 235–236 continental crust 90 Cretaceous–Tertiary extinction 223–227 diagnosing history and origin 190 biological effects of the impact 225 presence of rare earth elements 190 evidence for an impact 224 upper and lower sections 196–197 interpretation as an impact event 224–225 continental drift theory (Wegener) 83–84 iridium in boundary sediments 224–225 continental movements link to Chicxulub crater 225–227 and ice ages 234 properties of boundary sediments 224 effects of 233 Croll, J. 240 effects on climate 233 Cro-Magnon people 252, 288 effects on ocean currents 233 Crutzen, Paul 283 mountain building 231, 233 Curie point 84–87 supercontinent cycle 231–233 Curie, Marie 74 volcanism 233 cyanobacteria in the early oceans 206 continental rocks 74 cyclic photosynthesis 136 features of Archean rocks 195–196 cytoplasm 135 first stable continental rocks 127–128 cytosine 133–134 model of granite formation 194–195 continents Dalton, John 18 and sea-level changes 200 dark energy 16–17 area in the Proterozoic 196–197 dark matter 17 changing geochemistry in the Proterozoic 196–197 Darwin, Charles, The Descent of Man (1871) 246 formation in the Archean 189, 195–196 Darwinian evolution 217–218 influence on tidal effects 200–201 and definition of life 131–133 continuum spectra 30–31 dating see age dating convection currents in the atmosphere 163, 274 Davies, Paul 146 Copernican model of Earth motion 11 day length on Earth, alteration over time 200–201 Copernican Revolution 4 de Duve, C. 157 Copernicus, Nicolaus 4 decay, uptake of oxygen 204 coral reefs 167 Deccan Traps lavas, India 233 Corot mission 107–108 Deep Impact probe (USA) 106 Cosmic Background Explorer satellite 16 deforestation 292 cosmic microwave background radiation 16–17 Democritus 18 cosmic rays 41, 49 density of the planets 113–114 cosmological constant (Einstein) 17 Denton, G. H. 267–268 cosmos, history of 99–100 Des Marais, David 210 covalent bonding 20 deterministic chaos 241 cratering deuterium 20–21 absolute chronology of solar system events 66–68 deuterium fractionation, climate indicator 56–57 causes of 61 deuterium-to-hydrogen ratio, atmosphere of Venus 174–175 impactors through time 70 dew point 274 on planetary bodies with atmospheres 68–69 diatomic compounds 19 relative age dating 61, 63–66 dikes (igneous rock intrusions) 77 use to date planetary surfaces 68 dinosaurs (Archosauria) see also impacts Cretaceous–Tertiary extinction 223–227 cratering process 61–62 fossil record 80 impact speeds 61 diorites multiring basins 62 chemical relationships 192 shock waves 61–62 formation of 193–194 craters distances Meteor Crater, Arizona 6 beyond the galactic neighborhood 15 on Mars 178 Earth–Moon 14 on Venus 176 Earth–Sun 13–14

INDEX 305

scientific notation 9 heat produced during accretion 120 to nearby galaxies 15 historical influence of liquid water 170 to nearby stars and planets 14–15 information from meteorites 125 to the farthest edge of the universe 15–17 iron core formation 123 to the planets 13–14 Late Heavy Bombardment 126–127 use of Cepheid-variable stars 15 magma ocean stage 121–122 DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) 145 materials from impacts 125–126 evolution after RNA 154 origin of the atmosphere 125–126 evolution of 134, 154, 157–158 origin of the ocean 125–126 in early eukaryotes 211 origin of the organic reservoir 125–126 in eukaryotic cells 135–136 past temperature determination 55–57 in prokaryotes 135 perspective on early history 227 mitochondrial 135, 211–212 perspective on history and future 299–300 mitochondrial DNA analysis 249 radioactive heating effect 122 nuclear 135 situation at the end of the Archean 173 replication and mutations 134–135 source of Earth’s water 125–126 role in protein synthesis 134 timescale for early events 125 structure and replication 133–134 Earth orbital period 14 Doppler shift 15–16 influence on climate 239–241 star spectra 107 Earth structure dry convection in the atmosphere 274 constituents of 114–115 dwarf planets 4, 5 see also Eris; Pluto constituents of the core 118–120 geologic differences to Venus 176–178 Earth geologic history 81 cooling trend 170 internal structure 117–120 Copernican model of motion 11 magnetic field reversals 84–87 day length alteration over time 200–201 mantle heat flow 122 decreasing atmospheric carbon dioxide 170 radioactive element abundances 122 determination of size of 3 stratified structure 114–115 distance from the Moon 14 structure of the core 117–118 distance from the Sun 13–14 earthquakes exchange of material with Mars 183–184 and the structure of the Earth 117–118 finite life of the biosphere 185–186 association with ocean ridges and trenches 84 Goldilocks view 170 association with subduction zones 87 gravitational interactions with the Moon 11, 200–201 P-waves 117–118 impacts from space 6 S-waves 117–118 importance of the carbon cycle 170 eccentric planetary orbits 6 influences on climate 11 eclipses motions in the cosmos 9–13 annular eclipse 11 slowing of rotation over time 200–201 prediction of 11–12 spherical nature of 3 regression of the nodes 11–12 terrestrial planet 4 see also lunar eclipse; solar eclipse uniqueness in the solar system 99 ecliptic plane 11, 14 see also terrestrial planets economically important minerals Earth age see age of the Earth Ediacaran–Cambrian revolution 220–223 Earth axial tilt 11 absence of predators 222 influence on climate 239–241 as geological artifact 222–223 precessional cycle 239–241 beginnings in the Ediacaran 221 stabilizing effect of the Moon 241–242 carbon burial 222 Earth-centered cosmos concept 3–4 causes 221–223 Earth formation establishment of basic body plans 220–221 accretion process 74 genetic complexity 222 basaltic crust formation 192 near-global glaciations 222 conditions during the Archean eon 131, 164–167 oxygen levels 222 conditions in the faint-young-sun era (Archean) 164–167 phylogeny 220 distribution of elements 121–122 sulfide ocean 222 earliest evidence of life 131 taxonomy 220 early differentiation after accretion 121–122 why it has not been repeated 223 effects of gravitational contraction 74 Eemian interglacial 259–261 first stable continental rocks 127–128 Einstein, Albert formation of the Moon 123–125 conversion of mass to energy 29, 35 from Hadean eon to Archean eon 127–128 cosmological constant concept 17 generation of the magnetic field 123 general relativity theory 26–27 Hadean eon 113 El Nino˜ phenomenon 282–283

306 INDEX

Eldredge, N. 218–220 ENSO (El Nino/Southern˜ Oscillation) 282–283 electric fields 27 enstatite (MgSiO3) 114 electromagnetic force 27 entropy 149–151 electromagnetic spectrum 30–31 enzymes 133, 152, 157–158 electromagnetism, photons 25 Eocene epoch 237 electrons 18–20 age of mammals 238–239 behavior of 21 extinction events 237 chemical bonding 20 eons in the geologic timescale 79, 80 energy levels 20–21 epochs in the geologic timescale 79, 80–81 mass 18 equilibrium in a system 149–151 quantum mechanics 20–21 eras in the geologic timescale 80, 79 wave patterns (wavefunction) 21 Eratosthenes 3 element production Eris 5, 6 and life 41 eubacteria 145 in the Big Bang 38 eukarya 145–146 l process 41 eukaryotic cells 135–136 nonstellar 41 eukaryotic life 145–146 element production in stars 25, 35–39 and rise in oxygen levels 211–212 neutron removal 40 appearance in the mid-Proterozoic 211 p process (proton capture) 39–40 appearance of complex multicellular organisms 212 r process (rapid neutron capture) 40 conditions for development of 211–212 s process (neutron capture) 39–40 origin of 211–212 supernovas Europa (moon of Jupiter) 99, 140–142 elements 17 eutectic solutions 119 abundances in terrestrial rocks 189–190 evolution of complex life, possible mechanisms 215 abundances in the Sun 31–33 evolution of species chalcophiles (“ore-loving”) 121 and genetic mutation 217 chemical bonding properties 18–20 and natural selection 217 components of 18 classical Darwinian model 217–218 creation of artificial elements 28 controversy over 217 discovery of 18 definitions 217 distribution in the Earth 121–122 evidence for 217 formation of 17 molecular clocks 135 ionic radius 190–191 mutation and genetic variation 134–135 lithophiles (“rock-loving”) 121 punctuated equilibrium model 218–220 origin of 35 religious views on 246 periodic table 18–20 role of the genetic code 218–220 properties of 18–20 subspecies evolution 218–220 siderophiles (“iron-loving”) 121 “survival of the fittest” 217–218 elliptical orbits 13–14 symbiosis mechanism 220 emission spectra 30–31 trigger genes 217, 219 empirical models 14 extinctions 79 enantiomers of amino acids 151–152 effects of the Pleistocene ice ages 242 Enceladus (moon of Saturn) 147 Eocene 237 energetic processes of life 136–138 Pliocene 237 energy see also mass extinctions and mass 35 extrusive igneous rocks 192 and matter 29 and work 29 Fahrenheit scale 29–30 conservation of 29–30 faint young Sun (faint early Sun) energy resources 289–292 alternative theory 170 alternative sources 292 conditions on Earth 164–166 biofuels 292 problem of 59, 161 challenges of fossil fuels 291–292 reasons for 161–162 energy use in the future 292 Feinberg, J. 139–140 fossil fuels 289–291 felsic rocks 127–128 fusion reactors 292 chemical composition 192 geothermal energy 292 formation of 192–194 hydroelectric power 292 Fenchel, T. 212 nuclear fission 292 fermentation 136 solar energy 292 Finlay, B. J. 212 wood as fuel 292 fission see nuclear fission energy-storing phosphate bonds 140 fission track dating 52 energy transfer see thermodynamics flagellum 135

INDEX 307

flake tectonics (delamination) 195, 199 genome sequencing, Neanderthal genome 251–252 food production genomic analysis, evidence for human origins 249 environmental costs 288–289 geologic dating 47, 73 pressures on 288–289 geologic succession, and geological processes 76–77 force, definition 25 geologic time, Hutton’s view 73–74 forces of nature 25–29 geologic timescale 79–80 Forget, Francois 182 as a map of Earth’s geologic history 81 formations of rocks 76–77 Grand Canyon rock layers 80–81 Formisano, V. 144 geological processes forsterite (Mg2SiO4) 114 and geological succession 76–77 Forterre, P. 145 continental rocks 74 fossil fuels 289–291 cyclical nature 74–76 carbon reservoir 168 erosion by water 74–76 challenges of 291–292 erosion of sedimentary rocks 76 combustion 204–205 igneous rocks 74, 76 effects on the carbon cycle 291–292 metamorphic rocks 76 recoverable reserves 291–292 oceanic rocks 74 fossil record 77–79 weathering processes 74–76 Cretaceous period 235–236 geological unconformities 74, 76–77, 80–81 early aerobic organisms 207 geothermal energy 292 evidence for continental movement 83 giant planets 4–5 evidence of human origins 245–247, 249 composition 115–117 first eukaryotic life 211 density 115–117 petrification process 77–79 possible sites for life 140 punctuated equilibrium evolutionary model 218–220 Giardia intestinalis (protozoan) 211 use in dating sedimentary layers 79 glaciations fracking, natural gas extraction process 291 and the Ediacaran–Cambrian revolution 222 Fraunhofer, Josef 31–33 influences on 234, 235 free energy 136 see also ice ages free radicals 211, 295 glaciers frequency 30 erosion caused by 74 Froelich, P. 237 evidence of glacial activity 233–234 Fukushima Daiichi nuclear accident (2011) 292 global temperatures fusion reactions in stars 35–38 and CO2 abundance 271–273 CNO (carbon–nitrogen–oxygen) cycle 37 records of 272–273 p–p chain (proton–proton chain) process 36–37 global warming fusion reactors 292 energy resources 289–292 present warming in perspective 259 gabbro urban heat island effect 273 chemical relationships 192 see also human-induced global warming P-wave velocity 192 global warming predictions 276–280 Gaia hypothesis 169 biosphere–climate feedbacks 279–280 Gaia satellite 14 changes in climate variability 279 galaxies degree of uncertainty 276–278 distances to 15 difficulty of proof 280–281 intrinsic brightness 15 global mean increase in precipitation 278 red shift of spectra 15–17 increased continental dryness 279 Galilean satellites of Jupiter 5 large stratospheric cooling 278 Galileo Galilei 4, 26 life in the next quarter century 280 Galileo mission 117, 141 more severe precipitation events 279 gamma decay (γ decay) 29 northern polar winter surface warming 278–279 Ganymede (moon of Jupiter) 5, 63–66, 141 regional vegetation changes 279 gas energy source see natural gas rise in global mean sea level 279 general circulation models (GCMs) of climate 275–276 summer continental warming 279 general relativity, theory of 26–27 uncertain regional-scale changes 279 genes 134 gluons 27 genetic code 134 Gondwana 91–93 role in evolution of species 218–220 Gould, Stephen Jay 218–220 genetic complexity, Ediacaran–Cambrian revolution 222 Grand Canyon, Arizona, rock layers 80–81 genetic mutation 134–135 granites and evolution 217 chemical relationships 192 trigger genes 217, 219 formation from basalts 192–194 genetic variation 134–135 P-wave velocity 192 genetics-first approach to life’s origin 152, 154–158 possible model of formation 194–195

308 INDEX

granitic rocks, typical elemental abundances 189–190 climatic influence on human development 268 granitoid rocks 195 interglacial climate 238, 259–261 granodiorites 194–195 Younger Dryas 267–268 granulites 195 homeostasis 133, 154 graphite, in K/T boundary sediments 224 Hominidae 246 gravitational compression of planets 113–114 Homo erectus 247–248, 251 gravitational contraction 74 species evolved from 253 gravitational field mapping 117 Homo genus 245–246 see also human origins gravitational force (gravity) Homo heidelbergensis 251 and tides 26 Homo neanderthalensis (Neanderthals) 249–253 cause of 26–27 Homo sapiens definitions 25–27 evolution of 248–249 see also human origins inverse-square property 26 taxonomy 246 graviton 27 hot spots, eruption of basalts 192 Green Revolution 288 Hoyle, Fred 11–12 greenalite [Fe3Si2O5(OH)4] 166 Hubbard, W. B. 116 greenhouse effect Hubble, Edwin 16 basic physics of 273–274 Hubble Space Telescope 15, 17, 117 carbon dioxide levels in the Archean 164–167 view of comet Shoemaker–Levy 9 225 climate models 273–276 human development, influence of climate 268 complicating factors 274–275 human-induced global warming in the Cretaceous 236–237 and carbon dioxide abundance 271–273 limits on Mars 181–182 and human population growth 287–288 on the Archean Earth 162 chlorofluorocarbons in the atmosphere 271 process 162–164 climate models 273–276 Venus 170 debate over 271 greenhouse gases 164 detection of trends 280–281 and human-induced global warming 271–273 difficulty of proof 280–281 evidence from paleosols 166–167 effects of food production 288–289 Greenland ice core records 259–261 global temperature records 272–273 correction to dating 271 greenhouse gases 271–273 guanine 133–134 Holocene Climate Optimum 273 long-term view 283 habitable planets, search criteria 173, 242 methane levels 271 habitable zone nitrous oxide levels 271 criteria for 184–185 predicted effects 276–280 implications from Venus and Mars 184–185 projections for carbon dioxide increase 272 Hadean Earth, Titan as analogue of 142 research agencies 277–278 Hadean eon 113 role of the oceans 281–283 transition to the Archean eon 127–128 upper atmosphere ozone depletion 284 half-life concept 47–49 weather versus climate 280–281 Halley’s comet 106 see also global warming halobacteria 145 human origins 245 halogens 19 African fossil record 246–247, 249 handedness (chirality) appearance of sentient organisms 245 and function of biological molecules Archaic human populations 253 151–152 Australopithecines 246–247 and the origins of life 155–156 Cro-Magnon people 252 Hansen, V. L. 198 evidence from genomic analysis 249 Hawaiian Islands 89, 122, 192 evolution of Homo sapiens 248–249 health risks from pollution 294–295 first migration out of Africa 247–248 heat energy 29–30 genus Homo 245–246 helium genus Homo appearance in Africa 247–248 discovery of 31–33 geographical origin 246–247 fusion in stars 39 Hominidae 246 p–p chain fusion process 36–37 human interest in 253 production in the Big Bang 38 incomplete fossil record 245–246 Helmholtz, Herman von 74 interaction with Neanderthals 252 Herodotus 73 multiregional hypothesis 248–249 Hohokam civilization 267 Neanderthals 249–253 Holocene Climate Optimum 273 perspective on origins and future 299–300 Holocene epoch Pleistocene climatic setting 245 climate records 259 religious views on 246 climate variability in the Late Holocene 266–267 replacement hypothesis 248–249

INDEX 309

second migration out of Africa 248–249 interplanetary dust particles (IDPs) 61, 107 social and cultural implications of research 246 interstellar medium 38 spread of modern humans 252–253 intrusive igneous rocks 192 taxonomy 246 inverse-square property of gravity 26 vagaries of understanding 245–246 Io (moon of Jupiter) 141 human population growth ionic bonding 20, 190–191 and human-induced global warming 287–288 ionic radius of elements in minerals 190–191 and resource depletion 287–288 ions 31 challenge of overpopulation 295 iridium dependence on technology 295 abundance in meteorites 224 Hutton, James 73–74, 76 in K/T boundary sediments 224–225 hydrocarbon aerosols, contribution to greenhouse effect 167 iron hydroelectric power 292 abundance in terrestrial rocks 190 hydrogen abundance in the solid planets 114–115 escape to space 203 banded iron formations 205–206, 209–210 p–p chain fusion process 36–37 in the Earth’s core 118–120 production in the Big Bang 38 production in stars 39 stable isotopes 56–57 iron carbonates, conditions for formation 166–167 hydrogen bomb 29 iron core formation in the Earth 123 hydrogen bonding, between water molecules 139 iron meteorites, constituents of 114 hydrogen fusion in stars 38–39 iron silicates, conditions for formation 166–167 hydrogen fusion in the Sun, variation over time 161–162 Ishtar Terra (Venus), origin of 198–199 hydrogen isotopes 20–21 isobars (nucleons) 40 as climate indicators 56–57 isotopes 20–21, 39–40 hydrological cycle on Earth 174 as climate indicators 55–57 hydrothermal systems on early Mars 183 production 41 radioactive decay 21 ice age on Mars 235 iterative process, inferring constituents of planets 114 ice ages on Earth 169–170 and continental movements 234 joule, definition 29 effects on life on Earth 242 Jovian planets 4–5 evidence for 233–234 Joyce, Gerald 131, negative feedbacks in the climate system 235 Jupiter 4–5 Pleistocene epoch 238–241 and the asteroid belt 6 positive feedbacks in the climate system 234 comet Shoemaker–Levy 9 impacts 225 present day (Holocene) 238 density and composition 115–117 triggers for 234–235 Galilean satellites 5 ice core records of climate 259–261 Galileo orbiter 141 correction to dating 271 moons 5 ice-forming elements, abundance in the solid planets 115 possible site for life 140 Iceland, composition and heat flow 195 see also giant planets igneous rocks 74–76 Jupiter family short-period comets 106 chemical relationships 192 Jurassic period 80, dating 79 intrusions (dikes) 77 K/T boundary 223–227 layering 76–77 iridium in boundary sediments 224–225 impacts properties of boundary sediments 224 and mass extinctions 223–227 K/T boundary event Chicxulub crater 225–227 biological effects of the impact 225 comet Shoemaker-Levy 9 on Jupiter 225 evidence for an impact 224 difficulty of linking to extinctions 227 interpretation as an impact event 224–225 effects on Mars in the past 182 link to Chicxulub crater 225–227 evidence in K/T boundary sediments 224 Kant, Immanuel 74 exchange between Earth and Mars 183–184 Kargel, Jeffrey 180 impactors through time 70 karst topography 74 interpretation of the K/T boundary 224–225 Kasting, J. F. 162, 166, 185, 209–210 Late Heavy Bombardment 126–127 Keller, Helen 287 lunar origin theories 123–125 Kelvin, Lord see Thomson, William (Lord Kelvin) see also cratering Kelvin scale inclined planetary orbits 6 Kepler, Johannes 13–14 India, collision with the Asian continent 237–238 Kepler mission (NASA) 107–108 Industrial Revolution 288 Kepler’s laws 26 inflation phenomenon (following the Big Bang) 16–17 kerogens 168 Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) 277–278 kinetic energy 29

310 INDEX

Knauth, Paul 58–59 potential abodes on early Mars 182–183 Krupp, Edward 12 potential to seed Earth 183–184 Kuhn, W. R. 235 search for evidence 178, 183–184 Kuiper Belt 5, 6, 70, 106 life, possible sites alien life forms on Earth 145–146 l process of element production 41 atmospheres of the giant planets 140 Lakshmi Planum (Venus), origin of 199 Enceladus 147 lanthanide elements 19 features of life on Earth 145–146 Late Heavy Bombardment 66, 126–127 in the solar system 140–146 latent heat 163–164 interior of Europa 140–142 Laurasia 91–93 Mars past and present 142–145 lavas (volcanic igneous rocks) 76 meteorite ALH84001 from Mars 144 Lavoisier, Antoine Laurent 18 shadow biosphere concept 145–146 Lay, Thorne 119 Titan 142 life light-year 14–15 anaerobic metabolism 140 limestone, erosion by water 74 and oxygen 140 lipids 133 chemisynthesis 136–138 formation of bilayer membranes 152–153 criteria for the habitable zone 184–185 lithium production 41 definitions of 131–133 in the Big Bang 38 elemental building blocks 41 p–p chain fusion process 36 elemental requirements 138–139 lithophile (“rock-loving”) elements 121 energetic processes 136–138 lithosphere 87–89 fermentation process 136 Little Ice Age (sixteenth to nineteenth century Europe) 267, 271, metabolic mechanisms 136 280–281 photosynthesis 136 Lovelock, James 169 requirement for carbon 138–139 Lowe, Donald 58–59 requirement for water 139–140 Lowell, Percival 174 respiration process 136 Lucretius 18 search criteria for habitable planets 242 Lucy (Australopithecus afarensis) 246 search for evidence beyond the solar system 184–185 lunar eclipse 3, 9, 11, 14 strategies for searching for 140 prediction 11–12 see also life, possible sites life on Earth mafic rocks 127–128, 192 and thermodynamics 150–151 Magellan spacecraft (US) 176–178 basic structure 133 radar images of Venus 198–200 beginning of anthropogenic influences 253 magmas 76 building blocks for life 151–152 magnesium characteristics of 145–146 abundance in terrestrial rocks 190 chemical to biochemical evolution 156–158 abundance in the solid planets 114–115 disequilibrium and entropy 150–151 production in stars 39 earliest evidence on Earth 131 magnetic fields 27 effects of Pleistocene ice ages 242 Earth’s magnetic field 123 essential requirements of cells 156–158 magnetic imprints on rocks 84–87 establishment of basic body plans 220–221 magnetite (Fe3O4) 144 finite life of the biosphere 185–186 magnetotactic bacteria 144 Gaia hypothesis 169 main sequence stars 37–38 Goldilocks view 170 mammals handedness of biological molecules 151–152 expansion of 238–239 history in perspective 227 history of 223 influence on carbon cycling 169 Mann, M. E. 280 information exchange and replication 133–134 mantle 87–89 origin theories 145–146, 149, 152–158 elemental abundances 189–190 origins of metabolic cycles 158–159 mantle heat flow, inhibition by continental masses 231–232 origins of prokaryotic life 158–159 mantle plumes 89, 122 phylogenetic tree 145 Margulis, Lynn 203, 211 possible seeding from Mars 183–184 Mars 4 raw materials and synthesis 151–152 atmosphere 170 requirements for 133 chaotic axial tilt 241 role of nucleic acids 133–134 climate at the time of the Archean 161 shadow biosphere concept 145–146 conditions in the past 142–145 situation in the Archean eon 158–159 conditions today 178 life on Mars constituents of 114–115 possible history of 184 cratering record 63

INDEX 311

dust storms 178 McKay, Chris 133, 183 early differentiation after accretion 121–122 McKay, David 144 effects of radioactive heating 122 Medieval Warm Period 267 exchange of material with Earth 183–184 melt spherules, in K/T boundary sediments formation of 113 224–225 geologic history 81 Mendeleev, Dmitri 18–20 geology 178–179 Mercury 4 heat produced during accretion 120 constituents of 114–115 ice age 235 crustal evolution 121–122 impact craters 178 effects of radioactive heating 122 inability to recycle carbonates 170 heat produced during accretion 120 inhospitable conditions for life 178 Mesozoic era 80, 79 lifeless appearance 99 messenger RNA 134 liquid water in the past 170 metabolic cycles, origins of 158–159 meteorite ALH84001 144 metabolic mechanisms 136 methane release into the atmosphere 183 similarity in aerobic eukaryotes 212 potential for terraforming 185 variety in bacteria 212 presence of frozen water 178 metabolic processes relative chronology 47 anaerobic metabolism 140 search for glacial features 234 and photosynthesis 136 search for life on 142–145, 178 energy supply 136 SNC meteorites 61 metabolism first approach to life’s origin 152–154, tilt (obliquity) 178 156–158 Valles Marineris canyon 81 metamorphic rocks 76, 192 Viking missions 142, 144 dating 79 volcanoes 178–179 layering 76–77 see also terrestrial planets Meteor Crater, Arizona 6 Mars climate history meteorites 33, 105–106 abodes for life on early Mars 182–183 ALH84001 from Mars 144 absence of plate tectonics 178–179 amino acids in 151–152 conditions on Mars today 178 constituents of 114 effects of impacts 182 contribution to Earth’s water 125 evidence from robotic missions 173 elemental abundances 189–190 evidence of liquid water in the past 179–180 information about Earth’s history 125 geological indications of early warmer conditions 179–180 iridium abundance 224 implications for life elsewhere 184–185 Murchison meteorite 156 limits to a carbon dioxide greenhouse 181–182 platinum-group elements 224 Martian geology 178–179 radioisotope age determination 51–52 possible history of Mars 184 SNC meteorites 61 problem of warming early Mars 181–184 see also carbonaceous chondrites; chondritic meteorites search for evidence of early climate 183–184 methane (as fuel) 291 search for evidence of life 183–184 methane (atmospheric) Mars Exploration Rovers (Spirit and Opportunity) 145, 178, 180, and global warming 271 183 contribution to greenhouse effect 167 Mars Express Orbiter 144, 180, 180, 183 greenhouse gas 164 Mars Phoenix Lander 180 release into Martian atmosphere 183 Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter 180 methanogens 145 Mars Surveyor mission 179 Mexico City, air pollution problem Marshall, H. 235 295 mass, conversion to energy 29, 35 microlensing 108 mass extinction events microscopic constitution of matter 21 causes 223 mid-Atlantic ridge 87 Cretaceous–Tertiary extinction 223–227 mid-ocean ridges 84, 89, 195 difficulty linking to impacts 227 eruption of basalts 192 impact events 223–227 Milankovitch cycles 240–241, 268 Phanerozoic eon 223–227 Milky Way Galaxy 14–15, 99–100 massive vector bosons 29 Miller, Stanley 151 matter Miller–Urey flask experiment 151–152 conversion to energy 29, 35 mineral structure 190–191 microscopic constitution of 21 arrangement of anions 190–191 search for understanding of 18 arrangement of cations 190–191 Maunder Minimum 267 ionic bonding 190–191 Mayan calendars and numbering system minerals 12–13 unstable in presence of oxygen 205

312 INDEX

Miocene epoch, age of mammals 238–239 interaction with modern humans 252 mitochondria 135–136, 211 lifestyle and tools 252 origin of 211–212 physical features 250–252 mitochondrial DNA 135 near-Earth asteroids 6 mitochondrial DNA analysis, evidence for human origins 249 negative feedbacks Mogollon civilization 267 in the carbon-silicate weathering cycle 168–169 Mohoroviciˇ cˇ (Moho) discontinuity 119 in the climate system 235 moist convection in the atmosphere 274 neon, production in stars 39 moist greenhouse effect Neptune 4–5 long-term fate of the Earth 185–186 density and composition 115–117 runaway theory for Venus 174–176 possible site for life 140 molecular clocks and mutation rate 135 trans-Neptunian region 5 molecular clouds and star formation 100–101 see also giant planets molecules 18 neutrinos 17, 36 monomers 133 neutron stars 18, 38, 40 Moon (of Earth) 5 neutrons 18, 18, 20–21, 38 age of Moon rocks 52 mass 18 and tidal patterns 200–201 removal from the nucleus 40 constituents of 114–115 New Horizons mission (NASA) 106 crustal evolution 121–122 Newton, Isaac 14, 25 distance from Earth 14, 200–201 Nice model of planetary configurations 126–127 gravitational interactions with Earth 200–201 nickel, abundance in the solid planets 114 heat produced during accretion 120 nitriles 151 influence on Earth’s axial tilt 11, 241–242 nitrogen lasers reflected from 90 isotopic ratios 57 lunar eclipses 3, 9, 11–12 production in stars 39 movement in the sky 9–13 nitrous oxide orbit around the Earth 123 and global warming 271 orbital plane 11 greenhouse gas 164 origin theories 83, 113, 123–125 in the atmosphere 295 phases of the Moon 11 noble gases 20 relative chronology 47 nonchiral molecules 152 moons in the solar system 5 North Atlantic, thermohaline circulation 267–268 atmospheres 5 northern polar winter surface warming 278–279 constituents of 114–115 nuclear fission 29, 292 possibility of sedimentary processes 81 nuclear fusion 29 see also specific moons element production in stars 38–39 moraines created by glaciers 234 energy source for the Sun 74 Morowitz, Harold 158–159 nuclear fusion reactors 292 Mount Everest 231 nuclear reactions 25 Mount Pinatubo 167–168 nuclear reactor accidents 292 Mount St. Helens 91, 167–168 nucleic acids 133–134 mountain building, continental collisions 231, 233 handedness (chirality) of sugars 151–152 multicellular organisms role in protein synthesis 134 appearance of complex organisms 212, 215 see also DNA; RNA proliferation in the Phanerozoic 215 nucleotides 133–134 multiring basins 62 nuclides 39–40 Mumma, M. 144 numerical values, scientific notation 9 Murchison meteorite 156 mutation and genetic variation 134–135 oceans mutation rate, and molecular clocks 135 origin of 125–126 reservoir of carbon 168 natural gas energy 290–291 role in Earth’s climate 281–283 fracking extraction process 291 ocean circulation gas hydrates (clathrate hydrates) in seafloor sediments basic processes 281–282 methane reserves 291 buoyancy force 281–282 shale reserves 291 El Nino˜ phenomenon 282–283 natural selection and evolution 217–218 shutdown after prolonged warming 283 Neanderthals 249–253 Southern Oscillation 282–283 climate setting 249–250 wind stress 281–282 decline and extinction 252 ocean currents evolution of 253 effects of continental movements 233 evolutionary origins 251 effects on Cretaceous climate 236–237 genome sequencing 251–252 ocean floor

INDEX 313

age of rocks 93 p process (proton capture) 39–40 evidence for plate tectonics 84 P-waves 117–118, 192 reservoir of carbon 168 Pacific ring of fire 233 oceanic–atmospheric connection to climate 267–268 packrat midden evidence of climate change 262–264 oceanic crust 74, 90 paleomagnetism 84–87 age of 231 paleosols, evidence for carbon dioxide abundance 166–167 formation 192 Paleozoic era 79–80 Oerlemans, J. 273 Pangaea 91–93 oil as an energy source 290–291 break up of 233, 236 Oligocene epoch, age of mammals 238–239 Pannotia 93 olivine structure 190 Panthalassa 91–93 Oort Cloud 6, 70, 106 parallax phenomenon 4 ophiolite suites 93 parallax shift 14–15 orbital motion of planets 26 Paranthropus 246–247 orbital period of the planets 14 parent–daughter isotopic systems 48–52 organic molecules 133 parsec (parallax-second) 14 organic reservoir on Earth, origin of 125–126 partial melting 191–194 oxygen particulates in the atmosphere 281 abundance in terrestrial rocks 190 health risks 295 abundance in the cosmos 139 Pathfinder Mars lander 178 and life 196–197 Patterson, Claire 52 and strategies to search for life 140 Pavlov, A. A. 209 isotopes as climate indicators 55–56 peptide nucleic acids (PNAs) 155 isotopes in water 55–56 peptides 135 production in stars 39 periapse 14 stable isotopes 55–56 peridotite 192 use by eukaryotes 135–136 perihelion 14 oxygen (atmospheric) periodic table of the elements 18–20 and onset of eukaryotic life 211–212 periods in the geologic timescale 80, 79 and the Ediacaran–Cambrian revolution 222 peritectic solutions 119 balance between loss and gain 208 Permian mass extinction 223 history of oxygen on Earth 209–210 petrification of organic remains 77–79 increase in the Proterozoic 201 Phanerozoic eon 79–80 level in the Archean 166–167 Cambrian revolution 220–223 model for the rise of oxygen 209 Ediacaran–Cambrian revolution 220–223 reservoirs of oxygen 208–209 mass extinction events 223–227 reservoirs of reducing compounds 208–209 place in Earth’s history 227 rise in the Proterozoic 207 plate tectonics 231–233 shield against ultraviolet radiation 211 proliferation of complex life 215 oxygen anion, arrangement in minerals 190–191 timescale 215 oxygen balance, with and without life 205 Phillips, R. J. 198 oxygen cycle 203–205 phosphate bonds oxygen levels on early Earth 205 energy storage 139–140 banded iron formations 205–206, 209–210 functions in metabolic processes 136 fossils of aerobic organisms 207 phosphate groups in nucleic acids 133–134 limits on 205–207 phosphorus, production in stars 39 see also phosphate bonds; minerals unstable in presence of oxygen 205 phosphate groups redbed sediments 206, 210 photochemistry in the atmosphere 203 oxygen revolution 203 photon, definition 25 oxygen sources and sinks on Earth 203–205 photons 27, 30–31 burial of carbon from organisms 204 absorption by greenhouse gases 164 decay 204 movement in the greenhouse effect 162–164 fossil fuel combustion 204–205 solar-optical type 164 photochemistry and escape of hydrogen 203 spectra 30–31 photosynthesis 203, 205 terrestrial-infrared type 164 recycling of buried sediments 204 photosphere of the Sun 31–33 respiration 204 photosynthesis 133, 136 volcanism 203 chloroplasts 135–136 weathering of rock 203 earliest evidence for 131 ozone oxygen produced 203, 205 health risk in the lower atmosphere 295 photosynthesizing organisms ozone layer depletion 284 response to enhanced CO2 levels 279 production in the atmosphere 203 spread of 209–210 shield against ultraviolet radiation 211 phyllosilicates 180, 183

314 INDEX

phylogenetic trees 145, 220–221 genesis after World War II 87 phylogeny 220–221 geologic record on land 87 phylum (taxonomic level) 220–221 historical development of 83–84 Pierrehumbert, Ray 182 in the early Earth 210 Piltdown man hoax (1913) 246 in the Phanerozoic 231–233 Pioneer Venus entry probes 174 link with climate 94–95 Planck, Max 30 locations of earthquakes 87 Planck function 30 modern plate tectonics 197–198 planet formation 102–103 past motions of the plates 94 and disks around protostars 103–104 role in carbon cycling 167–168 effects of gravitational contraction 74 role of water 94–95, 193–194 end of 104–105 shift to modern mode 201 planetary surfaces, use of cratering to date 68 speed of movement of plates 90 planetary systems, search for see search for planetary systems subduction zones 87, 167–168 planetesimals 103, 113, 120, 126 supercontinents 94, 231–233 planets triple junctions 91 accretion 120 Wegener’s continental drift theory 83–84 atmospheres 5 Plato 3 bulk compositions 113–117 Pleistocene epoch composition of giant planets 115–117 causes of ice ages 239–241 composition of terrestrial planets 114–115 climate variations 259–261 density determination 113–114 effects of oscillatory ice ages 242 differentiation 117 ice ages 238 distances to 13–15 oscillatory nature of the climate 239–241 giant (Jovian) planets 4–5 setting for human origins 245 inferring constituents of 114 Pliocene epoch, extinction events 237 measuring mass and size 113 Pluto 4 moons 5 classification of 5 motions in the sky 11, 13–14 constituents of 115 orbits 6, 14, 26 moons 5, 106, 125 possibility of sedimentary processes 81 NASA New Horizons mission 106 properties of the giant planets 6 orbit 6 properties of the terrestrial planets 6 plutonic igneous rocks 74, 76 radioactive heating 122 pollution ring systems 5 associated with industrial processes 294–295 rotational axes 6 ozone in the lower atmosphere 295 self-compression effect 113–114 potential health risks 294–295 spins 6 polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) 144 structure of the solar system 4–6 polymers 133 terrestrial planets 4 positive feedbacks in the climate system 234 plankton 169 positrons 36 plant pollen evidence of climate change 261–262 potassium plasma 18, 31 abundance in terrestrial rocks 190 plastids 135–136, 211 radioactive isotope (40K) 122 origin of 211–212 potential energy 29 plate boundaries 90 power, definition 29 plate tectonics 83, 170 p–p chain (proton–proton chain) fusion process 36–37 absence on Mars 178–179 precipitation, effects of global warming 278–279 after the Proterozoic 197–198 predator–prey food chains 212 and sea-level changes 200 pressure-release partial melting of the mantle 191–192 and water 199–200 Priscoan eon 79–80, 113 as unique to the Earth 94 Prochloron (bacterium) basic model 87–91 prokaryotic cells 135 beginning on Earth 196–197 prokaryotic life 145–146 catastrophic models 83 origins of 158–159 driving force 94–95 protein synthesis, role of nucleic acids 134 early evidence for 83–84 proteins 133 effects of continental collision and separation 233 handedness (chirality) of amino acids 151–152 effects on Cretaceous climate 236 Proterozoic eon 79–80, 203 evidence from paleomagnetism 84–87 appearance of eukaryotic life 211 evidence from seafloor topography 84 changing geochemistry of the continents failure to take hold on Venus 176–178, 198–200 196–197 fossil evidence 83 increasing oxygen in the atmosphere 201, future predictions 93 205–207

INDEX 315

shift to modern plate tectonics mode 201 RNA (ribonucleic acid) 133–134, 145 transition from the Archean 189, 196–197 bases 134 protium 20–21 codons 134 protocontinents, formation in the Archean eon 195–196 evolution of 134 protons 18–20 forms of 134 protoplanetary disk evolution 102–103 in early eukaryotes 211 dissipation in the nebula 102–103 in prokaryotes 135 formation of the nebula 102 mitochondrial 211–212 residual static nebula 103 phylogenetic tree 145 terminal accumulation of the star 103 role in protein synthesis 134 protostars, disks around 103–104 structure 134 Proxima Centauri 4 RNA and the origin of life 152, 154–158 Ptolemy 3–4 abiotic formation of RNA 154 punctuated equilibrium evolutionary model 218–220 chirality of ribose molecules 155–156 pyrite 205 problem of abiotic invention of RNA 155–156 RNA as biological catalyst 154–155 quantum mechanics 20–21, 30 RNA evolution before DNA 154 quarks 27 role as replicator 154–155 rock classes, chemical relationships 192 r process (rapid neutron capture) 40 rock composition, effects on P-wave velocity 192 racemic mixtures 152 rock formations 76–77 radar mapping, surface of Venus 176 rock strata (stratigraphic section) 76–77 radial velocity of stars 107 rock weathering radioactive decay 21, 29, 41 paleosols 166–167 half-life concept 47–49 silicate rocks 167–168 use in dating 47–49 Rodinia 93–94 see also alpha decay; beta decay; gamma decay Rontgen,¨ Wilhelm 74 radioactive heating Rosetta mission (ESA) 106 effects on planets 122 rubidium–strontium decay, measurement of 50–52 Europa 141 Ruddiman, W. 237 radioactive isotopes, parent and daughter measurement 48–52 runaway greenhouse theory for Venus 174 radioactivity 29 Rutherford, Ernest 18 discovery of 74 radiocarbon dating 48–50 s process (neutron capture) 39–40 radioisotopic dating of rocks 79 S-waves 117–118 Ramsey, William 31–33 Sagan, Carl 139, 140, 167 Randall, Lisa 16 Sagan, D. 203 rare earth elements 195 Salpeter, Edwin 116 abundance in Archean rocks 195 San Andreas fault system, California 84, 87, 90, 119 in rocks 190 satellites, Earth-orbiting Raymo, M. 237 Saturn 4–5 red dwarfs 37 density and composition 115–117 red giant stars 39 moons 5 redbed formations 206, 210 possible site for life 140 reduced carbon 204 see also giant planets reducing compounds, reservoirs on Earth 208–209 scanning tunneling microscopy 21 reflection of photons 30 scientific notation 9 regression of the nodes 11–12 Scopes Monkey Trial (1925) 246 relative dating, cratering record 61 see also geologic dating/geologic Scott, David R. 26 layering sea level rise 279 relative chronologies 47 seafloor rocks resources age of 93 alternative energy sources 292 magnetic orientations 84–87 and the growing human population 287–288 seafloor sediments depletion of 287 carbon isotopes 55 energy resources 289–292 coccoliths 55, 56 respiration 136, 204 gas hydrates (clathrate hydrates) in rhyolite, chemical relationships 192 oxygen isotopes 55–56 ribose molecules, chirality 155–156 seafloor topography, evidence for plate tectonics 84 ribosomal RNA 134 sea-level changes, and plate tectonics 200 ribosomes 135 search for planetary systems 107–110 mitochondrial 211–212 astrometry 107 Ricardo, A. 155 criteria for habitable planets 242 ring systems 5 direct techniques 110

316 INDEX

search for planetary systems (cont.) terrestrial planets 4 indirect techniques 107–110 solar system formation microlensing 108 end of planet formation 104–105 radial velocity of stars 107 history of the cosmos 99–100 use of transits 107–108 planet formation 103–104 see also habitable planets; habitable zone primitive material present today 105–107 sedimentary processes, on planets and moons 81 protoplanetary disk evolution 102–103 sedimentary (stratigraphic) record 74 star formation 100–105 Grand Canyon, Arizona 80 unique properties of the Earth 99 sedimentary rocks 73, 76–77, 192 solar wind 33, 103, 170 dating using fossils 79 solid planets, constituents of 114–115 formation of 74–76 solid state convection 120 geologic cycle 74–76 sonar technology, seafloor mapping 84 lithification process 73–74 Southern Oscillation 282–283 loss of layers to erosion 76 space, expansion of 15–17 seismometers 87 space–time, relativity theory 26–27 Seno, Nicholas 73 species concept, definitions 217 serpentinization 183 spectra of photons 30–31 shadow biosphere concept 145–146 spectrometers (spectrographs) 15–16, 30 shales, natural gas reserves in 291 speed 25 Shapiro, R. 139, 140 spiral galaxies 15 shell-forming organisms stable isotopes, carbon 55 creation of calcium carbonate 167–168 star formation 100–105 influence on carbon cycling 169 birth of a star 101–102 shocked quartz, in K/T boundary sediments 224 conservation of angular momentum 102 Siccar Point (Scotland) geological unconformity 74 disks around protostars 103–104 siderite (FeCO3) 144, 167 end of planet formation 104–105 siderophile (“iron-loving”) elements 121 formation of planets 102–103 silica, content of igneous rocks 192 see also cherts giant molecular clouds 100–101 silicate minerals, abundance in the solid planets 114–115 start of 101 silicate rocks, weathering process 167–168 star spectra, Doppler shift 107 silicon Stardust probe (USA) 106 abundance in terrestrial rocks 190 stars as potential basis for life 138–139 creation of elements 35–39 bonding properties 138–139 distances to 14–15 fusion in stars 39 effects of gravitational contraction 74 in artificial life 139 element production processes 39–40 SNC (Shergottites–Nakhlites–Chassigny) meteorites 61 factors affecting final fate 39 snowball Earth episodes 58, 233–234 fusion reactions 35–38 sodium intrinsic brightness 15 abundance in terrestrial rocks 190 nuclear reactions 25 production in stars 39 stellar main sequence 37–38 soil-forming microorganisms 169 stellar nucleosynthesis 38 solar activity, influence on climate change 267 Stevenson, David 116–117 solar eclipse 9, 11, 161 Stonehenge (Salisbury Plain, England) 11–12 prediction 11–12 strand lines 234 solar energy 292 strata (stratigraphic section) 76–77 solar nebula evolution 102–103 stratigraphic record 74 dissipation in the nebula 102–103 stratosphere 174–175 formation of the nebula 102 stratospheric cooling 278 residual static nebula 103 stromatolites 131, 158, 196 terminal accumulation of the star 103 strong nuclear force 27–28 solar system subduction 89–90, 167–168 age determination 51–52 earthquakes associated with 87 early models 3–4 possible origin of 195–196 giant (Jovian) planets 4–5 role of water 193–194 moons 5 subspecies movements of solar system objects 9–13 definition 218 orbits of the planets 6 evolution of 218–220 planetary rotational axes 6 sugar groups in nucleic acids 133–134 planetary spins 6 sugars 133 possible sites for life 140–146 production during photosynthesis 136 properties of the planets 6 sulfide ocean stage 222 structure of 4–6 sulfothermophiles 145

INDEX 317

sulfur Cassini–Huygens mission 142 isotopic ratios 57 possible chemistry of life on 140 production in stars 39 possible site for life 142 summer continental warming 279 Tombaugh, Clyde 5 Sun Toon, Brian 182 absorption spectra 31–33 Toon, O. B. 167 abundances of elements in 31–33 transfer RNA 134 age determination 52 transform faults 90 alternative to the faint early Sun theory 170 transit of Venus 14–15 collapse to a white dwarf 39 transits, use in search for planets 107–108 distance from the Earth 13–14 trans-Neptunian region 5 estimates of age of 74 tree rings, evidence of climate change 264–266 faint early Sun (faint young Sun) 59 triatomic compounds 20 increase in temperature over time 161–162 trigger genes 217, 219 luminosity in the Archean eon 164–166 triple junction of tectonic plates 91 movement in relation to the Earth 3–4 tritium 20–21 movement in the sky 9–13 Triton (moon of Neptune) 5 nuclear fusion energy source 74 tropopause 174–175, 274 nuclear reactions 25 troposphere 174–175 photosphere 31–33 Tully–Fisher relation 15 rate of hydrogen fusion over time 161–162 Type 1A supernovas 15 solar eclipses 9, 11–12, 161 transit of Venus 14–15 UK37 Index 57 variation in luminosity over time 161–162 ultraviolet protection, ozone layer depletion 284 variation in output 161 ultraviolet radiation, ozone shield in the stratosphere 211 Sun evolution, consequences for life on Earth 185–186 unconformities see geological unconformities sunlight, understanding of origin 35 uniformitarianism versus catastrophism 73 sunspot activity and climate 267 universe supercontinents 94, 210, 231–233 expansion of 15–17 supernovas 17, 40 measuring the size of 15–17 element formation 39 uracil 134 Type 1A 15 uraninite 205, 209 “survival of the ﬁttest” evolutionary model 217–218 uranium system equilibrium 149–151 deposits in Proterozoic sediments 196 radioactive isotopes 122 taxonomy 220 Uranus 4–5 Taylor, S. R. 199–200 density and composition 115–117 technology, human dependence on 295 planetary spin 6 temperature possible site for life 140 deﬁnition 29 see also giant planets measurement 29–30 urban heat island effect 273 scales 29–30 Urey, Harold 151 terraforming of Mars 185 US National Research Council 277–278 terrestrial planets 4, 113 Tertiary period 80, 79, 237–239 valence 19 Tethys seaway 91–93 velocity 25 thermodynamics Vendian period see Ediacaran period and life 150–151 Venera Soviet Venus probes 176 second law of 149–151 Venus 4, 12 thermohaline circulation, North Atlantic 267–268 carbon dioxide in the atmosphere 170 Thermoplasma (bacterium) 211 constituents of 114–115 Thomson, William (Lord Kelvin) 35, 74 deuterium-to-hydrogen ratio 174–175 thorium, radioactive isotope (232Th) 122 early differentiation after accretion 121–122 Three Mile Island nuclear accident (1979) 292 effects of radioactive heating 122 thymine 133–134 failure of plate tectonics 176–178, 198–200 Tibetan Plateau 231, 237–238 formation of 113 tidal heating in Jupiter’s moons 141 geologic differences to Earth 176–178 tidal patterns and day length 200–201 greenhouse effect 163, 170 tidal wave action, evidence in K/T boundary sediments 224 heat produced during accretion 120 tides 26 impact craters 176 time concept, linear and cyclical aspects 12–13 inability to produce carbonates 170 Titan (moon of Saturn) 5, 81, 99, 141 lack of a moon 125 as analogue of the Hadean Earth 142 lack of horizontal crustal movement 198–199 atmosphere 151, 167 origin of Ishtar Terra 198–199

318 INDEX

Venus (cont.) erosion of rocks 74–76 origin of Lakshmi Planum 199 existence as liquid 139–140 planetary spin 6 hydrogen bonding between molecules 139 radar mapping of the surface 176 inﬂuence on Earth’s atmosphere 170 transit of the Sun 14–15 liquid interior of Europa 140–142 see also terrestrial planets oxygen isotopes in 55–56 Venus’ climate history potential alternatives in biological systems 140 evidence from robotic missions 173 presence on Mars 178 implications for life elsewhere 184–185 properties of 139–140 loss of surface water 173–176 requirement of life 139–140 moist greenhouse runaway theory 174–176 role in partial melting 192–194 runaway greenhouse theory 174 role in plate tectonics 193–194 surface of Venus 176–178 role in subduction 193–194 thick carbon dioxide atmosphere 173–176 source of Earth’s water 125–126 vesicle approach to life’s origin 152–154, water clouds on the giant planets 140 156–158 water cycling, role of plate tectonics 193–194 Viking missions 117, 142, 144, 178 water ice, on moons and Pluto 115 virons 135, 145 water vapor, as a greenhouse gas 164 viruses 135, 145, 211 watt, deﬁnition 29 visible light spectrum 27, 30–31 wavelength 30 volcanic igneous rocks 74, 76 weak nuclear force 29 volcanism weather and continental collision and separation 233 generation of 163–164 and extinction events 225 versus climate 280–281 association with ocean ridges and trenches 84 weathering processes 74–76, 203 deep-sea volcanic vents 136–138 Wegener, Alfred 83–84 extrusive igneous rock types 192 white dwarf stars 39 gases produced 203 Whitmire, D. 170 Hawaiian island chain 122 Wilson, A. 249 Mount St. Helens 91 Wilson, J. Tuzo 232 on Mars 178–179 Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe 16 release of carbon dioxide 167–168 Wolf,E.T.167 Voyager missions 117, 141 wood as fuel 292 work, and energy 29 Wahlen, M. 271 Walker, J. C. G. 168–169, 235 Younger Dryas 267–268 water abundance in the solar system 139 zircon 52 and plate tectonics 199–200 zodiacal light 6